PSY310-40 Exam 2 (Ch8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14)

Job enlargement

Making the job "more" to enhance its significance• Usually through increasing variety• Usually through increasing number of tasks

What is Theory Y according to McGregor?

Managers are responsible for organizing rather than directing subordinates, who are capable and receptive to growth

Results of Ringelmann

When working on an additive task, groups perform WORSE than the sum of the same number of individuals

Conflicts

Of Control: Differentiation vs. integration processes About Change: need for adaptation vs. stability Of Interest: Entropy vs. growth processes

Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

Of all the job satisfaction scales available, the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) (P. C. Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969) has been the most popular with researchers. It is also the most thoroughly and carefully validated. This scale assesses five facets: Work Supervision Pay Coworkers Promotion opportunities

social inhibition effect

On the other hand, performance is decreased (the social inhibition effect) by other-induced arousal when the task is complex or new to the individual, such as solving a complex mathematics problem. These results suggest that for complex tasks, people should be given private space that allows them to keep their arousal levels relatively low. For simple tasks, the arousal produced by the presence of others can enhance performance, but other people can also be a distraction in the workplace, leading to poorer performance. There are no guarantees

Job Characteristics and Task Performance

One of the most influential theories that relate the nature of jobs to performance Hackman and Oldham's (1976, 1980) job characteristics theory. This theory is based on the presumption that people are motivated by the intrinsic nature of job tasks. When work is interesting and enjoyable, people will like their jobs (as discussed in Chapter 9) be highly motivated, and perform well. Job characteristics theory is illustrated in Figure 10.2. This theory states that features of jobs induce psychological states that lead to satisfaction, motivation, and task performance. The job features, or core characteristics (described in Table 9.6), lead to three psychological states. Skill variety, task identity, and task significance lead to experienced meaningfulness of work; autonomy leads to feelings of responsibility; and feedback leads to knowledge of results. These three states are critical to the satisfaction and motivation of employees. When jobs induce them, individuals will be motivated and satisfied and will perform better.

moderator variable

affects the relation between two other variables.

cognition,

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Team building often involves team members discussing problems and coming up with solutions. The role of the team trainer is to facilitate the discussion by getting team members talking to one another. This might involve directing questions such as these at individuals:

"Tom, what sorts of problems have you been having with product quality?" "Ellen, why don't you seem to get the information that you need?" or summarizing and reflecting back to the group the points that have been made: "It sounds like everyone is concerned that there are too many defective parts." "I guess everyone feels uninformed about decisions." The trainer's job is to get people to raise issues, identify problems, and discuss possible solutions. The trainer might also have to mediate conflicts if the discussion leads to arguments among team members.

relationships

(general specific)

The leader-member exchange (LMX) theory

) focuses on the subordinate-supervisor dyad rather than on the supervisor and work group. Dansereau et al. argued that one of the major limitations of most leadership research is its implicit assumptions that each supervisor's group of subordinates is sufficiently homogeneous to justify studying it as a unit and that each supervisor adopts the same style across all subordinates. On the contrary, they propose that supervisors treat individual subordinates differently.

Path-goal theory

) is a contingency theory that is more complex than Fiedler's. It posits that subordinate job performance and job satisfaction result from the interplay of situational characteristics, subordinate characteristics, and supervisor style. The basic idea, which is based on expectancy theory (see Chapter 8), that the supervisor can enhance the motivation and job satisfaction of subordinates providing rewards for good job performance and by making it easier for subordinates to achieve their task goals. Supervisors can accomplish this by adopting one of supervisory styles, the efficacy of which is determined by situational and subordinate characteristics. The four supervisory styles are: Supportive style. This style is similar to the Ohio State leadership studies' style of consideration. It involves showing concern for the needs and welfare of subordinates. Directive style. This style is similar to the Ohio State Leadership Studies' style of initiating structure. It involves structuring job tasks for subordinates and letting them know what is expected. Participative style. This style involves seeking input from subordinates and allowing them to participate in decision making. Achievement style. This style involves emphasizing achievement and good performance. It includes setting challenging task goals and emphasizing high performance standards.

An intervention designed to enhance the communication and interpersonal skills of individual employees through the use of specific group exercises is called

T-Groups. Correct

Why do T-groups involve strangers?

T-groups involve strangers to allow participants to experiment with interpersonal behavior and receive nonjudgmental feedback.

The three components in the Meyer et al. (1993) conception of commitment can be assessed with a scale they developed.

Table 9.9 contains two of the items for each component. As opposed to the Mowday et al. (1979) scale, the components in the Meyer et al. (1993) scale produce separate scores. Research with the scale has found support for the idea that the three types of commitment are separate variables (Dunham, Grube, & Castaneda, 1994). Hackett, Bycio, and Hausdorf (1994) noted that the Mowday et al. (1979) scale assesses mainly affective commitment. It correlates strongly with the affective commitment subscale but not with the continuance and normative subscales of the Meyer et al. (1993) scale.

What is a T-group?

The T-group, or training group, is an intervention designed to enhance communication and interpersonal skills through specific group exercises.

cooperative conflict

conflict is one in which individuals openly share diverging views, respect one another's opinions, and focus on finding a solution that is acceptable to team members

Be able to recognize examples of

conflicts of control, conflicts about change, and conflicts of interest.

Affective commitment

occurs when the employee wishes to remain with the organization because of an emotional attachment

competitive conflict

on the other hand, is one in which team members promote their own points of view, have little regard for others' opinions, and try to get their own position adopted. Cooperative conflict in teams has been shown to relate positively to team performance and competitive conflict has been shown to relate negatively (Hempel et al., 2009; Somech, Desivilya, & Lidogoster, 2009). Thus it is important for members of teams to adopt a cooperative style in order for teams to function well.

Seth is very imaginative and curious about nearly everything. He is is probably high on which of the following dimensions in the Big Five?

openness to experience

scope

or complexity and challenge of a job.

Task significance:

feeling your work really makes a big difference in anoutcome for other people

The idea that social and technical systems should be designed to fit as well as possible is called

joint optimization. Correct

Action theory links

links goals/intentions to specificbehaviors

team

members, longstanding, selection team building

team mental model

model refers to the shared understanding among team members of the task, team, equipment, and situation (Mohammed & Dumville, 2001). Smith-Jentsch, Mathieu, and Kraiger (2005) explained that mental models are complex and can be divided into two types, one concerned with taskwork and the other teamwork. The taskwork model concerns the nature of the job that needs to be done. In a surgical team, all members have to share an understanding of the surgery they jointly perform and their particular roles. This does not mean that the mental models have to be identical but just compatible (Cannon-Bowers & Salas, 2001). The nurse may not have the same understanding of the patient's illness that the surgeon does, but both share an understanding of what they need to accomplish and what each person does. When the surgeon asks for an instrument, the nurse knows what to do because they share that understanding. The teamwork model is the shared conception of the team and how its members are to work together. A shared mental model of teamwork facilitates team performance because members know how to coordinate efforts with one another.

A relational psychological contract is

much more like what a family operates upon. People infamilies usually don't "count the cost" of who has given more or less at any point in time. Forexample, one would not be happy in a family if they were constantly keeping score of who didmore work (particularly if one was feeling like the kids weren't pulling their "weight"--they arekids after all!).

As shown in Table 14.1,

organizations with the highest levels of management commitment had far better results than those with the lowest levels (57% vs. 6% increase productivity).

Kaden is very pessimistic. He tends to see the worst in every situation, he is constantly anxious about what might happen, and prone to depression and moodiness. Kaden is high on

negative affectivity. (correct)

Organizational development (OD

) is a family of techniques designed to help organizations change for the better. They involve the use of behavioral science principles and procedures that help employees improve performance and interact with coworkers more effectively. An OD effort involves an entire organization or a large component of it, and it is intended to result in substantial changes in how the organization operates. Such changes can involve a reorganization in which new departments are created and old ones eliminated, with functions moved from area to area and person to person. An OD effort, however, is typically much more than a reorganization, and often reorganization isn't even involved. It usually involves changing how people do their work, how they communicate with one another, and how they coordinate their efforts.

self-efficacy

). In other words, people with high self-efficacy believe they are capable of accomplishing tasks and will be motivated to put forth effort. People with low self-efficacy do not believe they are capable of accomplishing tasks and will not be motivated to put forth effort. In a way, this is like a self-fulfilling prophecy in which a person behaves in a manner that fulfills his or her initial belief. Of course, people with high self-efficacy can be effective only if they have the necessary ability and constraints on performance at work are not insurmountable.

learning orientation

, in whether they focus their efforts on learning

transformational leader

. A transformational leader is one who leads by inspiring others to adopt high goals and strive to achieve them. He or she articulates a vision for followers and encourages them to pursue it. Gardner and Avolio (1998) explained that certain leaders are able to convince followers of their competence and the importance of a vision. They engage in behaviors that make them appear to be creative, innovative, powerful, and trustworthy. Much of the leader's influence derives from beliefs by followers that only by following the leader will they be able to achieve the vision, such as making the company profitable. Leaders like Abraham Lincoln, Winston Churchill, John F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King, Jr., are examples of transformational leaders. King's vision of a free society reflected in his "I have a dream" speech on August 28, 1963, in Washington, D.C., is an example of a vision statement that Inspires.

WHAT IS MOTIVATION?

. From one perspective, it has to do with the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior over time. Direction refers to the choice of specific behaviors from a large number of possible behaviors. For example, an employee might decide to volunteer for an extra work project that will require him or her to work overtime instead of going home on time and watching television. Intensity refers to the amount of effort person expends at doing a task. If an employee is asked to sweep a floor, the person can exert a lot of effort by sweeping hard and fast or exert a little effort by sweeping softly and slowly. Persistence refers to the continuing engagement in a behavior over time. employee might try to accomplish something over an extended period of time, such as studying to pass the CPA exam to become a certified public accountant, even though i: might take several attempts. From another perspective, motivation is concerned with the desire to acquire achieve some goal. That is, motivation derives from a person's wants, needs, or desires. Some people, for example, are highly motivated to acquire money. It is presumed that high level of motivation to have money affects the behavior relevant to acquiring it.

Vroom-Yetton model Each of the characteristics is translated into a yes/no question (e.g., "Is the problem structured?"). The pattern of answers determines the best practice. For example, if quality isn't important (characteristic 1), acceptance by subordinates is important (characteristic 4), and subordinates are unlikely to accept a decision made unilaterally by the supervisor (characteristic 5), the best approach is to allow the subordinates to make the decision.

. On the other hand, if quality is not an issue and if acceptance isn't important, any of the five approaches should be equally effective. In most cases, the more democratic approaches are appropriate, and it is only in limited situations that being autocratic can be effective. Vroom and Yetton (1973) provided decision tools based on their model that can be used by managers to help choose a decision-making approach. The specific approach recommended depends on whether you wish to minimize the time necessary for a decision or maximize the likelihood of group acceptance of the decision. Not surprisingly, making a decision yourself can often be the quickest approach, but it isn't necessarily the most effective. There are paper-and-pencil materials (tables and decision trees) that one can use to follow the answers to all seven questions to the recommended decision-making approaches. They also have developed computer software that displays the questions, allows you to enter answers, and then provides advice about how to approach the situation.

Coalition

....building a team around a set of agreements

Know the difference between push and pull theories, and which have been most influential in I/Opsychology

.• A push theory of motivation sees motivation as coming from inside the person, while a pull theory of motivation sees motivation as being externally driven. For example, needs theories of motivation are "push" because the NEED "PUSHES" you to behave in some way. Alternately, learning theory/reinforcement theory is a "pull" theory because the environmental contingencies "pull" you to act in some way. (Related to the goal-writing discussion)

As might be expected, several team KSAOs have been identified that relate to team performance. Three are particularly important:

1 To be a good team member requires knowledge of teamwork (Hirschfeld, Jordan, Feild, Giles, & Armenakis, 2006). Such knowledge is concerned with how individuals can effectively work together in teams and develop good working relationships with others. 2. An effective team member has good social skills (Morgeson, Reider, & Campion, 2005). Beyond knowing how to work in teams, a person must have skills in communicating with and influencing others. 3. Certain personality characteristics make a person particularly suited to teamwork. Jackson, Colquitt, Wesson, and Zapata-Phelan (2006) showed that individuals who are collectivistic as opposed to individualistic (see Chapter 9) in their values perform better in teams. Taken together, these studies suggest that the most effective team members have knowledge of how to work in teams and skill in doing so, as well as a personality that is suited to working closely with others.

TABLE 9.2 Job Satisfaction of Managers in 24 Countries, Listed From Most to Least Satisfied

1. Canada 2. Sweden 3. Isreal 4. Estonia 5. India 6. United States 7. Belgium 8. Germany 9. New Zealand 10. Ukraine 11. Slovenia 12. Poland 13. Spain 14. Taiwan 15. Brazil 16. Australia 17. France 18. Bulgaria 19. Romania 20. South Africa 21. People's Republic of China 22. Hong Kong 23. Japan 24. England

TABLE 12.3 Distinguishing Features of Autonomous Work Groups at Butler Corporation

1. Employees frequently rotated jobs. 2. After about 18 months, most employees knew the entire production process. 3. Groups designed and purchased their own tools. 4. Group members went on service calls to do warranty repairs. 5. Quality control inspection was done by group members. 6. There were few supervisors. 7. Group members participated in hiring and firing. 8. Supervisors served as coaches providing counseling and training. 9. There were weekly group meetings and monthly plant meetings. 10. There were employee advisory groups to management.

TABLE 8.2 Important Factors for Goal Setting to Improve Job Performance

1. Goal acceptance by the employee. 2. Feedback on progress toward goals. 3. Difficult and challenging goals. Specific goals

Vroom-Yetton model The decision-making situation is defined by seven characteristics that address the problem itself and the subordinates:

1. Quality requirement for the result (is it important to make the right decision?). 2. Sufficiency of information the supervisor has. 3. Problem structure (is it clear what has to be done or is the situation ambiguous?). 4. Necessity for subordinate acceptance of the decision. 5. Likelihood of subordinate acceptance of the decision if made by the supervisor alone. 6. Subordinate commitment to solving the problem.

Organizational theories describe the structure and functioning of organizations and deal with issues such as:

1. The distinguishing characteristics of organization 2. The structure of organizations 3. The interrelationships among people in organizations 4. The interactions among people and technology in organizations

Affect

> job satisfaction

Cognition

>job involvement

Behavior

>organizational commitment

Subordinate characteristics include personality variables, such as locus of control and self-perceived ability. Locus of control is the extent to which subordinates believe that they can control rewards in their lives.

A person with an internal locus of control believes that he or she is able to control rewards. A person with an external locus of control believes that rewards are controlled by others or by outside forces. Self-perceived ability is the extent to which the subordinate believes he or she is capable of doing the task well. It is similar to self-efficacy, which was discussed in Chapter 8, but it is specific to the particular task at hand. Situational characteristics include aspects of tasks, such as dangerousness, repetitiveness, and structure. House and Mitchell (1974) derived a series of hypotheses based on the basic ideas of the theory. These hypotheses describe how certain supervisory styles affect subordinates under certain conditions. For example: 1. When tasks are boring, dangerous, stressful, or tedious, a supportive style will be the most appropriate. Subordinates who must deal with these situations will have their anxiety lowered and their self-esteem raised by a supportive supervisor. 2. When tasks are unstructured and subordinates are inexperienced, a directive style will be most appropriate because subordinates will be uncertain about what to do. A directive supervisor will increase subordinates' effort and job satisfaction by telling them what is expected and what they should do.

on piece-rate systems

A possible way of increasing task performance, at least performance quantity, is incentive systems that reward employees for each unit of work performed (see Chapter 8' s discussion of reinforcement theory). Such systems are common with salespeople who receive commissions and with factory workers who are on piece-rate systems that pay them for each unit of production. Incentive systems work through motivation by rewarding employees for behavior beneficial to the organization. Most such systems reward task performance, although examples can be found that reward employees for other behaviors such as attendance. Although incentive systems can increase productivity, they have not been universally successful. Yukl and Latham (1975), for example, found that a piece-rate system increased the productivity of only two of three groups with which it was implemented. In their

Quality circles

A quality circle is a group intervention that gives employees the opportunity to have greater input into issues at work. Quality circles are groups of employees who meet periodically to discuss problems and propose solutions relevant to their jobs. Typically the groups are comprised of people who have similar jobs in manufacturing organizations, and discussions revolve around issues of product quality and production efficiency. with autonomous work teams, the use of quality circles has been attempted in all types of organizations.

social loafing

A second and more likely explanation is a phenomenon called social loafing—people do not put forth as much effort in a group as they would if they were working alone, and the larger the group, the less effort each person exerts. Latané, Williams, and Harkins (1979) found this phenomenon to be widespread in both laboratory and field settings. The social loafing effect can be diminished when group members believe that their individual output is being assessed. In a field study, social loafing was lower when employees felt their individual productivity was visible to others (Liden, Wayne, Jaworski, & Bennett, 2004). The phenomenon may also be limited to individualistic cultures, such as Australia, Canada, England, and the United States (see the discussion of culture values in Chapter 9), where emphasis is placed on the self rather than on society. Earley (1989) found that Chinese management trainees who came from a collectivist country, where emphasis is placed on the group and society, did not demonstrate social loafing.

weak relationship between job satisfactionand absence?

Absence is influenced by LOTS of factors (not JUST jobsatisfaction)

open system theory

According to Katz and Kahn's (1978) open system theory, an organization can be viewed as a type of open system. The idea comes from the natural sciences, which view biological organisms such as plants, animals, bacteria, and viruses as open systems. Although orgamzafions are different from biological organisms, they do share many characteristics (see Figure 14.3). Katz and Kahn (1978) noted 10 characteristics of open systems, which are listed m Table 14.3. Open systems such as organizations import energy, transform the energy into something else, and output some product or service. All organizations import people and materials, produce goods and services, and deliver those goods and services to customers. Even government organizations provide services to citizens, including education, health care, protection, and transportation. Open systems undergo cycles of events, and organizations are no different. Most organize their finances by fiscal years; employees have weekly work schedules; and for many organizations, the day is broken into two or more work shifts. Universities organize instruction by semesters and semesters are organized into academic years. Many employees are hired according to time-limited contracts, especially in professional sports organizations such as baseball, basketball, football, and soccer teams.

action versus state orientation

Action theory also contains personality variables. One of the most important is action versus state orientation. A person who is action oriented is one who tends to follow the action process. He or she sets goals, formulates plans, and then sticks with them until the goals are achieved. State-oriented people are the opposite. They have difficulty committing to a course of action, are easily distracted, and give up when faced with setbacks (Kuhl & Beckmann, 1994). Research has shown that action-oriented people tend to perform better on the job (Diefendorff, Hall, Lord, & Strean, 2000; Jaramillo, Locander, Spector, & Harris, 2007), perhaps in part due to the fact that state-oriented people have a tendency to procrastinate (Van Eerde, 2000).

action process

Action theory describes the action process linking a hierarchy of cognitions to both actions and feedback from the environment. Figure 8.4 illustrates this sequence. It begins with an initial desire to accomplish or have something, and that desire leads to specific goals and objectives to achieve or acquire it. These goals in the workplace are often tied to tasks (similar to tasks in a job analysis) that define the nature of what the individual employee is supposed to accomplish at work. The theory points out that there is an Important distinction between external tasks and Internal tasks. An external task is assigned by the orgamzation to the employee, whereas an internal task is chosen by the employee himself or herself. An Important element is the redefinition process whereby the employee translates an external task into an Internal one. In other words, the employee changes the assigned task to suit himself or herself.

Figure 14.1.

After a 6- to 12-month period, each employee's job performance is evaluated against progress toward his or her goals. The entire process is illustrated in Figure 14.1.

process loss.

All the time and effort expended on activities not directly related to production or task accomplishment are referred to as

Figure 10.6 illustrates that absence culture and absence policies are the two biggest factors in absence.

Although job satisfaction has been the focus of most absence research, it seems that its potential effects are overshadowed by culture and policies. A dissatisfied individual who might want to escape work by calling in sick is not likely to do so if absence is punished or is viewed by coworkers as unacceptable. Organizations can reduce absence by changing policies to encourage attendance and discourage absence. A simple procedure found in one study was merely to mail each employee a letter indicating the number of days he or she had been absent (Gaudine & Saks, 2001). Just knowing that management was concerned about absence was enough to convince employees to reduce it

Leader Match

Although the theory states that the situation determines the best leader characteristics, Fiedler (1978) does not believe that a supervisor should attempt to adapt his or her style to the particular situation. He believes that supervisors should modify the situation to be appropriate to their own leadership style. To this end, he has developed a training program called Leader Match Fiedler summarized the results of several field experiments comparing Leader Match—trained supervisors with untrained controls. The results showed better group performance for the trained supervisors. Some question has been raised, however, about whether Leader Match traimng results in leaders changing the situation according to theory or whether the results of the Leader Match research are due to other factors (Jago & Ragan, 1986).

The change agent

An OD effort or program involves employees at all levels of the organization. It is implemented by a person or persons referred to as change agents. agent is the catalyst for change within the organization. He or she is an expert in working with organizations to Improve their functioning. The change agent might be an employee of the organization, as in the case at the end of the chapter. In most instances, however, the change agent is an outside consultant who is hired to implement the OD program. Many consulting firms throughout the world specialize in organizational development.

What is survey feedback?

An OD technique involving conducting a survey of employee attitudes and opinions and then sharing the results with the organization.

Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)

Another popular job satisfaction scale is the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ) (Weiss, Dawis, Lofquist, & England, 1966). This scale comes in two forms, a 100-item long version and a 20-item short version. Both versions have items that ask about 20 facets of job satisfaction, but facet scores are computed only for the long form. The short form is used to assess either global satisfaction or intrinsic and extrinsic satisfaction. Intrinsic satisfaction refers to the nature of the job tasks themselves and how people feel about the work they do. Extrinsic satisfaction concerns other aspects of the work situation, such as fringe benefits and pay. Both types of satisfaction are the combination of several facets. The 20 facets of the MSQ are shown in Table 9.4. Each of the MSQ items is a statement that describes a facet. The employee is asked to indicate how satisfied he or she is with each one. For example, an item for the Activity facet is "Being able to keep busy all the time." The overall scale has been shown to have good reliability and evidence for validity. Several researchers, however, have questioned how the items have been classified into the intrinsic and extrinsic groups (C. A. Schriesheim, Powers, Scandura, Gardiner, et al., 1993).

Cultural and Ethnic Differences

Another trend in the composition of the workforce in the United States and other countries is that it is becoming increasingly multicultural. In addition, large organizations frequently have facilities in multiple countries and employ people from those countries. For example, American automobile manufacturers have plants outside the United States, and Japanese automobile manufacturers such as Toyota have plants in the United States. If organizations are to deal appropriately with a diverse workforce, then they must understand how people of various ethnic, racial, and cultural backgrounds view and feel about their Jobs.

Dozens of studies across many different types of jobs have shown that each of the five characteristics relates to job satisfaction. Fried and Ferris (1987) conducted a metaanalysis of studies relating the Hackman and Oldham characteristics to global satisfaction.

As discussed in Chapter 2, meta-analysis is a quantitative procedure for combining results of different studies. Table 9.6 contains Fried and Ferris's mean correlations across various studies of the relations between job characteristics and global job satisfaction. You can see that correlations ranged from .20 for task identity to .45 for job scope. Scope was assessed by combining scores on all five core characteristics.

Justice

As noted in the Chapter 8 discussion of justice theories, perceptions of fairness are important determinants of people's behavior and reactions to work. Distributive justice is the extent to which people perceive the allotment of rewards at work to be fair, whereas procedural justice is the extent to which people perceive the process by which rewards at work are allocated to be fair. These two forms of justice have been linked to both global and facet job satisfaction in the Cohen-Charash and Spector (2001) meta-analysis. Overall job satisfaction and facet satisfactions of pay, supervision, and nature of work correlate significantly with both forms of justice (see Table 9.7). Note that for pay satisfaction, distributive justice has a larger correlation than procedural justice. This suggests that the distribution of pay is more important for satisfaction than the procedures for distribution, although both are certainly important. For supervision satisfaction, procedural justice is more important than distributive justice, perhaps because it is the supervisor who decides on the procedures by which assignments and rewards are allocated.

Weber as closed system

Assumes you can turn an organization "on" and run it in perpetuity- No focus on maintenance or importing energy

What is an example of the Theory Y approach in organizations?

Autonomous work teams where subordinates manage themselves

Figure 10.8 is a model of the causes of CWB. It begins with stressful job conditions, such as organizational constraints (as discussed earlier in this chapter), or injustice. For example, on the day he assaulted his coworkers, Thomas Mcllvane had lost the final appeal of his dismissal from the post office. Stressful conditions and injustice induce negative emotions, such as anger or fear. These feelings in turn lead to behaviors that can be constructive, such as developing more effective strategies to overcome the conditions or injustice, or destructive, such as CWB

Beliefs about control determine in part whether individuals choose constructive or destructive responses. An employee who believes that constructive efforts can be effective is likely to attempt them. An employee who believes that he or she cannot control the situation might resort to CWB as a means of coping with the negative emotion.

What the heck is a T group?

Came out of the 60's, so think of this as "hippie" organizational development....not quite sitting around singing kum ba yah but close Sit in a group and chat, and then get nonjudgmental feedback about how their words and actions affect those other folks in the group

Know what kind of change employees tend to respond most favorably and least favorably to

Change in organizational development tends to work best when it is: (a) evolutionary or incremental rather than revolutionary or drastic, (b) when it is self-initiated rather than imposed, and (c) when it is additive (adding a benefit or a responsibility) rather than subtractive(taking away a benefit, compensation, or role/responsibility). (Related to the Job Satisfaction and Psychological

Chaos

Chaotic state is often necessary to get to complex state of organization

Co-optation

Co-opt.....bring in the opposition to diffuse it

Relationship between group cohesion and job performance and job satisfaction

Cohesion associated positively with job satisfaction- Cohesion NOT associated with job performance

Understand the role of chaotic state (chaos) in achieving the complex state in a group.

Complexity, also known in some circles as a complex OPEN SYSTEM, is a highly productive, self-organized state for groups and organizations. It is hard to achieve and maintain over time for any length of period, because we tend to want to develop more "fluid" routines and rhythms that are predictable. Complex state is characterized instead by innovation and creativity, which by definition are novel and not routine. To get into the complex state, and organization often has to "bust through" the routines and rhythms that keep them from innovation. But to do that, you end up destroying some of the very same things that made work "comfortable" and "predictable" (i.e., things employees like!). When you do that, your employees usually feel like they are experiencing a highly unpredictable "chaotic" state at work. But it is in that space of uncertainty that innovation tends to thrive.

The professors in the Gender Studies Department show a great deal of concern for their students. In general, they foster a departmental culture in which students treat them almost as peers, calling them by their first names, sharing details of their personal lives and challenges. On research projects, the professors are friendly and supportive, and the students greatly enjoy working on research with the faculty. These sorts of leader behaviors illustrate which concept in the Leader Behavior Approach?

Consideration correct

Figure 8.3

Control theory suggests that people set goals and then evaluate feedback about how well their performance is achieving their goals. Discrepancies can motivate people to modify their behaviors or their goals.

cadre or in-group

Dansereau et al. (1975) discussed two types of relationships that develop between supervisors and subordinates. The ________ __ _________ consists of subordinates who are trusted and influential members of the work group. The supervisor treats them with consideration and adopts a participative style with them

What are the two major stages of a survey feedback program?

Designing and administering questionnaires in the first stage, and providing feedback about the survey results to employees in the second stage.

Which job below is most likely the highest in scope, according to the job characteristics proposed by Hackman and Oldham?

Director of human resources for a company (correct)

Spillover hypothesis:

Dissatisfaction in one area spills over and affects theother area• You are unhappy at work and that spills over and makes you more unhappy at home• Or, you have an unhappy home, and that makes you feel unhappy at work•

Compensation hypothesis:

Dissatisfaction in one area will be compensated forin the other area• You are unhappy at work so you really invest in a happy home life• Or, you are unhappy at home, so you really pour yourself into a successful happy career

Well written goals vs. poorly written goals....four features that matter

Does the employee accept and commit to the goal? They don't have to generate it themselves, but they do have to adopt it.• Does the employee get feedback on progress towards the goal?• Does the employee find the goal difficult and challenging? (That's better than easy)• Is the goal specific about what behaviors you should be doing to move forward?

Line Versus Staff

Each position in an organization can be classified as either line or staff. A line position is involved directly with the organization's major purpose. In the military, it would be combat soldiers; in education, it would be teachers; in manufacturing, it would be assemblers; and in retailing, it would be salespeople. Line positions also include all the levels of supervision above these positions. A staffposition supports the activities of a line position. The administration of salary and fringe benefits, employee selection, and training are all considered to be staff functions performed by people in staff positions.

Know the elements of expectancy theory, and be able to recognize examples

Expectancy: Do you expect you can do the behavior? Valence: Do you value the reward for doing the behavior Instrumentality: Do you believe that if you do the behavior you will get the reward? Force: Expectancy x Σ(Valences x Instrumentalities)

emotional dissonance,

Emotional labor has been shown to have both positive and negative effects on employees, depending on a number of factors. Perhaps the most important is how emotional labor is performed. Deep acting is a form of emotional labor in which the individual experiences the emotion he or she is trying to display. Surface acting, on the other hand, is a form of emotional labor in which the person fakes feeling good, while hiding his or her real feelings. Surface acting, or pretending to be happy when experiencing the opposite emotion, leads to emotional dissonance, which is stressful and has been associated with negative effects (Zapf, 2002). On the other hand, deep acting, or making yourself feel positive emotions that are displayed to others, can have positive effects on well-being. For example, Judge, Woolf, and Hurst (2009) showed that job satisfaction is oppositely related to deep and surface acting. People who deep act tend to like their jobs, and people who surface act tend to dislike them. Similarly, H. A. M. Johnson and Spector (2007) found that deep acting and surface acting are related oppositely to the emotional exhaustion component of burnout (see Chapter 11 for a discussion of burnout). Individuals who surface act experience more exhaustion than individuals who do not. Individuals who deep act experience less exhaustion than individuals who do not. Finally Yanchus, Eby, Lance, and Drollinger (2010) found that surface acting is associated with low levels of life satisfaction.

Autonomous work team

Entire product assembled by a team (opposite of an assembly line)- Team evaluates and makes decisions about their own work processes and outcomes

As opposed to need theories, reinforcement theory describes motivation as the result of environmental influences rather than internally generated motives. Expectancy theory, like reinforcement theory, attempts to relate environmental rewards to behavior. Unlike reinforcement theory, it is concerned with human cognitive processes that explain why rewards can lead to behavior.

Even though these various theories view motivation from different perspectives, they do not necessarily lead to different predictions about behavior. Portions of some of these theories can be complementary, and efforts have been made to integrate features of some of them. For example, Locke and Latham (1990) combined aspects of expectancy and self-efficacy theories with their goal-setting theory. In the remainder of this chapter, the various motivation theories will be discussed in detail.

Kind of change employees respond best to

Evolutionary (not revolutionary)- Self-initiated (not imposed)- Additive (not subtractive)

When will incentive theory work? Only when The employee wants the incentives you are offering

Example: It doesn't matter how many incentives you offer me even if I could run a 4minute mile. I don't want to run a 4 minute mile for ANY incentive. I actually don't want to run at all.

When will incentive theory work? Only when The employee does not encounter physical or psychological constraints on doing the behavior

Example: It doesn't matter if you offer me an incentive for running a 4 minute mile, even if I could run it and I wanted the thing you are offering if I feel unsafe running in the situation you are asking me to run it. Or if I don't have good running shoes. These are physical barriers to me pursuing it regardless of how you incentivize the goal.

Implementation of MBO....whose goals set first?

Executives at the top set broad goals, and then those funnel down to goals set at the nextlayer of the organization on down to the bottom of the hierarchy.

Expectancy theory

Expectancy theory attempts to explain how rewards lead to behavior by focusing on internal cognitive states that lead to motivation. Reinforcement theory states that rein- forcement will lead to behavior; expectancy theory explains when and why this will occur.

This relation is illustrated in Figure 9.3. The horizontal axis of the graph represents the scope of the job; the vertical axis represents job satisfaction. One line is for high GNS people, and the other line is for low GNS people. As the graph shows, people who are high in GNS will be satisfied with high-scope jobs and not with low-scope jobs. The scope of the job is not important for people low in GNS. Their satisfaction stays constant, regardless of job scope.

Figure 9.3 The moderating effect of growth need strength on the job scope—job satisfaction relation. Scope is represented by the horizontal axis of the graph. Job satisfaction is on the vertical axis. For people high in growth need strength, satisfaction is high when scope is high and low when scope is low. For people who are low in growth need strength, satisfaction is unaffected by level of job scope.

Open systems importing energy

Involves a system bringing in a resource Biological example: Sun brings energy into the earth Organizational example: Investing in training to build employees' capacity

Trait approach to leadership

Focuses on the traits the correlate with leadership. What traits go with leadership....high emotional stability (low neuroticism), high extraversion (low introversion), high openness (low rigidity), high conscientiousness (low unreliability)• Trait approach is basically trying to figure out "who" is a good leader by measuring their traits

EMOTIONS AT WORK

For most people, the job is an important component of life, providing not only resources (pay and fringe benefits) to acquire the necessities of life but a sense of purpose and social contact as well. It is inevitable that people will react emotionally to workplace events and situations. Accomplishment of a major work project will likely result in positive feelings, such as pride and joy, whereas a heated argument with a supervisor will certainly induce feelings of anger and annoyance. Furthermore, the expression of emotion at work can sometimes be an important part of the job. Salespeople are expected to smile and be friendly, whereas police officers often are expected to act stern in dealing with someone committing a crime. It is important to distinguish emotion states and moods. An emotional state is the immediate experience of a particular emotion, such as anger or fear, that is generally in response to a situation, such as being yelled at by your supervisor. A mood is a longerterm state that is less specific, with a positive or a negative direction (a good mood or a bad mood) rather than specific feelings such as joy or sadness (Fisher, 2000). Both emotion states and moods are important to study in the workplace.

force

Force = Expectancy x E(Valences x Instrumentalities) In this equation, force represents the amount of motivation a person has to engage in particular behavior or sequence of behaviors that is relevant to job performance. It could be thought of as the motivation to perform.

Formal roles

Formal roles: stuff that's in your actual job description (e.g., I'm supposed to teachclasses) roles are specified by the organization and are part of the formal job description. In a surgical team, each person's job title—surgeon, nurse, or anesthesiologist—defines the role in a formal way. There may be organizational documents, such as wfitten job descriptions and job analyses, that define roles.

Yukl's (1989) Sources of Political Power

French and Raven's bases of power are concerned with the influences people have on one another in any setting. Yukl's (1989) sources of political power are concerned specifically with power in organizations. According to Yuld, political action is the process by which people gain and protect their power within the organization. He outlined three means by which political power is achieved and maintained in organizations (Figure 13.1). Figure 13.1 Yukl (1989) discussed how political power tactics can be a

Pay Although pay itself is associated to some extent with global satisfaction, as might be expected it relates even more strongly with the facet of pay satisfaction. Brasher and Chen (1999) surveyed recent college graduates and found that their level of starting pay relates more strongly to pay satisfaction (correlation — .36) than to global satisfaction (correlation = .17).

Furthermore, it is the fairness with which pay is distributed, or equity (see Chapter 8 for a discussion of justice theories), that is a more important determinant of pay satisfaction than the actual level of pay itself (Williams, McDaniel, & Nguyen, 2006). You can find people making mimmum wage who are satisfied with pay, whereas professional athletes and entertainers might be dissatisfied with six- and even seven-figure salaries. All this leads to the hypothesis that if we compare the pay and pay satisfaction of people across different jobs, we will find little or no correlation. People who make more money are not necessarily more satisfied when they have different jobs. On the other hand, if we have a sample of people who all do the same job, those who make more money should be more satisfied. Research support for this hypothesis comes from two studies. Spector (1985) found a mean correlation of only .17 between salary level and pay satisfaction in three heterogeneous samples in which employees held different jobs Rice, Phillips, and McFarlin (1990) found a much larger .50 correlation between pay and job satisfaction in a sample of mental health professionals holding the same jobs. Pay satisfaction is affected by how an individual's salary compares to those of others in the same job rather than to those of people in general. More direct support for the link with fairness comes from the research on justice and pay satisfaction. In their meta-analysis, Cohen-Charash and Spector (2001) found that distributive and procedural justice (see Chapter 8) are strongly correlated with pay satisfaction, with correlations of .58 and .45, respectively (see Table 9.7).

Brainstorming

Groups are often said to be superior to individuals in generating ideas or solutions to problems (Osborn, 1957). The theory is that group members inspire one another to generate ideas that they would not have thought of alone. Brainstorming is a group technique that is supposed to result in improved performance with this type of task. A group is given instructions to generate ideas without being critical or judgmental in any way. Ideas will be evaluated and modified later. Unfortunately, research has failed to find that the performance of interacting groups that brainstorm is superior to that of nominal groups (McGlynn, McGurk, Effland, Johll, & Harding, 2004). Rather than inspiring one another, group members often inhibit one another. Part of the difficulty is undoubtedly attributable to process loss. The group may not spend as much time as individuals generating ideas. Perhaps even more important, individuals can be reluctant to share ideas in the group because of shyness or social anxiety. Alone a person might be more confident and secure in generating ideas. Finally, when working in a live group, members are spending most of their time listening to others rather than generating options.

Groupthink

Groupthink is a phenomenon that can occur when groups make decisions that individual members know are poor ones (Janis, 1972). Janis noted as examples the Ford Motor Company's decision to produce the Edsel, an automobile that lost $300 million; the Kennedy administration's decision to invade Cuba at the Bay of Pigs, an invasion that was a total failure; and the Johnson administration's decision to escalate the Vietnam War, which the United States never won. Moorhead, Ference, and Neck (1991) analyzed the decision to launch the space shuttle Challenger in 1986. Despite warnings that cold weather could cause serious mechanical failures, NASA officials decided to launch the shuttle in freezing temperatures, resulting in a tragic accident that killed the entire crew.

What conditions promote groupthink?

High group cohesion• High conformity pressure in the group• The group has a strong leader• The group is isolated from outside ideas/input

Human Factors psychology

How do people interact with tools?- How do we design to support that interaction?

Relation between factors in Herzberg's 2-factor theory, and Maslow's needs

Hygiene factors: relevant to more base needs(physiological and safety) Motivator factors: relevant to high level achievement (self-actualization)

In contrast, a transactional psychological contract is much more "tit-for-tat":

I will do "x" for you and I expect "y" in return. It is, as the name implies, a transaction. Work usually starts out as a fairly transactional contract, but many organizations try to evoke a relational contract over time (e.g., the MWSU "family", the Hallmark family, etc.) because it tends to get employees to do more for less. On the other hand, when a relational contract gets broken, the fall out is a lot worse (think about how nasty a divorce can get!). So one has to be careful when one tries to get a more relational contract with employees. These kinds of relational psychological contracts are more vague and subject to greater misunderstanding, and as I said, worse fallout if the employee perceives the contract as having been violated.

Consideration

IS the amount of concern that supervisors show for welfare of their subordinates. It includes friendly and supportive behavior that makes the workplace pleasant for subordinates.

In order for an incentive system to be effective, three elements must be in place. First, the employees must have the ability to increase productivity.

If they are working at the limit of their capability, introducing an incentive system will not improve performance. Second, employees must want the incentives. Not everyone is willing to work harder for money or other rewards. For an mcentive system to work, the incentive must be something that people want. Finally, an incentive system will not work if there are physical or psychological constraints on performance. A salesperson in a store cannot sell if there are no customers. Figure 10.3 shows how the three elements combine to determine the effectiveness of an incentive system.

Figure 8.2 illustrates several possible comparison situations.

In each case, it is presumed that the target employee (Person A) has a ratio of 10/20. That is, Person A receives one unit of outcome for each two units of input. Note that the outcome and input scores do not have to be equal. It is the comparison of ratios that is important, not the comparison of outcomes to inputs. In the first two cases, the comparison other also has a ratio that reduces to one outcome per two inputs, so equity is achieved. In the first case, the outcomes are half of Person A's (5), but the inputs are half as well (10). In the second case, both the outcomes and the inputs are double (20 and 40, respectively) The next two cases illustrate underpayment inequity. That is, Person A's ratio is lower than the comparison other's, resulting in a feeling of underpayment. In the third case, the comparison other is getting the same outcomes but is giving only half the inputs (10/10) and in the fourth case, the comparison other is getting double the outcomes for the same inputs. The last two cases involve overpayment inequity. That is, Person A is receiving more outcomes per unit of input than the comparison other. In case 5, the comparison other receives half the outcomes for the same inputs, and in case 6 the comparison other receives the same outcomes for double the inputs.

Job in General Scale (JIG)

Ironson et al. (1989) developed a scale of global job satisfaction that contains items that do not reflect the various facets of the job. The Job in General Scale (JIG) was patterned on the JDI. It contains 18 items that are adjectives or short phrases about the job in general. Three of the items are shown in Table 9.5. The scale has good reliabilitv and correlates well with other scales of overall job satisfaction.

turnover

In every organization, employees will quit their jobs from time to time. The quitting of employees is called turnover. The percentage of the workforce that quits in a given period of time is called the turnover rate. When the rate becomes excessive, the organization's workforce can become too inexperienced and untrained, resulting in inefficiency and difficulties in achieving the organization's objectives. Turnover is a problem if good performers quit but not if the quitters are people who perform poorly. Trevor, Gerhart, and Boudreau (1997) studied the relation between task performance and turnover. They found a curvilinear relation in that the best and worst employees were most likely to quit. Turnover can have beneficial results if better replacements can be found for poor performers. However, good performers might also quit because often the best people are those who are the most attractive to other organizations. For the best performers, good salary raises reduced turnover.

This deviation from the group mean is called group polarization

In groups, the majority position typically holds more weight than the minority position, and the shift of the group is toward the majority view. If the majority of the group members make a risky choice, the group decision is likely to be riskier than the mean of its individuals. If the majority make a conservative choice, the group is likely to shift its decision in a conservative direction

Causes and Consequences of Emotions at Work Brief and Weiss (2002) discussed how things that are stressful and aversive at work (including punishments) can produce negative emotion states and moods. This might include the need to juggle conflicting demands (e.g., having a child become ill the day of an important meeting at work), too much time pressure, and unfair treatment. They also discussed things that can induce positive emotions, which can be stimulated by the positive moods of coworkers and supervisors.

In particular, rewards at work can induce positive emotion—for example, a bonus or raise, as well as less tangible rewards such as recognition by supervisors. Emotions are associated with employee behavior and other variables that have implications for organizations. Ashkanasy, Hartel, and Daus (2002) compared the effects of positive and negative moods. They noted that positive mood is associated with greater creativity, higher job satisfaction, less turnover, more contextual performance (e.g., volunteering to do extra work that isn't required; see Chapter 4), and better job performance. Negative moods, on the other hand, are associated with low job satisfaction and more absence and turnover. As we will see in Chapter 10, emotions have also been linked to counterproductive work behavior (e.g., directing verbal aggression toward coworkers and purposely withholding effort), with positive emotion leading to low levels of these harmful behaviors and negative emotion to high levels (Fox, Spector, & Miles, 2001). Evidence linking mood to job satisfaction comes from a study by Fuller, Stanton, Fisher, Spitzmüller, Russell, and Smith (2003). They asked 14 employees to complete measures on more than 1,000 occasions of stressful events, their mood, and their job satisfaction. Results showed, as expected, that stressful events lead to more negative mood and that positive moods are associated with greater job satisfaction.

Which of the following goals is the BEST written to promote employee motivation for a bank teller who is supposed to get more new accounts opened?

Increase the number of accounts you open by 20% over the next two months

Hofstede's cultural dimensions

Individualism/Collectivism Masculinity: focus on achievement over well-being Power Distance: tolerance for status differences Uncertainty avoidance: how comfortable are youwith uncertainty?

The culture values are:

Individualism/collectivism Masculinity Power distance Uncertainty avoidance

Outcomes

Inequity is a psychological state that arises from employees' comparisons of themr selves with others. What is specifically compared are ratios of outcomes to inputs Outcomes are the rewards or everything of personal value that an employee gets from working for an organization, including pay, fringe benefits, good treatment, enjoymenl and status.

Informal roles

Informal roles: stuff you do at work that's not in your actual job description (e.g., I'mthe person who orders flowers for administrative assistant's day) arise from group interaction rather than from the formal rules and specifications of organizations. Groups can invent roles that do not exist formally, or a group's informal roles can supersede the formal ones

Leader Behavior Approach

Initiating Structure: Providing clear roles definitions and expectations Consideration: Showing concern for employees

Counterproductive work behavior or CWB

Instances of irate employees shooting their coworkers and often themselves have brought national attention to the issue of employee aggression. Although these relatively rare (Neuman & Baron, 1997), but extreme, examples fall more within the domain of clinical psychology or criminology, the issue of less extreme employee behavior that is damaging to organizations is an important one for the I/O field. Counterproductive work behavior or CWB (often called desk rage in the popular media) refers to behaviors that harm the organization and other people at work, such as coworkers, supervisors, and customers. CWB can consist of engaging in physical and verbal aggression, directing hostile and nasty behavior at a coworker, destroying organizational property, purposely doing work incorrectly, stealing, and withholding task performance.

Emotional Labor

It has long been recognized by private-sector companies that the emotional expressions by employees who deal with clients and customers is an important part of customer service (Grandey, Fisk, Mattila, Jansen, & Sideman, 2005). Such encounters can be difficult for employees who encounter a public that can be rude and even abusive at times (Grandey & Diamond, 2009). Many companies have emotion display rules requiring the expression of positive emotions such as smiling at customers and appearing to be enjoying work (Diefendorff, Richard, & Croyle, 2006), even if customers are not being particularly nice. The required expression of certain emotions at work is called emotional labor, recognizing that it can take effort for employees to maintain the appearance of positive feelings (Glomb & Tews, 2004). Emotional labor has been shown to have both positive and negative effects on employees, depending on a number of factors. Perhaps the most important is how emotional labor is performed. Deep acting is a form of emotional labor in which the individual experiences the emotion he or she is trying to display. Surface acting, on the other hand,

Which job satisfaction measure is facetapproach, and most carefully validated

Job Descriptive Index (JDI)

Which measure of job satisfaction is most popular with researchers?

Job Descriptive Index (correct)

motivator

Job aspects relevant to growth needs are called motivator factors and include achievement, recognition, responsibility, and the nature of the work itself.

hygiene factors

Job aspects relevant to the animal needs are called hygiene factors and include pay, supervision, coworkers, and organizational policies

Lateness For many jobs, employees are on fixed work schedules, but often employees will fail to get to work on time. Some employees might be able to make up the time by skipping breaks, taking a short lunch, or staying late. However, often employees fail to make up the time, or the time cannot be made up; for example, if a professor is late for class, the time won't usually be rescheduled.

Lateness produces costs for organizations that call in substitutes and can put an unfair burden on coworkers who might have to take up the slack. Lateness, like absence, can have many causes. Koslowsky (2000) noted that although attitudes, such as job dissatisfaction, have been linked to lateness, other important causes are commuting distance and ease and work-family conflict. People who have long commutes can get stuck in traffic. Individuals with children, for example, might be late because a child is sick and must be taken to the doctor. Another important factor is national culture. Promptness is considered more important in some countries than in others; for example, Americans value it more than Brazilians do. Organizations also have their own lateness cultures, just as they have absence cultures (Elicker, Foust, O'Malley, & Levy, 2008). Foust, Elicker, and Levy (2006) argued that attitudes about lateness itself are more important determinants of lateness behavior than other, more general job attitudes. They developed a lateness attitude scale that asked about both one's own behavior (feeling guilty for being late) and coworkers' behavior (being let down when coworkers are late). They administered their new scale as part of a survey of employees. It was a better predictor of lateness than was either job satisfaction or organizational commitment. Finally, Iverson and Deery (2001) investigated both lateness and leaving early from work, which they found were related. Coming late and leaving early were associated with perceptions of injustice (see Chapter 8) and job dissatisfaction.

Brooke is filling out a scale that measures her motivational structure as a leader. The scale asks her to think about the person with whom she has the most trouble working. Brooke is filling out the

Least Preferred Coworker Scale. correct

Segmentation hypothesis:

Life is compartmentalized. Dissatisfaction in onearea has nothing to do with how happy or sad you are in the other area.

Growth need strength

Like drive for self-actualization

Locus of Control and Performance

Locus of control concerns people's beliefs about their ability to control reinforcements in their environment (see Chapter 9). Research has shown that internals, those who believe they can control reinforcements, have higher levels of job motivation than externals, those who do not believe they can control reinforcements (Ng, Sorensen, & Eby, 2006; Wang, Bowling, & Eschleman, 2010). Although the greater motivation of internals might be expected to result in better job performance, the effects relationship of locus of control to performance is quite small (Ng et al., 2006), suggesting that the locus of control—task performance relation can be complex. Blau (1993) studied how locus of control related to two different task performance dimensions of bank tellers (see the Research in Detail box). Blau noted that internals have been shown to have higher levels of work motivation, which should lead them to display more initiative on the job. Externals, on the other hand, have been shown to be more conforming and would be expected to respond better to highly structured tasks that allow for little personal initiative. This is exactly what he found. Internals performed better in developing Important job skills, whereas externals performed better on the routine clerical tasks that were highly structured. Blau's study suggests that relations between personality and job performance can depend on the particular dimension of performance.

Theory Z

Long-term employment is basis for effective organizations, as they promote employee commitment Theory X and Theory Y are not the only possible approaches for managing people. Ouchi (1981) proposed an approach to management that is based on Japanese practices. Theory Z assumes that long-term employment is the basis of effective organizations. People who can count on spending their entire career in the same organization will have high levels of commitment. They will be willing to put more effort into helping their organizations to be successful because they have a personal stake in the long-term success of their employers.

An organizational change technique based on goal setting in which an employee's own goals are coordinated with the goals of supervisors and subordinates is called

MBO. Correct

Theory X

Managers responsible for organizingelements and directing subordinate, as averageemployee is lazy/lacking in ambition McGregor (1960) considered Theory X to represent the conventional view of the manager' s role and the nature of subordinates. He noted eight propositions that represent beliefs widely held by managers (Table 14.2). They include the idea that managers are responsible for organizing the human and nonhuman (equipment, money, supplies, and tools) elements of the organization and that they should direct and motivate subordinates. The worker is viewed as being indifferent to the organization's needs, lazy, unmotivated, and not very bright. This belief leads managers to adopt one of two strategies. The hard approach is to use coercion and threats and to supervise closely, an approach that results in employee resistance, such as counterproductive work behavior and restriction of output. The soft approach is to be permissive and avoid conflict with subordinates, which leads to an ineffective organization.

APPROACHES TO THE UNDERSTANDING OF LEADERSHIP

Many approaches to the study and understanding of leadership have been taken. The trait approach is concerned with determining the personal characteristics of good leaders. It asks the question "Who will make a good leader?" The behavior approach is concerned with finding out which leader behaviors are effective. It asks the question "What do good leaders do?" The contingency approach (Fiedler's and path-goal) assumes that good leadership is a function of the interplay of the person, his or her behavior, and the situation. It asks the question "Under a given condition, who will be a good leader and what behavior is likely to be effective?" The leader-member exchange theory and the charismatic/transformational approaches focus on the relationships between subordinates and supervisors. They ask the question "How does the interaction between subordinate and supervisor affect the subordinate's behavior?" All of these approaches have contributed to our understanding of leadership, and we discuss them in this section. We also cover the Vroom-Yetton model for deciding how to approach decision-making tasks in work groups.

Age and Performance

Many people assume that job performance declines with age. The stereotype of the nonproductive older worker probably has roots in the fact that many physical abilities decline with age. For example, professional athletes almost always retire before they reach 40 years of age. Research has shown that the stereotype is incorrect, however. Older workers in many jobs are as productive as their younger coworkers. Ng and Feldman (2008) conducted a meta-analysis of 280 studies relating age to task performance, as well as other performance-related variables. Rather than finding that job task performance declines with age, their study found little to no relationship. If anything, older workers perform tasks slightly better than younger workers, engage in more OCB, have fewer accidents, and are less likely to be absent from or late to work. Although some abilities might decline with age, other skills and a level of job wisdom that may lead to greater efficiency may increase with experience (Warr, 2001). What older workers lack in physical ability they may more than compensate for by better task strategies, better management of time, and more efficient approaches. The physical demands of the majority of jobs are well within the ability range of most older workers unless they are in poor health. Of course, poor health can adversely affect the job performance of even the youngest workers.

HomeHearth Cards is a greeting cards company. It is very focused on the well-being of its employees. It provides a relaxing break room with free snacks and beverages, has a free gym and exercise classes so employees can workout without leaving the facility, and has a good program that links employees with counselors in case they have trouble at home. HomeHearth is low on which of the following cultural values?

Masculinity (correct)

need hierarchy theory

Maslow, 1943) states that fulfillment of human needs is necessary for both physical and psychological health. Human needs are alTanged in hierarchy that includes physical, social, and psychological needs. Figure 8.1 illustrates the need hierarchy from the lowest level, physical needs, to the highest level, psychological needs. The lowest level, physiological needs, includes the physical necessities for survival, such as air, food, and water. The second level consists of safety needs, those things that protect us from danger. This level includes the need for security and shelter. The third level is the love needs, which include the need for love, affection, and affiliation with others. The fourth level is esteem needs, which involve self-respect and the respect of others. Finally, there is self-actualization, which Maslow did not define precisely. It refers to fulfilling personal life goals and reaching one's potential, or as Maslow stated, "the desire to become everything that one is capable of becoming" (Maslow, 1943, p. 382).

Theory X/Theory Y

McGregor's (1960) Theory X/Theory Y is a human relations theory concerned with the interaction between supervisors and subordinates. The basic idea is that the attitudes and beliefs of supervisors about their subordinates determine the organization's management approach, which in turn affects how subordinates behave. This is a self-fulfilling prophecy in that managers treat subordinates according to how they are expected to behave, and this treatment causes subordinates to behave as expected. For example, a manager who believes that subordinates will not do their jobs properly without close supervision is likely to supervise closely. The closely supervised subordinates will undoubtedly believe that they are not trusted and will probably not work well when the supervisor is absent. Although the manager might believe that the close supervision is the result of subordinate behavior, the opposite is the case.

(Table 14.4).

Meta-analyses of interventions based on sociotechnical systems theory have indicated a high degree of success. Pasmore, Francis, Haldeman, and Shani (1982) analyzed the results of 134 studies and found that the majority have positive effects on criteria of productivity, costs, employee withdrawal, employee attitudes, safety, grievances, and work quality (Table 14.4). Guzzo et al. (1985) found positive effects of sociotechnical systems interventions on productivity and turnover.

occupational commitment

Meyer et al. (1993) developed the idea of occupational commitment, which concerns the occupation or profession rather than a particular organization. People might be very committed to their occupation, such as accounting or law, and uncommitted to their current employer. The focus of a person's commitment is important in determining his or her responses. For example, Keller (1997) found that occupational commitment among engineers and scientists relates to an objective measure of performance (number of articles published), but organizational commitment does not. Success in publication may be relevant to how individuals view their occupations but not their organizations. On the other hand, Cropanzano, Howes, Grandey, and Toth (1997) found that occupational commitment is less strongly related than organizational commitment to intention of quitting the job. In their meta-analysis of occupational commitment studies, K. Lee, Carswell, and Allen (2000) found that the mean correlation with job satisfaction .37) is smaller than is typically found for organizational commitment. We might expect that occupational commitment will relate most strongly to behaviors relevant to success m that occupation. Organizational commitment will relate most strongly to behaviors and variables relevant to the present job. Finally, in unionized occupations and workplaces, people can vary in the extent to which they are committed to their unions. Such commitment has been shown to relate to the time and effort one puts into union activities. For example, Fullagar, Gallagher, Clark, and Carroll (2004) showed that union commitment predicted participation in union activities over a span of 10 years. This suggests, as with job satisfaction, that some forms of commitment can be quite stable over a long period of time.

What is the typical duration of a T-group?

Most T-groups are conducted over a 3-day to 2-week period.

Research on TQM's effectiveness

Most employees are satisfied with TQM interventions• But doesn't always work as well as it is intended• Has been applied successfully in business, with lesssuccess in educational and medical settings

Delegation of Authority

Most organizations are hierarchically structured with one person at the top who has ultimate authority and control. Reporting to the top person will be one or more people who have authority and control over others who are below them in the hierarchy. At each level of the hierarchy, except the first, people report to others who are their superior. At the last or bottom level are people who report to someone above them, but no one reports to them. An example of the organizational chart for a hierarchically structured organization is shown in Figure 14.2.

Why did McGregor believe movement toward Theory Y would be slow?

Most people's experiences have been in Theory X situations

Person-Job Fit

Most researchers have tended to treat environmental and personal factors as independent influences on job satisfaction. In other words, they have studied characteristics of jobs or of individuals that may lead to satisfaction. Another approach, however, is to look at the interaction of both factors. The person-job fit approach states that job satisfaction will occur when there is a good match between the person and the job. There are many ways that people and jobs fit, however, including the correspondence between task demands and personal abilities (Greguras & Diefendorff, 2009).

Gender

Most studies that have compared men and women in their global job satisfaction have found few differences. Meta-analytic studies involving multiple samples and thousands of employees have failed to find gender differences (Witt & Nye, 1992). Greenhaus, Parasuraman, and Wormley (1990) found no significant gender differences in their study, even though the distribution of jobs was not the same in their sample for both genders—males were more likely to have managerial/professional jobs, and females were more likely to have clerical jobs. This suggests that women may be happier with lower pay and less responsibility than men, perhaps because their expectations are lower about what they will receive or because they compare themselves to other women who are in similar circumstances.

growth need strength (GNS).

One personality characteristic that comes from Hackman and Oldham's (1976) theory is growth need strength (GNS). This characteristic refers to a person's desire for the satisfaction of higher-order needs, such as autonomy and achievement. Meta-analyses of studies that have addressed the effects of GNS have shown that it moderates the relation between job characteristics and job satisfaction (Loher, Noe, Moeller, & Fitzgerald, 1985). Correlations between these two variables are greater for individuals who are high in GNS than for individuals who are low.

When will incentive theory work? Only when• The employee has the ability to increase productivity

Only when• The employee has the ability to increase productivity. Example: It doesn't matter how many incentives you offer me, I cannot run a 4 minutemile. I don't have the ability to do it

Organizational Commitment and Other Variables

Organizational commitment has been included in studies involving many organizational variables. Cooper-Hakim and Viswesvaran (2005) conducted a meta-analysis of nearly 1,000 studies, relating commitment to several hypothesized variables proposed as consequences. Table 9.10 summarizes their results, relating the three components of commitment to four important variables. Job satisfaction relates most strongly to affective commitment, which isn't surprising considering that both variables are attitudes about the job. Job performance also relates most strongly and positively to affective commitment, at about the same level as does job satisfaction, as was discussed earlier. Continuance commitment relates negatively to job performance, although the relationship is rather small. These results suggest that people who are working because of an emotional attachment will tend to perform better, but those who are working because they feel they have to will actually perform worse.

goal orientation

People can vary in their goal orientation—that is, in whether they focus their efforts on learning (learning orientation) or on achieving certain levels of job performance (performance orientation).

the social facilitation effect

Performance is improved (the social facilitation effect) by other-induced arousal when the task is simple or well learned, such as bicycle riding

sexual harassment

Perhaps the best-known form of power abuse is sexual harassment, which is behavior of a sexual nature that Is unwanted Can adversely affect a person's employment Interferes with a person's job performance Creates a hostile and intimidating work environment The sorts of behaviors that comprise sexual harassment include Unwelcome sexual advances and requests Unwanted physical contact or touching Use of offensive language Repeated requests for a date Threats of punishment for noncompliance with requests Sexual harassment is illegal in the United States and many other countries. In the United States, it is covered by civil rights legislation and is considered a form of discrimination. Many cases have resulted in lawsuits, with companies having to pay damages to employees in excess of $100,000. Although sexual harassment is the act of an individual, organizations have been held accountable for the behaviors of their employees. Thus organizations are expected to prevent their supervisors and others from engagmg in sexual harassment.

best predictors of absence

Prior history- Organizational policy

Difference between Push/Pull Theories

Push: motivation as internal (cognition)- Pull: motivation as external (environment- Cognition has been more influential

of fairness theory

Recent research on fairness in the workplace has replaced equity theory with the somewhat different perspective of fairness theory (Cropanzano, Byrne, Bobocel, & Rupp, 2001). Rather than focusing on the fair allocation or distribution of rewards fairness theory distinguishes between the distribution of rewards and the procedures by which rewards are allocated

Fleishman and Harris (1962) found that the mean LBDQ scores for the supervisors are related to the grievance and turnover rates in their departments.

Supervisors with lov. scores on consideration and high scores on initiating structure had higher turnover rates and more grievances among subordinates than supervisors who were high on consideration and low on initiating structure. The supervisors scoring lowest on consideration had a turnover rate that was about four times higher than the supervisors scoring highest (Figures 13.2 and 13.3).

Figure 13.4 illustrates how supervisor performance is a function of situational control for individuals high and low m LPC.

Research on contingency theory has provided mixed support for its validity, and Fiedler certainly has his critics. Two meta-analyses combined the results of many tests of the theory (Peters, Hartke, & Pohlmann, 1985; Strube & Garcia, 1981). Both found that leader performance was a joint function of LPC and situational control, although the predictions of the theory were not completely upheld. What is not clear at the present time is exactly why LPC and situational control interact. The major difficulty is that no one, not even Fiedler, is quite sure what LPC represents. LPC was Intended to measure something about leader motivation, but it is not clear that motivation is assessed. Fiedler (1978) states that low LPC leaders are more concerned with getting tasks done than with having good relationships with subordinates, whereas high LPC leaders have the opposite motivations, being more concerned with having good relationships with subordinates than with getting the job done. At this time, all we can say for sure is that the LPC assesses some unknown but important characteristic of leaders.

Relationship between core job dimensions and critical psychological states in JCM

Skill variety/task identity/task significance experienced meaningfulness Autonomy > experienced responsibility Feedback > Knowledge of results

Hackman and Oldham's (1976) influential job characteristics theory

Skill variety: The number of different skills necessary to do a job; Task identity: Whether or not an employee does an entire job or a piece of a job; Task significance: The impact a job has on other people; Autonomy: The freedom employees have to do their jobs as they see fit; and Task feedback: The extent to which it is obvious to employees that they are doing their jobs correctly. Combined these five core characteristics define the scope or complexity and challenge of a job. It is assumed by job characteristics theory that high scope leads to job satisfaction and low scope leads to boredom and dissatisfaction.

Making goals more effective

Specific and measurable, Achievable, yet challenging

Relationship between job and life satisfaction? Three possibilities

Spillover hypothesis, Compensation hypothesis, Segmentation hypothesis.

Affective commitment:

Stay at work due to emotional attachment

continuance commitment

Stay at work due to lack of alternatives

Normative commitment:

Stay at work due to personal values

Which of the following is NOT a work withdrawal behavior?

Stealing paper from the copy room for one's home printer

Vroom-Yetton model

The Vroom-Yetton model (Vroom & Yetton, 1973) is a different kind of leadership theory from the theories we have discussed so far. Rather than describing how the leadership process works, Vroom-Yetton is a prescriptive model that indicates the supervisory approach that is expected to be most effective in a particular situation when making decisions. Note that Vroom-Yetton is designed only for decision making and not for other aspects of supervisor behavior, such as generating solutions to problems and directing the activities of subordinates. The model is based on psychological principles that can help inform the best decision-making practices based on characteristics of a particular situation. A manager can use the model to help choose the way to handle each situation in which a decision must be made. The model specifies the following five approaches to making a decision, which range from the autocratic to democratic: 1. Supervisor makes the decision alone. 2. Supervisor gets information from subordinates and makes the decision alone. 3. Supervisor discusses the problem with some subordinates and then makes the decision. 4. Supervisor discusses the problem with all subordinates in a meeting and makes the decision. 5. Supervisor presents the problem to all subordinates in a meeting and lets them decide. As you can see, the supervisor can act independently (approach 1), turn over the problem to the group (approach 5), or adopt various stages of sharing the decision from merely soliciting information (approach 2) to actually discussing the problem and considering others' viewpoints (approach 3 or 4).

Types of groups in LMX. In-group/cadre:

The group of employees that have the "special" relationship with the boss....they are trusted and consulted and have a lot of influence

Which of the following is the BEST example of a work TEAM?

The group of medical professionals that performs surgery: nurse, surgeon, anesthesiologist, etc. (correct)

The hired hands or out-group

The hired hands or out-group, by contrast, is subordinates who are supervised with a directive style and are given little input into decisions. These relationships evolve over time, with characteristics of subordinates affecting the category in which they find themselves. To become part of the cadre, a subordinate must be perceived as dependable and hardworking. In return for cadre status, a subordinate must be prepared to exert effort on the job beyond the minimum expected.

social comparison theory

The idea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing ourselves to other people

Environmental Conditions and Task Performance

The job environment can affect task performance in many ways. The environment can have a positive or negative influence on employee motivation, leading to an increase or decrease in employee efforts. Similarly, the environment can be structured to facilitate performance by making it easier for individuals to accomplish their jobs, or it can contain constraints that interfere with performance. One study showed that something as simple as allowing employees to listen to music over stereo headsets improves task performance, apparently by reducing tension (Oldham, Cummings, Mischel, Schmidtke, & Zhou, 1995). In this chapter, we will look at somewhat more complex factors of job characteristics, incentive systems, technology design, and organizational constraints.

Motivation Potential Score (MPS)

The levels of the core characteristics determine how motivating a job is likely to be. Hackman and Oldham (1976) noted that the Motivation Potential Score (MPS) a job can be calculated by combining scores on the core characteristics. Specifically, following formula is used: MPS = (Skill Variety + Task Significance + Task Identity)/ 3 x Autonomy x Feedback Note that the three characteristics leading to experienced meaningfulness are averaged The average is multiplied by autonomy and feedback, which lead to experienced responsibility and knowledge of results, respectively. The multiplicative nature of the formula implies that a job cannot be motivating if it leads to low levels of even one of the three psychological states. If one of the three multiplied terms equals zero, the MPS will be zero.

law of effect

The major tenet of reinforcement theory is the law of effect (Thorndike, 1913). This states that the probability of a particular behavior increases if it is followed by a reward or reinforcement. Conversely, the probability of a behavior decreases if it is followed by a punishment. Behaviors become established through the pairing or associating of behavior with reinforcement. In other words, rewards are contingent on a particular behavior occurring. In a job context, this means that performance-relevant behaviors will increase in frequency if they are rewarded.

Why has the popularity of T-groups declined?

The popularity of T-groups has declined due to research showing either no effect or negative effects on the workplace, and concerns about the experience resembling group psychotherapy.

What is the purpose of T-groups for organizational members?

The purpose is for organizational members, often managers, to increase their interpersonal skills in the hope of being more effective on the job.

health circle

The quality circle idea has been adapted to focus on employee health rather than job performance. The German health circle or Gesundheitszirkel is an intervention in which groups of employees discuss ways to improve health and well-being. Aust and Ducki (2004) identified 11 studies with results that showed mostly positive effects of health circles. Not only did studies show that many suggestions were implemented, but some found increases in both health and well-being as well.

Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)

The theory begins with the characteristic of the leader, which Fiedler (1978) refers to as the motivational structure of the leader. The motivational structure is assessed with a self-report instrument called the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale. Although the name implies that it assesses the coworker, the scale actually measures a characteristic of the leader, not the subordinate. The LPC asks the leader to think about the person with whom he or she has had the most trouble working—that is, the coworker with whom he or she would least like to work. The leader then describes his or her least preferred coworker using a semantic differential scale (Osgood, Teannenbaum, & Suci, 1957). The LPC consists of 18 bipolar adjective items, and for each item the leader indicates which of the two words with opposite meanings best describes someone, such as pleasant versus unpleasant or friendly versus unfriendly. (Examples from the LPC scale appear in Table 13.3.)

Fiedler's contingency theory

The trait approach assumes that certain characteristics of people will make them good leaders. The behavior approach presumes that certain leader behaviors will be effective, regardless of the situation. Fiedler's contingency theory states that leadership is a function of both the person and the situation. One characteristic of the leader and three characteristics of the situation determine leadership effectiveness.

behavior

The way an organism reacts to changes in its internal condition or external environment.

Age

The workforces in many countries have been getting older because of both the changing demographic makeup of the population (there are more elderly people) and legislation that has made age discrimination illegal. A question that has been of interest to I/O psychologists concerns possible changes in job satisfaction over a person's life span. Many studies (e.g., Siu, Lu, & Cooper, 1999) have shown that older workers are more satisfied with their jobs than younger workers. Two large sample surveys, one conducted in England (Clark, Oswald, & Warr, 1996) and the other in nine countries including the United States (Birdi, Warr, & Oswald, 1995), found a curvilinear relation between age and job satisfaction. In these studies, job satisfaction at first declines with age, reaching the lowest level at around age 26 to 31, and then increases through the rest of the working career. Although some of this pattern might be due to age, it is also likely that other factors are important as well. One factor is tenure on the job. It has been shown that job satisfaction is high at the time of hiring and then declines after an initial honeymoon period (Boswell, Shipp, Payne, & Culbertson, 2009). Age is confounded with tenure on the job (only older workers can have long years of service), and so part of the relationship with age might be due to tenure. Very young workers will be new to a job, and thus their job satisfaction is high. As employees get older, their average tenure increases, and so many of them will be past the honeymoon period and experience lowered job satisfaction. Over time, however, job satisfaction will increase, perhaps as employees adjust to working life.

The noninteracting individuals are referred to as a nominal group

Their output reflects the output of a given number of individuals. The output of the interacting group, by comparison, reflects how well the same number of people will perform in a group.

Goal Theory

Theoretical perspective that portrays human motivation as being directed toward particular goals; the nature of these goals determines the specific ways in which people think and behave.

What is the difference in supervisory approach between Theory Y and Theory X managers?

Theory Y managers stress employee autonomy and development, while Theory X managers rely on directive approaches

Job satisfaction has been a central variable in the research on turnover (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000). Figure 10.7 illustrates how the turnover process is thought to work. It shows that job satisfaction leads to intention to quit, which leads to turnover. Furthermore, the relation between intention to quit and turnover is moderated by the unemployment rate. People who are dissatisfied with their jobs are likely to intend to quit them. Intentions are often precursors to behavior that leads to quitting. It is unlikely, however, that people will quit their jobs unless they have another job available. As shown in the model, the unemployment rate, which reflects the availability of alternative employment, affects whether or not dissatisfaction and intentions are translated into turnover.

There is good support for the propositions in this model. First, job satisfaction and intention of quitting correlate with one another (Bowling & Hammond, 2008), which is consistent with the idea that satisfaction leads to intention. Second, Blau (2007) found that both job satisfaction and intention of quitting correlate with job search behaviors, such as applying for another job and going on a job interview. Third, Griffeth et al. (2000) found in their meta-analysis that both job satisfaction and intention to quit predict future turnover, with satisfaction having a smaller magnitude of correlation (r = -.17) than intention (r = .35). The predictive nature of these studies supports the idea that job satisfaction and intention are precursors of turnover. Finally, studies have shown that the unemployment rate moderates the relations between job satisfaction and turnover and between intention and turnover (e.g., Trevor, 2001). These studies show that when the unemployment rate is low and alternative job opportunities are plentiful, there is a strong relation of satisfaction and intention with turnover. When the unemployment rate is high and alternative job opportunities are scarce, however, there is little predictability of turnover by intention and job satisfaction. In other words, dissatisfied people may wish to quit their jobs, but they can do so only when alternative employment is available.

Conflicts about Change

These conflicts are motivated by the tension between the need for adaptation and the need for stability in a system. To what degree does a system adapt to environmental turbulence (or uncertainty), and not lose its identity? Too much change creates chaos in a system, but too little makes the system unsustainable in the face of environmental change.

Conflicts of Control:

These conflicts pit specialization (or differentiation) against integrationprocesses inherent in open systems. As a system gets more complex it tends to differentiate,allowing employees to specialize in narrower bands of function within the organization. Yet aspeople specialize, they have a greater need to try to integrate with those around them tomaintain coherence in the system. When you are specialized as an employee, you often feel agreat deal of autonomy--and genuinely need it to do your specialized function. Yet to integrateeffectively, some sort of centralized control is helpful. Autonomy and control are essentially inconflict in open systems.

Conflicts of Interest:

These pit entropy versus growth processes that are inherent in opensystems. In a universe of finite resources, net gain at all system levels is impossible. This is notbecause someone is stupid, or greedy, or bad, but is simply because if one part of theorganization is going to grow it almost has to take away from other parts (at least for a while)

a mental model

These principles of displays and controls have been available for many years, so there is not much need to conduct research on them today. Instead, human factors psychologists have turned their attention to computer-human interaction. Computer-human interaction is the interplay of people with computers and associated technologies that have led to tremendous changes in the workplace for both blue- and white-collar work. Automation and computerization have changed the nature of many jobs, so that individuals must use computer-based systems to accomplish a growing number of tasks. Web-based systems are rapidly replacing physical paper-and-pencil systems for many tasks, such as paying bills. A major issue for computer-human interaction is communication between human and machine. That is, how best should computers provide information to people, and how best can people tell computers what they wish done? In order for people to communicate effectively with computers, they must develop a conceptual understanding or mental model of how the computer operates (Wickens et al., 2004). A person who knows how to drive an automobile, for example, has a mental model of how the operation of the controls results in the appropriate movement of the vehicle.

Know when a person is likely to feel underpaid v. overpaid based on inequitytheory

This theory is based on the idea of social comparison....we constantly compare ourselves intwo ways• We compare our inputs and outputs. Inputs are what we put into a task/job, and outputs are the rewardwe get from that. We all have an outcome/input ratio. We like those to be greater than or equal to 1 But we really compare to others. If the people we are comparing to are having a higher ratio, then wereally start to feel underpaid (and angry). If our ratio is bigger, we move towards feeling overpaid (intheory). Reality....it takes a lot for a person to feel like they are overpaid. When we do....we feel guilty.

Be able to recognize elements of the sequence that occurs when the psychological contract isviolated.•

This was based on the Office Space activity we completed. The steps are: 1. Giving voice 2. Silence 3. Retreat 4. Destruction 5. Exit

life satisfaction Another important issue concerns the contribution of job satisfaction to overall life satisfaction—how satisfied a person is with his or her life circumstances. Life satisfaction is considered to be an indicator of overall happiness or emotional well-being. Studies of life satisfaction have found that it correlates with job satisfaction (Bowling & Hammond, 2008).

Three hypotheses have been proposed about how job and life satisfaction might affect one another (Rain, Lane, & Steiner, 1991). The spillover hypothesis suggests that satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) in one area of life affects or spills over to another. Thus problems and dissatisfaction at home can affect satisfaction with work, whereas problems and dissatisfaction at work can affect satisfaction with home. The compensation hypothesis says that dissatisfaction in one area of life will be compensated for in another. A person with a dissatisfying job will seek satisfaction in other aspects of life. A person with a dissatisfying home life might seek satisfaction in work. The segmentation hypothesis states that people compartmentalize their lives and that satisfaction in one area of life has no relation to satisfaction in another. The three hypotheses lead to contradictory predictions about the correlation between job and life satisfaction. Spillover predicts a positive correlation in that satisfaction at work will affect satisfaction in other areas of life. Compensation predicts a negative correlation because dissatisfaction in one area of life will be compensated for by satisfaction in another. Segmentation predicts no correlation because people keep satisfaction with different areas of life separated. Rain et al. (1991) pointed out that research has consistently found a positive correlation between job and life satisfaction. Thus the spillover hypothesis is the only one supported by research.

Why might custom-made scales be used in survey feedback?

To address specific concerns of employees within a particular organization that standardized scales may not capture.

What is the purpose of using standardized scales in survey feedback?

To compare results with other organizations and assess variables like job satisfaction on a standardized basis.

Why might it become necessary to adopt a Theory Y approach in organizations?

To give more responsibility to lower-level employees, especially during downsizing

Know what research on the effectiveness of TQM reveals

Total Quality Management (TQM) is a very popular organizational development intervention. One of the criticisms of it is that it is sort of a "one size fits all" strategy for organizational development. Here is what research shows about the pros and cons of it: (a) It is generally experienced as satisfactory by most employees....that is, they tend to like it, (b) it has been widely applied in a variety of settings, like business, medicine, education, etc., and (c) it is not ideally suited to all the situations in which it is applied, though, and (d) it does not always cause all the changes it intended to produce in an organization. Themes that characterize TQM are things like measuring customer satisfaction and using that to drive intervention. So, for example, using it in business is one thing (as a consumer, I know what I want in that venue and the business' job is to sell me the product or service so I am happy). But applying it in medicine is a little different (I'm there at the doctor b/c I know I'm not OK, but I don't know exactly what I need and I'm not REALLY qualified to evaluate the doctor's treatment decisions). And educational applications have some of the same problems: Yes, the student is paying, which is sort of like a consumer role, but it isn't like the student knows exactly what he/she needs at that time. They may have a general sense of their goals, but in some way one HOPES that the prof has a sense of what the student needs and can "develop" that in them. Students who get too into the "customer" way of thinking tend to approach school with a "buy a grade" approach rather than a learning approach, so it doesn't work very well there.

Psychological contract-

Transactional: specific- Relational: vague

charismatic leaders

Transformational leadership theory deals with leaders who have considerable and unusual influence over their followers; in other words, they are charismatic leaders. It is in some ways a return to the trait approach because it focuses on characteristics of leaders in relation to effectiveness. However, it differs from prior approaches in going beyond linking traits to performance and in attempting to determine how leaders affect their followers.

ANTECEDENTS OF JOB SATISFACTION

What makes people like or dislike their jobs? This question has been addressed in hundreds of research studies. Most of them have taken an environmental perspective. They have investigated features of jobs and organizations that lead employees to be satisfied or dissatisfied. Several studies have shown, however, that people with the same jobs and highly similar job conditions can vary considerably in their satisfaction. Findings such as these have led some researchers to take a personality perspective. Their purpose has been to show that certain types of people are inclined to like or dislike their jobs. Still other researchers have taken the interactionist perspective of person-job fit, which combines the environmental and personality approaches. Person-job fit recognizes that different people prefer different features of a job. It attempts to learn which sorts of people are satisfied with which sorts of job conditions. Job satisfaction, according tothis view, is the product of appropriately matching the individual to the job. All three perspectives—environment, personality, and interactionist—are illustrated in Figure 9.2.

additive task.

When researchers compare individuals to groups on task performance, they are usually concerned with an additive task. The output of the task is countable, and the total output is the sum of the individual group-member outputs. The total output for a group of cashiers in a supermarket would be additive because the total sales are the sum of all the individual cashiers' sales. The effects of group process on additive task performance can be seen by comparing the output of an Interacting group of people with an equal number of individuals who do not interact

incentive systems

With incentive systems, rewards are contingent on individual units of productivity, such as attaching the door of a refrigerator or selling an automobile. For jobs with countable output, it can be relatively easy to institute incentive systems. For other jobs, there can be specific, measurable performance-relevant behaviors that can be quantified. For example, telephone operators can be rewarded for answering the phone within a specified number of rings. With many jobs, however, it is not feasible to develop incentive systems as discussed here. For example, it would be quite difficult to design a piece-rate system for public school teachers. Good performance for a teacher is not easy to divide into individual units of productivity or individual behaviors that can be rewarded.

WORK MOTIVATION THEORIES

Work motivation theories are most typically concerned with the reasons, other than ablllt" that some people perform their jobs better than others. Depending on the situation, these theories can predict people's choice of task behavior, their effort, or their persistence Presuming that people have the necessary ability and that constraints on performance ar relatively low, high levels of motivation should lead to good job performance. (See discussion of job performance in Chapter 10.) The theories covered in this chapter view employee motivation from very different perspectives. According to need theories, people are motivated to acquire certain categories of things, such as food or recognition. Need hierarchy theory classifies all human needs into a small number of categories, and it presumes that people's behavior is directed toward fulfilling their needs. theory says that various aspects of work address one of two categories of need. One category concerns the nature of the job itself, and the other concerns rewards such as pay.

What's team building look like?

Work with facilitator to identify barriers to working together Work with the facilitator to improve communication and interaction

WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?

You probably have an intuitive idea of what leadership is. A leader is the one in charge or the boss of other people. Just because you are in charge, however, does not mean that people will listen to you or do what you say. What at first seems simple is quite complex, as we discuss in this chapter. Leadership scholars have come up with many different definitions of leadership, and no one definition has been universally accepted (Yukl, 1989). A common idea that runs through various definitions is that leadership involves influencing the attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, and feelings of other people. Even nonleaders influence others, but leaders exert a disproportionate influence—that is, a leader is more influential than a nonleader. Within an organization, leaders are often associated with supervisory positions; however, being a supervisor does not guarantee that you will be able to influence others. Furthermore, many leaders in organizations have no formal organizational title. Informal leaders often arise in work groups and may be more influential over the behavior of group members than the actual supervisors. Formal and informal leadership is an aspect of the formal and informal roles that we discussed in Chapter 12. An organization assigns the role of leader (e.g., manager or supervisor) to a person. An individual develops the informal leader role through interaction with colleagues. A person who is particularly skilled might find that others look to him or her for guidance, perhaps more so than to their own supervisors. The amount of influence a person has over others is determined by several personal and organizational factors, which we discuss next.

According to Maslow,

a need must be unmet to be motivating, and people are motivated by the lowest-level need that is unmet at the moment. That is, if two levels of needs are unmet, the lower-level need will dominate. Thus a hungry person would not be concerned with danger and might risk stealing food even though the punishment for theft is severe. A person with unmet safety needs would not be concerned with going to a party and having a good time with friends. Maslow recognized, however, that there can be exceptions to the hierarchy and that some individuals can find certain higher-order needs to be more important than lower-level ones. Furthermore, many individuals in Western society have the first four needs met and may never have experienced deprivatlons of one or more of them, especially food. Therefore, the basic needs are not motivating. Research on need hierarchy theory has not been very supportive. Locke and Henne (1986) noted that at least part of the difficulty is that Maslow's statement of the theory is rather vague, making it difficult to design good tests of it. Despite its lack of empirical support, need hierarchy theory has had a positive impact on organizations. It continues to be taught to both current and future managers. This helps focus attention on the importance of meeting employees' needs at work.

Equity Theory

a theory that states that people will be motivated when they perceive that they are being treated fairly

performance orientation

achieving certain levels of job performance

Organizational constraints

are aspects of the work environment that interfere with or prevent good task performance. They can arise from any aspect of the job, including the physical environment; supervisory practices; and the lack of needed training, tools, equipment, or time. Peters and O'Connor (1980) outlined eight different areas of constraints, which they derived from critical incidents. They asked 62 employed people to describe an incident in which something at work interfered with their job performance. From an analysis of the incidents, they came up with the constraint areas. Each is shown in Table 10.2, along with a brief description.

Justice theories

are quite different from the other theories in that they are concerned with people's values rather than needs, beliefs, or reinforcements. These theories presume that people universally value fairness in their social relations at work. Situations in which unfairness or inequity exists are presumed to motivate employees to remedy the unfairness.

Inputs

are the contributions made by the employee to the organization. The, include not only the work that the employee accomplishes but the experience and talents that he or she brings to the job as well. Thus an employee with many years of job experience would have greater inputs than an employee just starting out in a career.

Norms

are unwritten rules of behavior accepted by members of a work group. These rules can cover everything from style of dress and manner of speech to how hard everyone works. Groups enforce them with social pressure (e.g., people look at you weird when you leave at 5 or talk about you behind your back)• Norms can put pressure on employees towards being more productive (like the examples above) but also can have downward pressure (like, hey, don't work so hard...you are making the rest of us look bad!)

Groups of employees who assemble an entire product under their own supervision are called quality circles.

autonomous work teams.

Dr. Simons wants to be very fair to all his students. He makes sure that the points to be had in the class are equally shared among all students, making the grades very even across all students. He does this, regardless of how well the students perform on assessments of learning or how hard he thinks they worked. Dr. Simons has achieved

both distributive and procedural justice.

Control theory

builds upon goal-setting theory by focusing on how feedback affects motivation to maintain effort toward goals. As shown in Figure 8.3, the process explained by the theory begins with a goal that the person is intending to accomplish. The goal might be assigned by a supervisor or chosen by the individual, but the theory says that the person must believe the goal is attainable and accept it.

human factors

called ergonomics or engineering psychology) The Hawthorne studies showed that social factors can be more important than the physical environment in job performance. There is no doubt, however, that the physical features of job settings can affect performance. The field of human factors (also called ergonomics or engineering psychology) is concerned with the interface between people and the physical environment, including tools, equipment, and technology. Human factors psychologists are involved in the design of the physical environment to make jobs safer and easier to accomplish. Through their work over the past few decades, human factors psychologists have developed sound design principles and procedures. The influence of the field can be found in the design of everything from automobiles and consumer appliances to military aircraft and nuclear power plants.

Normative commitment

comes from the values of the employee. The person believes that he or she owes it to the organization to remain out of a sense that this is the right thing to do. Meyer et al. (1993) discussed the nature and origins of the three components of commitment. Figure 9.5 shows the major influences on each. As you can see, there are different factors involved in each component. Affective commitment arises from job conditions and met expectations. That is, did the job provide the rewards that the employee expected? Continuance commitment is produced by the benefits accrued from working for the organization and by the lack of available alternative jobs. Normative commitment comes from the employee's personal values and from the obligations that the person feels toward the employer. These obligations come from favors that the organization has done, such as paying the person's school expenses.

Organizational commitment is measured with self-report scales not unlike those used to assess job satisfaction. Four items from the most popular scale, developed b Mowday et al. (1979), are shown in Table 9.8. The items tap the three aspects of

commitment—acceptance of goals, willingness to work hard, and intention to stay with the organization. All three components relate strongly to one another, and combined they indicate global commitment.

virtual teams

communicate via e-mail, instant messaging, telephone, web cameras, and other technologies. Virtually, however, is not an all-or-none phenomenon. Teams vary in their use of virtual tools such as e-mail and telephone. With some teams having members who are geographically separated, thus precluding face-to-face interaction, whereas others are located in the same place but choose to communicate virtually at least some of the time.

Reed has a wife who has cancer. In spite of this personal difficulty, Reed continues to always get his work done. He arrives on time and does not waste time at work. He is keenly aware of all the rules in his workplace and very attentive about following them, and wouldn't think of bending those rules to allow more personal time at home. Reed is demonstrating which kind of Organizational Citizenship Behavior?

compliance

During the COVID-19 shutdown in the spring of 2020, Ed continued to teach his classes very effectively by using oZom for small group meetings, Panopto for delivering lecture content, and e-mail to individually work with students on papers they were writing. He found that Google Drive was also helpful to facilitate group collaborations on projects. Which of the following areas of study has contributed the most to supporting this sort of teaching at a distance?

computer-supported cooperative work

Unit control of variances

concerns who handles work problems when they arise. In many organizations, each employee is responsible for handling only routine assigned tasks. When there is a variance from normal routine—for example, a machine breaks or a customer has a problem—specialists or supervisors are called to handle it. The idea of unit control is that variances should be handled by the employee or employees who encounter them. Thus the operator of the machine should be allowed to fix it, and the salesclerk should be allowed to help a customer with a problem. In an office, employees who use word processors should be able to solve all but the most difficult problems they encounter. This approach enhances the motivation, self-efficacy, and skills of the employee, and it saves the time of the specialist and supervisor.

Corrina would love to quit her job and stay home with her kids. But she stays because she needs the health insurance her employer provides. Corrina has which type of organizational commitment?

continuance commitment (correct)

Distal motivation theories

deal with processes that are far removed from the behavior.

Self-efficacy

degree to which one feels "efficacious"....like they can be effective

In the Psychology Department, Dr. Henry is responsible for the Personnel Psychology Majors, Dr. Deka is responsible for the Psychology Club, Dr. Cronk is responsible for the computer lab, and so on. To have each faculty member specialize in different job positions with different tasks, the department has used

division of labor. Correct

Finally, organizational commitment is very behavioral in nature--

do you stay or leave the job. In this sense, the three concepts sort of comprise "attitudes" toward work. (Attitudes have traditionally had affective, cognitive, and behavioral components.) (Related to the Job Satisfaction and Psychological Contract Discussion

Understand what entropy is

endency toward disorder in a system

Continuance commitment

exists when a person must remain with the organization because he or she needs the benefits and salary or cannot find another acceptable job.

Control theory.

expands on goal theory by really focusing onhow feedback will affect sustained effort in goal pursuit

Elise really respects her supervisor a lot. Her supervisor had years of experience, is an excellent communicator and a respected expert in her workplace. Because Elise values her supervisors' knowledge and experience, she pretty much follows all the suggestions the supervisor directs towards her. The supervisor's power being based on Elise's respect for her supervisor's knowledge illustrates French and Raven's

expert power. Correct

Big Five:

extraversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience Table 10.1 presents a brief description of each dimension. Several meta-analyses have summarized relations between each of the five dimensions and task performance (Hurtz & Donovan, 2000; Salgado, 2003). Both meta-analysis studies concluded that personality is associated with job performance, with conscientiousness being the best predictor. Furthermore, Hurtz and Donovan (2000) discovered that certain personality dimensions are correlated more strongly with performance for some jobs than others. Although mean correlations are not large, these studies provide evidence that personality is an important factor for job performance across different kinds of jobs. However, even stronger correlations can be found by closely matching the particular personality traits to the particular job and task (Hogan & Holland, 2003; Tett, Steele, & Beauregard, 2003). For example, one might expect that emotional stability would predict performance in a job that requires the ability to handle stress, such as a police officer. Extraversion would be relevant to salespeople who must deal one-on-one with potential customers.

Chris is part of a group that is discussing whether the U. S. should withdraw from completely from Iraq or keep a presence there. Withdrawing completely is a riskier decision, and before the group discusses the matter, relatively few members favor that option. After discussion, the group favors complete withdrawal from Iraq. This shift illustrates

group polarization. (correct)

goal-setting theory

have been widely pay cut was used in organizations, although this is not necessarily based on the theory. For example, in equity the- Yearta, Maitlis, and Briner (1995) noted that 79% of British organizations use some form of goal setting. Various goal-setting programs have been widely used throughout 994) found that the industrialized world. The basic idea of this theory is that people's behavior is motivated by their internal turnover (Blau intentions, objectives, or goals —the terms are used here interchangeably. Goals are quite "proximal" constructs, for they can be tied quite closely to specific behaviors. For example, a salesperson might have the goal of selling a certain amount of product in a given month. Because goals can be tied closely to particular behaviors relevant for non of rewards. performance, goal-setting theory has been strongly tied to behavior.

Outgroup/hired hands:

he group of employees that don't have that....they are told what to do and not trusted to have input in decisions.• Note.....to get in the cadre you have to be seen as dependable and hardworking. Once you are in the cadre, you have to work even harder (well beyond minimum effort to stay in that "special" group).

Dimetrius is a car salesman. He very much values a pay raise. He is not sure that selling more cars will get him a raise. Further, he doesn't really believe that he can sell any more cars than he currently sells. According to expectancy theory of motivation, Dimetrius has

high valence, low instrumentality, and low expectancy (correct)

Complex states:

highly productive, elaborate structures, rich interconnections

Dr. Leonardo clearly has favorites in her class. She treats some students like professional equals, asking for their in put in class and incorporating it into tests and lectures. Other students, she seems less friendly with, giving them directions but not often asking for their input. According to LMX theory, students in the latter group who receive a lot of direction but few opportunities to offer input are called the

hired hands. correct

Valence

is the value of an outcome or reward to a person. It is the extent to which a person wants or desires something. . In the job setting, money is a frequent reward the: can have different valence levels for different people.

Galatea effect

in which people's beliefs about their own capabilities lead them to perform better, as in a self-fulfilling prophecy. Eden and Aviram (1993) successfully applied this approach to increase the job search success of unemployed people.

Having a personality that is higher in trait anger

increases the likelihood of a person engaging in counterproductive work behavior.

Stena is the person in her office who always remembers to celebrate administrative assistant's day or bosses' day. She is known as the "socialite" of the office because she always coordinates these activities with a card and special gift. This is an example of a(n)

informal role. (correct)

Bureaucracy theory

initially developed by Max Weber in the late 1800s, is a classical theory of the structure of an organization (Weber, 1947). In the early days of large organizations, little was known about effective techniques to structure and manage them. Weber's idea was to create a rational structure and several principles that would allow for the orderly and efficient functioning of an organization. Although we tend to think of a bureaucracy today as an inefficient and unresponsive organization, it represented an improvement over many of the organizational structures that existed at the time it was invented. Early organizations were often disorganized and inefficient. Bureaucracy theory provides characteristics and principles that were presumed to be important for an effective organization. We will discuss four of them: Division of labor Delegation of authority Span of control Line versus staff These principles can be useful for describing how most organizations operate, even those that are not bureaucratic in nature.

Action theory

is a comprehensive German theory of work behavior that describes a process linking goals and intentions to behaviors (Frese & Zapf, 1994). This theory proposes that work motivation theories should focus mainly on goal-oriented or volitional (voluntary) behaviors called actions. Such actions are the product of a conscious intent to accomplish something, which can be as small as finishing one piece on an assembly line or as large as achieving a promotion at work. The major focus of this theory is on the actions themselves and on the processes leading to actions.

Job satisfaction

is an attitudinal variable that reflects how people feel about their jobs overall, as well as various aspects of the jobs. In simple terms, job satisfaction is the extent to which people like their jobs; job dissatisfaction is the extent to which they dislike them. Job satisfaction is basically an affective, or emotional, response to work. COMMON JOB SATISFACTION FACETS Pay. Job conditions. Promotion opportunities. Nature of the work itself. Fringe benefits. Communication. Supervision. Security. Coworkers.

Management by objectives (MBO)

is an organizational change technique that is based on goal setting (see Chapter 8). Each employee's own goals are coordinated with the goals of both supervisors and subordinates. In a typical MBO program, goal setting begins by having those at the top of the organization set broad objectives for the entire organization. The process of setting goals or objectives then filters down level by level, with all employees' goals being related to the goals of their superiors. The goals serve as motivational tools to direct effort, as criteria against which employee performance is and as the means of coordinating everyone's efforts toward a common set of organizational objectives. Implementation of an MBO program typically begins with the change agent meeting with the top officials of the organization to set organizationwide goals and objectives. These goals must be as concrete and measurable as possible because everyone else's goals must be linked to them. A goal such as: Improve the functioning of the organization is a worthy goal, but it is too vague to be of much value in directing effort. A better goal would be: Increase sales by 20% This goal is specific and measurable, allowing everyone to know precisely what needs to be done and when it has been achieved.

Organizational commitment

is another popular attitudinal variable in the work domain. It is strongly related to job satisfaction, but it is distinctly different in focusing on the attachment of the individual to the organization rather than on whether an individual likes or dislikes the job. The study of organizational commitment has taken two perspectives—the global and the component. The original global perspective is based on the work of Mowday, Steers, and Porter (1979), which considers organizational commit ment to be a global feeling that involves three things: 1. An acceptance of the organization's goals 2. A willingness to work hard for the organization 3. The desire to stay with the organization Subsequently a three-component commitment perspective was developed (Meyer, Allen, & Smith, 1993). The three components of commitment are: Affective Continuance Normative

Expert power

is based on the knowledge and expertise that the supervisor has. A subordinate is likely to follow the directives of a person who he or she believes has special knowledge or expertise about the issue at hand. Note that it is the expertise the subordinate believes the supervisor has that is important rather than the actual expertise. Although actual expertise affects perceived expertise, some people are better than others at appearing to be experts. Titles (doctor), college degrees (Ph.D.), certifications (certified public accountant), and distinctions (Nobel Prize winner) can enhance the perceived expert power of an individual. Expert power can be particularly effective because the subordinate is likely to be convinced that the supervisor's directive is correct and should be followed.

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

is behavior that goes beyond the core task requirements of the job (tasks listed in a job description) and is typically beneficial to the organization. OCB is usually assessed by having supervisors rate their subordinates on OCB behaviors. Sample items from C. Smith, Organ, and Near's (1983) popular OCB scale are shown in Table 10.3. Note that although some of these items fit the definition of going beyond requirements (e.g., making suggestions), others do not (e.g., being punctual). .Organ and Konovsky (1989) divided OCB into two categories of behaviors: those that are specifically required and those that are not. Altruism is helping another employee or supervisor with a problem, even though it is not required. It might involve helping a n-coworker who has been absent or making suggestions to improve conditions. Compliance is doing what needs to be done and following rules, such as coming to work on time and not wasting time. OCB can be an important aspect of an employee's behavior that contributes to overall organizational effectiveness. Individuals who are high on OCB are not necessarily

Self-efficacy theory

is concerned with how people's beliefs about their own capabilities can affect their behavior. According to this theory, motivation to attempt a task is related to whether or not the person believes he or she is capable of successfully accomplishing the task.

Procedural justice

is concerned with the fairness of the reward distribution process as opposed to the results of that distribution.

Motivation

is generally defined as an internal state that induces a person to engage in particular behaviors.

Distributive justice

is similar to equity and concerns the fairness with which rewards are found among people

Instrumentality

is subjective'.: probability that a given behavior will result in a particular reward. For any given situation there can be more than one reward or outcome for a behavior. For each possible outcome a valence and instrumentality are multiplied. Then each valence-instrumentality product is summed into a total, and the total is multiplied by expectancy to produce a force score If the force score is high, the person will be motivated to achieve the outcomes of thi job. If the force score is low, the person will not be motivated to achieve the outcomes Table 8.1 shows how possible combinations of values for expectancy, valence, instrumentality are combined into a force score. This case presumes that there is a sing]:

Coercive power

is the ability of the supervisor to punish subordinates with disciplinary actions, fines, firing, or salary reductions.

Reward power

is the ability of the supervisor to reward subordinates with bonuses, desirable job assignments, promotions, or raises.

Power

is the extent to which one person can influence another to do something. The power bases listed m Table 13.1 involve both individual characteristics and organizational conditions, and they concern the relationship between leader and follower, or between supervisor and subordinate. Although bases of power are discussed as characteristics of the supervisor, power arises from the interaction between subordinate and supervisor. The supervisor makes an influence attempt, but it is the behavior of the subordinate that determines whether or not it is effective. Table 13.1 indicates how supervisors can use each power base.

Individualism

is the extent to which people see themselves as autonomous and focus on their own interests and needs rather than those of others.

Referent power

is the extent to which the subordinate likes and identifies with the supervisor. A person is likely to be influenced by another whom he or she admires or likes. This source of power can be developed through personal relationships with other people. It can also be enhanced by raising the status of the supervisor. A person with celebrity status is likely to have a high level of referent power. Some corporate leaders have become national celebrities with referent power, such as Donald Trump.

. Initiating structure

is the extent to which the supervisor defines his or her own role and makes clear what is expected of subordinates. It includes assigning tasks to subordinates and scheduling the work. One of the major contributions of the Ohio State Leadership Studies was the development of scales to assess these dimensions. The most widely used is the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ), which is completed by subordinates about their supervisor. Table 13.2 contains four items that assess consideration and four items that assess initiating structure.

Figure 12.2

isolation of the group, pressure of conformity, strong leader can lead to groupthink. Of the four shown here, group cohesiveness seems unnecessary.

Joint optimization

is the idea that the social and technological systems should be designed to fit one another as well as possible. Since Trist and Bamforth's (1951) paper, sociotechnical systems theory has undergone development and frequent application (Winterton, 1994). Cooper and Foster (1971) noted several principles of the theory. Joint optimization is the idea that the social and technological systems should be designed to fit one another as well as possible. Machines and equipment should be easy for people to use, and people should be organized into tasks and jobs so that machines and equipment can function well. This means not only that human factors should be part of equipment design but also that available technology should be considered in designing the human side of organizations. The introduction of word processing on personal computers in offices during the 1980s is an example of this approach. Because employees using this technology were not experts in computers, both hardware and software had to be designed to be as easy to use as possible. To get the full advantage out of word processing, however, the computers could not be designed just to mimic the typewriters they were replacing. The use of additional functions required that they had to operate somewhat differently. This necessitated extensive training for clerical employees with limited computer experience. Many managers of organizations, however, violated sociotechnical systems principles by thinking that all they needed to do was order computers and have them put on employees' desks.

Collectivism

is the opposite, where people see themselves as interconnected to others with a focus on the groups to which they belong. Western nations such as Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States are high on individualism, while Asian countries (China and Korea) and Latin countries (Ecuador and Guatemala) tend to be high on collectivism.

Legitimate power

is the power inherent in a supervisor's job title. It is derived from the subordinate's belief that the supervisor has the legitimate right or authority to be in charge. Much of the strength of this power derives from the subordinate's values about the rights of supervisors. If the subordinate refuses to recognize the authority of the supervisor, there will be no power in the supervisor's title.

Team commitment

is the strength of an individual's involvement in a team and consists of the acceptance of team goals, willingness to work hard for the team, and desire to remain in the team (J. W. Bishop & Scott, 2000). Therefore, we might expect that high team commitment would be associated with high team performance, low turnover, and team satisfaction. Research has found support for at least two of these expectations. J. W. Bishop, Scott, and Burroughs (2000) found in an automobile parts manufacturing company that work team performance is positively related to team commitment. J. W. Bishop and Scott (2000) studied sewing machine operators and found that their team commitment was related to coworker and supervisor satisfaction, as well as organizational commitment. Van Der Vegt, Emans, and Van De Vliert (2000), in a study conducted in the Netherlands, reported significant positive correlations of team commitment with general job satisfaction and team satisfaction (see the International Research box).

Computer-supported cooperative work or CSCW

is the study of how technology can be used to help people work together on tasks (Coovert & Thompson, 2001). Computer-based technologies allow people in remote locations to send almost instantaneous messages (e-mail or texting) or to see and hear one another (videoconferencing). People can work in virtual teams that "meet" only electronically. Research on the effects and effectiveness of such technologies compared to live communication is new, but already we know there are differences. For example, people working together via e-mail, compared to live interaction, are less inhibited (are more likely to make hostile comments and insult one another), are less likely to conform to one another's opinions, have more trouble reaching decisions, and have more trouble coordinating their efforts (Coovert & Thompson, 2001). Research needs to be done in this area to figure out how to overcome these problems, either by better design of the technology or by better training of people to be more effective users of CSCW.

Expectancy

is the subjective probability that a person has about his or her ability to perform a behavior. It is similar to self-esteem or self-confidence in that a person believes he or she can perform the job at a particular level. Subjective probability means that people can vary in the certainty of their beliefs. A subjective probability of zero means that the person is certain that he or she is incapable of performing successfully. A subjective probability of 1.0 means that the person is absolutely convinced, without the slightest doubt, that he or she can perform successfully. A subjective probability of. 50 means that the person believes there is 50/50 chance of success.

Group cohesiveness

is the sum of forces attracting group members and keeping the group together. For a group to be highly cohesive, most, if not all, members must have strong motives to remain in the group. A high level of group cohesiveness has important implications for group behavior. Norms tend to be strongly enforced in groups that are highly cohesive. The violation of a norm, particularly an important one, can be threatening to a group's existence. If group continuation is vitally important to group members, the conformity to norms will be a critical issue. In the workplace, people are often dependent on their jobs for economic survival, and the work group can be as important as the family. Threats to the well-being of the group are taken seriously.

Negative affectivity (NA)

is the tendency for an individual to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety or depression, across a wide variety of situations. Watson, Pennebaker, and Folger (1986) extended the NA idea to the workplace, hypothesizing that high NA individuals would likely be dissatisfied because they tend to view all aspects of their world in a negative way. Th1S is consistent with the idea of the chronic kicker, mentioned earlier, in that some people just dwell on negative aspects of life. This theoretical idea is supported by Connolly and Viswesvaran (2000), who conducted a metaanalysis of 27 studies that found a mean correlation between NA and job satisfaction of —.27, showing that individuals who are high on NA tend to score low on job satisfaction.

Power distance

is the tolerance people have for power and status differences among levels of an organization and society. Countries with high power distance tend to produce managers who demand obedience from subordinates. Latin countries, such as Guatemala and Panama, tend to be high, while Austria and Israel are lowest. The United States IS in the lower half of the scale.

Goal-setting theory is an example of which kind of motivational theory?

proximal motivation theory (correct)

Team building

refers to any of a number of activities designed to enhance the functioning of work groups or teams. Some team-building efforts are task-oriented—they attempt to help team members improve how they accomplish their team tasks. Other efforts are interpersonally oriented—they are concerned with how well team members communicate and interact. This approach presumes that teams will perform better when their members can communicate and interact with one another effectively (Buller, 1986).

Team building ch 14

refers to many techniques that are designed to enhance the functioning of work teams. As discussed in Chapter 12, team building can focus on tasks, such as smooth coordination of effort, or interpersonal issues, such as communication. With the taskoriented approach, the change agent helps work teams improve their task performance by learning how to work together more effectively. With the interpersonal approach, the change agent helps work teams improve their communication and interaction. Part of this effort can be directed toward reducing interpersonal conflict within work teams. Team building can be an essential part of an OD effort because many of the tasks of organizations are conducted by work teams rather than individuals. An organization in which work teams do not work well will have a hard time being effective. Improving team functioning can go a long way toward improving an organization. In Chapter 12, we saw how the U.S. Navy is committed to finding ways to improve team functioning through training. Also noted in Chapter 12 was a comprehensive meta-analysis that shows that team building tends to have positive effects on team functioning and team performance (Klein, DiazGranados, Salas, Le, Burke, Lyons, et al., 2009). In their meta-analysis, Neuman et al. (1989) found that team building has a positive effect on job satisfaction.

Span of control

refers to the number of subordinates who report to each supervisor. In a given bureaucracy, there will be an optimal span of control. Because everyone except the person at the top has a supervisor, too small a span of control results in needing too many managers. Too large a span of control is chaotic because one person cannot adequately supervise the work of many people. The number of people someone can adequately supervise depends on two factors. First, the more skilled the subordinates, the less supervisory time they take. A person who is unskilled will need constant help and direction. A person who knows the job well will need only occasional attention. Second, the person's supervisory style helps determine the optimal span of control. A directive style requires considerable time for each subordinate. Each time a decision or problem arises, the supervisor must take time to deal with it. A participative style allows for a larger span of control because subordinates are allowed to deal with many of their own problems and make their own decisions, thereby freeing the time of their supervisors.

Division of labor

refers to the organization's specialized job positions, each of which is responsible for different tasks. For a complex process, such as manufacturing an automobile, the total job is divided into many individual parts. For an entire manufacturing organization, the design, production, sale, and delivery of products are handled by different people in different departments. The advantage of a division of labor is that each job requires relatively few skills. Therefore, it will not be difficult to find people who have the necessary KSAOs to do the job, it will take little time to train them, and individuals can become quite proficient because they have few tasks to master. The major disadvantage is that it requires resources to coordinate the activities of many specialized people. In a factory, for example, many managers and supervisors are needed to make sure that all employees do their jobs properly and that the efforts of employees are coordinated. This leads us to the next characteristic, delegation of authority.

Locus of control

refers to whether or not people believe they are in control of reinforcements in life. People who believe that they control reinforcements are terrned internals. People who believe that fate, luck, or powerful others control reinforcements are termed externals. Internals have been found to be more satisfied with their jobs than externals (Ng, Sorensen, & Eby, 2006; Q. Wang, Bowling, & Eschleman, 2010). Although the research on these personality traits has shown a connection with job satisfaction, the reasons are not well delineated. Watson et al. (1986) suggested that NA relates to job satisfaction because the high NA person perceives and experiences the job negatively, regardless of the actual conditions. It is possible that externals experience their jobs in a similar way. There are other mechanisms that are equally plausible. For example, Spector (1982) hypothesized that one reason for the higher satisfaction of internals is their higher job performance. Individuals who perform better might be better rewarded and thus like their jobs better. Personality might also be related to job choice. Perhaps people with certain personality traits choose better jobs and therefore have higher satisfaction. Clearly research is needed to determine why personality relates to job satisfaction

Masculinity

reflects the extent to which organizations focus on achievement and job performance as opposed to the health and well-being of employees.

Uncertainty avoidance

reflects the level of comfort in situations that are unpredictable.

Incentive systems are based on which theory of motivation?

reinforcement theory (correct

A sales team at a local automobile dealer has a goal to sell as many cars as possible. Each member of the team feels a little less pressure because they know that if they don't personally sell enough cars, their team members might pick up the slack. But because everyone is feeling this way, they all work a little less hard and do less well than, in theory, each person should be able to do. This is an example of

social loafing (correct)

The administrative assistant in an academic department is an example of

staff. Correct

Self-efficacy theory is

states that motivation and performance are determined in part by how effective people believe they can be (Bandura, 1982).

two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1968)

states that motivation comes from the nature of the job itself, not from external rewards or job conditions. The human needs that work addresses are divided into two categories—those deriving from the ammal nature of human beings, such as the physiological needs, and those relating to the higher-level, uniquely human ability for psychological growth.

Equity theory

states that people are motivated to achieve a condition of fairness or equity in their dealings with other people and with organizations. Accordinz to Adams (1965), employees who find themselves in inequitable situations will experience dissatisfaction and emotional tension, which they will be motivated to reduce. The theory specifies conditions under which inequity will occur and what employees are likely to do to reduce it.

glass ceiling

symbolizes women's difficulty in getting beyond the lower levels of management. Some of these explanations have focused on differences between men and women in their career preparation and their attitudes, whereas others are concerned with bias against women as high-level managers. For example, in a Dutch study van Vianen and Fischer (2002) found that women were less ambitious, cared less about salary and status, and were more concerned with work-family conflict than men. These factors may explain why fewer women might seek promotions to higher management, but it doesn't explain why those who wish to achieve higher levels have a more difficult time doing so.

task force

tasks, duration of task, job analysis & goal setting.

crew

technology, usually brief, training technological development.

job involvement

the degree to which a person identifies with a job, actively participates in it, and considers performance important to self-worth Job involvement ismore cognitive--how significant you believe your work is, etc.

Kara was excited when she was hired as a store manager for a large national drugstore chain. However, over the years she gets increasingly frustrated as she does not get promoted to district manager or other higher managerial positions. Kara has encountered

the glass ceiling. correct

Most common form of counter productive employee behavior:

theft!!!

Proximal motivation

theories deal with processes that are close to the behavior. Need theories are distal because they deal with general needs that can be translated into behavior in many ways. Goal-setting theory is more proximal because it deals with goals that lead to specific behaviors, such as a goal by a salesperson to sell a particular amount of product

. Prescriptive theories

theories that attempt to articulate the way the world SHOULD work indicate how organizations should operate. Proper application of a good prescriptive theory will lead to an effective and efficient organization.

Descriptive theories

theories that attempt to describe the way the world ACTUALLY works explain how existing organizations work. A good descriptive theory will provide an accurate picture of how organizations are structured and how they operate.

Goal-setting theory

theory explains how people's goals and intentions can result in behavior. Like need theories, it notes that motivation begins inside the person, but it also shows how environmental influences can shape motivation and behavior. Cognitive control theory is also concerned with goals but focuses attention on feedback toward goal attainment and how discrepancies between goals and the current situation motivate behavior. Action theory was developed in Germany to explain volitional (self-motivated and voluntary) behavior at work. It is another cognitive theory that explains how goals are translated into behaviors that persist until the person reaches his or her objective.

affect

to influence

The typical American pattern of facet satisfaction is shown in Figure 9.1, with data from the norms (Spector, 2008) of the Job Satisfaction Survey (JSS) (Spector, 1985). The JSS is a scale that assesses eight popular facets of job satisfaction. The norms are based on the job satisfaction scores of 36,380 employees from more than 100 organizations throughout the United States. The figure shows that Americans are typically

very satisfied with their supervisors, coworkers, and nature of the work they do. They are less satisfied with rewards, such as pay, promotion opportunities, and fringe benefits. Figure 9.1 The mean satisfaction levels for various facets of the Job Satisfaction Survey. Satisfaction level is indicated on the horizontal axis. The numbers next to the bars are the means for each facet. They range from a low of 11.8 for pay and promotion to a high of 18.9 for nature of work. From.

Sociotechnical systems theory

views an organization in terms of the interrelations between people and technology in the context of the organizational environment. People include the employees of the organization and their relationships with one another. Technology consists of the equipment, materials, tools, and other nonhuman objects in the organization. The environment is the physical and social conditions in which the organization must function. The theory deals with how people affect technology and how technology affects people. Sociotechnical systems theory is prescriptive in that it uses research findings to provide principles of good organizational design. The origins of sociotechnical systems theory can be found in a paper by Trist and Bamforth (1951) in which they describe the effects of technological change in the British coal industry (see Figure 14.4). Prior to the change, coal mining was done by small groups of men who controlled their own work pace. Members of each group worked together in close proximity inside the dangerous environment of the mine. The introduction of machinery resulted in changes in the work group relationships among the men and the loss of worker control over work pace. Individuals now operated large pieces of machinery alone, without the close support of colleagues. This led to increases in absence and health complaints among the miners. Trist and Bamforth's paper made the linkages between the human and technological aspects of organizations very clear.

Reinforcement theory

views behavior as the result of rewards or reinforcements. describes how rewards or reinforcements can affect behavior The theory does not deal with internal states such as motivation, so in a sense it is a nonmotivational theory. It explains behavior as a function of prior reward experiences or "reinforcement history." Behavior is seen as a response to the environment.