PSYC 323 Chapter 7

Strategies

Key aspect of improving memory includes rehearsal, which is better for short term and long term.

Metacognition

Knowing about knowing or thinking about thinking. Do children know they will remember what they have red better if they can relate it to their own lives in someway.

Learning strategy

Learn the material rather than rotely memorizing it

Developmental changes in Theory of mind

Little is known in infants. 18. Months to three years children begin to understand three mental stages, perceptions, emotions, desires.

Thinking

Manipulating and transforming information in memory, it is the job of the central executive inn. BaDDELEY' S. We think in order to reason, reflect, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions.

Short term memory

Memory system with a limited capacity in which information is usually retained for 15 to 30 seconds unless strategies are used

Implicit memory

Memory, without conscious recollection, skills and routine procedure is performed automatically, such as riding a bicycle

Metacognition in childhood

Meta-memory is limited. They don't understand that related items are easier to remember than unrelated one or that remembering the gist of a story is easier than remember information verbatim By five or six usually no familiar items are easier to learn than unfamiliar in a short list is easier to remember than a long, one recognition is easier than recall, and forgetting becomes more likely overtime.

Preschool children inflated opinion of memory

Most believe they could remember all 10 items on a 10 item list though none of the children could. Moving through elementary school, give them a more realistic evaluation of their memory skills. By seven and eight better able to understand that thinking of an example will help you remember things. Poor evaluation of memory performance by children. This improves by 11 and 12.

Advance in categorization in second year

Move from broad and global, such as animal or indoor thing to more differentiated concepts, such as land, animal, and then dog or furniture, and then share. We'll be able to categorize often based on shape. Alison Gopnik believes that correct categorization learning what makes something one kind of thing, rather than another, is an important aspect of learning, because we can better understand the world.

Sustained or focussed attention in infancy

New stimuli elicit an orienting response, followed by sustained attention. Sustained attention allows infants to learn about, and remember characteristics of a stimulus as it becomes familiar. As young as three months of age can engage in 5 to 10 seconds of sustained attendance increases from infancy through second year.

Similarities between children and scientist thinking

Basic curiosity, and the kinds of questions they ask

The duck rabbit image

Before the age of seven children will say there is one right answer, and it is not OK for people to have different opinions about the image.

Mindfulness

Being alert, mentally present, and cognitively flexible while going through life's everyday activities and tasks. Important aspect of critical thinking.

False beliefs

Beliefs that are not true. This realization develops around five years old. Pivotal milestones in understanding the mind.

Benefits of executive function

Better predictor of school readiness than IQ. Increases with games to improve, working memory, aerobic, exercise, and mindfulness training. Inhibitory control being able to wait your turn, not easily, distracted, more persistent, and less impulsive are more likely to stay in school less likely to be risk, taking behavior, and less likely to do drugs. In the future, they had better physical and mental health, less likely to be overweight, had better earnings. In their career, were more law-abiding and happier.

Biological influences in processing speed

Biological development in brain structure, such as changes in front of wolves and level neurons blooming and pruning connections between neurons myelination increase the speed of electrical impulses in the brain and continues from childhood to adolescence. An increase in capacity also includes processing of information, holding several dimensions of a topic or problem simultaneously as you get older.

Scientific skills, not routinely, taught in schools

Careful, observation, graphing, self regulatory, thinking, knowing when to apply ones knowledge to solve problems. Teachers should use child's underlining scientific concepts to scaffold learning. Distinguish between fruitful errors and misconceptions, detecting plainly wrong ideas, replacing with more accurate conceptions.

Individual differences in theory of mind

Children who talk to their parents about feelings as a two year-old perform, better on theories of mine tasks, as do children who frequently engage in pretend play. Children with better executive functioning seem to have a better understanding of theory of mind. Theory of mind varies in autistic children.

Childhood memories

Children's memory improves after infancy young children can remember a great deal with cues and prompts. Growing knowledge is a source of memory improvement. Lack of expertise reduces memory. Recounting a trip to the library. Depends on what a child already knows about libraries. Remembering verbatim is a lot harder than fuzzy trace. Other improvements in memory include changes in memory span and use of strategies.

Mindfulness improves

Cognitive and Socio, emotional skills, such as executive function, focused, attention, emotional regulation, and empathy.

Schemas

Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. Influence the way, we encode, make inferences about, and retrieve information. We distort events and store impressions of it not exact photographs. When we retrieve information we fill in the gaps with fragmented memories.

Explicit memory

Conscious memory of facts and experiences. Develops around six months improves substantially during second year. 6 to 12 months of age, maturation of the hippocampus and surrounding cerebral cortex, especially frontal lobes make the emergence of explicit memory possible.

Mindful individuals

Create new ideas, are open to new information, can operate from more than one perspective. In contrast, mindless individuals are trapped in old ideas, engage in automatic behavior, operate from a single perspective.

Criticisms of executive function term

Current components of executive function are working memory, cognitive, inhibition, cognitive flexibility consensus has not been reached on what the components are, how they are connected, and how they develop. But not likely to go away soon meta-analysis needed.

False beliefs between five and seven

Deepening appreciation of mind rather than just understanding of mental states. Understanding peoples behaviours do not necessarily reflect their thoughts and feelings. The mind is not seen as an active constructor of knowledge or processing centre until middle to late childhood.

cognitive resources

Development changes in information processing are likely to be influenced by increases in both capacity in speed of processing. These two characteristics are referred to as cognitive resources and our proposed to have an important influence on memory and problem-solving. Biology and experience contribute to growth and cognitive resources. How much faster you can process information in your native language.

Applying rules to solve problems

Develops with both age and direct teaching. Important to learn that a single thing can be described in different ways. Example learning to describe a rabbit as a rabbit, and not just the red one which does not occur till about four years of age.

Theory of mind emotions

Distinguish between positive and negative emotions. A child might say. Tommy feels bad.

Developmentalists, however, who taken information processing approach

Do not see development as occurring abruptly indistinct sages with group transition. From one stage to the next. Instead, individuals develop a gradual increase in capacity to process information which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills. Information processing also focusses on more precise analysis of change and tribulations made by ongoing cognitive activity, such as encoding and strategies to that change.

Orienting investigative process

Dominic's first year of life. Involves directing attention to potentially important locations in the environment, where, recognizing objects in their features, such as colour and form, what. 3 to 9 months of age infants can deploy their attention, more flexibly and quickly.

Using strategies to solve problems

Effective strategies and problem-solving improves from 3rd to 7th grade. Benefit from generating variety of alternative strategies and experimenting with different approaches to a problem, discovering what works well, when, where, especially from middle elementary on.

Three basic processes required for memory

Encoding, getting information into memory storage, retaining information, overtime. and retrieval. Taking information out of storage.

False belief, Band-Aid box

Open the Band-Aid box to find pencils. Three year olds believe other children will expect to find pencils in the box at four or five children will understand that people will expect to see Band-Aids.

Comparison to Piaget

Piaget. Children actively construct their knowledge and understanding of the world. Thinking develops in stages. At each stage, children develop qualitatively different types of metal structures or schemes that allow them to think about the world in new ways. Similarities some versions of information processing at constructivist scene. Children is directing their own cognitive development and identifying cognitive capabilities in imitations at various points and development. Describe ways in which individuals do, and do not understand important concepts at different points in life and try to explain how a Marvin Cedar standing grows out of less advanced understanding. Emphasize the impact that existing understanding has on the ability to choir new understanding of something.

Conceptualization of metacognition includes several dimensions of executive functions, such as:

Planning, deciding how much time to focus on a task, evaluating, monitoring progress towards task, completion, and self-regulation, modifying strategies to work on the task progress.

Memory and susceptibility to suggestion

Preschoolers are the most susceptible to believing, misleading or incorrect information given after an event.

Encoding

Process by which information gets into memory. Changes in children's cognitive skills depend on increased skill and encoding, relevant information and ignoring a relevant information. Four year olds see cursive in printed letters as very different but a 10-year-old understands. They are both the same letter and ignore their differences in shape.

Assessing Processing Speed

Reaction time task individuals asked to push a button as soon as they see stimulus and relate. Or asked to match letters or numbers with symbols on a computer screen. Speed improved dramatically across years of childhood. Speed increases with age. Processing speed preceded an increase in working memory capacity.

Dishabituation

Recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation

Memory

Retention of information over time

Imagery, strategy

creating mental images

strategy construction

creation of new procedures for processing information. Children's reading benefits when they develop the strategy of stopping periodically to take stock of what they have read so far.

Habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Infants attention is so strongly governed by novelty and habituation, that when an object becomes familiar attention, become shorter making infants more vulnerable to distraction. It is important for parents to do novel things, and to repeat them until the infant stops, responding, change your behaviour when the infant redirects attention.

Scientific thinking

process using the cognitive skills required to generate, test, and revise theories.

Cognitive control

the ability to direct thought in accord with one's intentions. Direct attention to important stimuli so that children like less impulsively and reflect more. Linked to brain changes especially more focal activation in the prefrontal cortex. Attention is linked to school readiness.

Sustained attention

the ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time. Can also be called focused, attention, or vigilance.

Automaticity

the ability to process information with little or no effort. Practice allows children to encode increasing amount of information automatically. Once you learn to read well, you don't think about each letter in a word instead, you include the whole word. Once it is automatic, it does not require conscious effort. Allowing children to complete tasks more quickly and handle more than one task at a time.

Memory span

the average number of items an individual can remember across a series of memory span trials Increases during childhood Likely due to speed of processing information, memory items can be identified speed of repeating words. It was a powerful indicator of memory span. Wind speed of repetition was controlled. Six year old memory spans were equal to those of adults. Older children will rehearse more, middle childhood are better at using strategies to remember.

Perceptual categorization

the grouping together of objects that have similar appearances. Categorizations based on similar perceptual, features of objects, such as size, color, movement, and parts, such as legs for animals. Conceptual categories are formed around 7 to 9 months, rather than just perceptual distinctions between different categories. 9 to 11 months children could classify birds as animals and airplanes as vehicles.

Infantile amnesia

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3. Could be due to the immaturity of the prefrontal lobes the area believed to play important role in storing memories.

reconstructive memory

the process whereby memories of an event become distorted by information encountered after the event occurred. Memories are constructive and reconstructive. Children have skins for Awesome Super information in this game as affect, Halim code, store, and retrieve memories. People will say they remember things that happened that never actually did happen.

Long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Fuzzy trace theory

the theory that there are two memory systems: verbatim memory trace. a systematic, controlled memory for exact details and an The central idea of the information. automatic, intuitive memory for the fuzzy trace, or gist, or meaning, of events Children are more likely to remember verbatim information than just, elementary school age. Children are more likely to remember the gist. Verbatim how many pets are in this pet store give the numbers. The gist. Are there more cats or dogs in the pet store.

Critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. Thinking reflectively and productively, evaluating evidence.

Embed memory-relevant language

mnemonic device

Theory of mind

Awareness of one's on mental processes and mental processes of others. The child as a thinker, who is trying to explain, predict, and understand, peoples thoughts, feelings, and utterances.

Joint attention requires

1. Ability to track another's behavior, such as following someone's gaze. 2. One person directing another's attention. 3. Reciprocal interaction. Early infancy, joint attention usually involves a caregiver pointing or using words to direct an infants attention. Emerging forms occur at 7 to 8 months. End of first year joint attention skills are frequently observed. 10 to 11 months of age infants, first begin engaging and gaze following looking where another person has just looked . By one infants can direct adults to objects that capture interest.

Williamson, Jaswal & Meltzoff scale rules

1. Scale will balance if weights are the same on each side. 2. If weights are the same, choose wait farther from fulcrum 3. Act as rule 2, but reflect if one side has more weight, and other side is farther from fulcrum. 4. Proceed as rule.3. Unless one side has more weight and other more distance. Then calculate torques by multiplying weight times distance on each side. Most students did not use this last rule, unless they were given direct instruction on this method.

Use analogy, thinking to solve problem with scale model.

30 months could not find toy under couch if toy was placed under couch in model, but 36 month old children could Using the object as a symbol was more difficult if children were able to play with it first, seeing it more as an object, or toy than a symbol of the room. 30 month old always did great with line drawings or photographs as a symbol.

Working memory

A kind of mental work bench, where individuals, manipulate and assemble information when they make decisions, solve problems, and comprehend, written, and spoken language. Children who have a better working memory, are more advanced in reading, comprehension, math, skills, and problem-solving than their counterparts.

Executive function and cognitive development in 4 to 11 year olds include

Advances in self control and inhibition, allowing children to concentrate and persist on learning task, inhibit there a tendency to repeat in correct responses, and resist the impulse to do something now they would regret later. Working memory, important to process the masses of information encountered at school and beyond. Flexibility needed in, thinking to consider different strategies and perspectives.

Theory of mind, desires

All humans have desires. Toddlers recognize if people want some thing they will try and try to get it. Three-year-olds understand people will search for what they want to feel happy when they get it and not when they don't or will keep searching Refer to desires earlier and more frequently than cognitive states, such as thinking and knowing. 18 month olds understand their food preferences might not match others can verbalize this when they are older.

Critical thinking in schools

Are schools push students to give one correct answer rather than encouraging them to come up with new ideas. Schools often asked students to recite, defined, describe, states, and list, rather than analyze, infer, connect, synthesize, criticize, create, evaluate, think, and rethink. Debating is a great way to practice this girl at school.

Robert Siegler

Argues that mechanisms of change, especially important in advances children making cognitive development. Three mechanisms work together to create changes in children's cognitive skills. Encoding, automaticity, and strategy construction.

If you think critically, you will do the following things:

Ask how and why not just what. Examine fax determining supporting evidence. Argue in a reasoned way rather than emotions. Recognize something more than one good answer or explanation. Compare various answers and judge what's best. Evaluate peoples comments. Not just excepting truth as it is. Ask questions beyond what is known to create new ideas and new information.

Interviewing techniques can produce substantial memory distortions

Children are susceptible to suggestions about peripheral details, and also central aspects of an event. If the interviewer is neutral and limits, misleading questions and has an absence of motivation for the child to make a false report, they may more accurately recall the information.

Children's scientific thinking

Children ask fundamental questions about reality, and seek answers that seem utterly trivial or unanswerable to other people. Emphasis on causal mechanisms. Children are more influenced by happenstance events and overall pattern. Maintain old theories, regardless of evidence. Struggle to reconcile, seemingly contradictory new information into existing beliefs. Children tend to bias experiments in favour of whatever hypothesis they began with even when results directly contradict it.

Theory of mind perceptions

Children recognize that another person sees what's in front of their eyes rather than the child's eyes. By three realize that looking leads to knowing what's inside a container.

Importance of joint attention in infant development

Exchanges between caregivers and infants. Frequent engagement infants say their first word earlier, and develop a larger vocabulary. Nine months old engagement in joint attention was linked to their long-term memory, one week delay. Prefrontal cortex activated in five months old when engaged in joint attention with another person. Also associated with the development of self regulation. Responding to joint attention at 12 months was linked to self regulation skills at three years that involve delaying gratification up for an attractive object.

Executive function in school readiness

Executive function and parenting skills are linked to children success, especially if parents model, our good self regulators, and support the scaffolding of these skills.

Content, knowledge and expertise on memory.

Expertise in a subject, affects your ability to remember, reason, and solve problems. Expertise means you are more likely to have a good memory regarding material related to that subject. A child chess expert will remember more new information about chess than an older non-expert. But an older person will likely be better at remembering a different stimuli than the expert subject.

Solving problems

Finding an appropriate way to attain a goal. By applying rules and using analogies.

Thinking in infancy

Focussed on concept, formation, and categorization

Selective attention

Focussing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant. One voice in a crowd, switch attention from toes on your right foot that is using selective attention.

Attention during middle and late childhood.

For a preschooler attention is what is salient, obvious that grabs the preschoolers attention. A flashy clown, giving a math issue, clown will be paid attention to, and not the math. At six or seven children pay more attention to features relevant to performing a task for solving the problem.

Intense, passionate interest in childhood

Gender differences are shown boys are focussed on vehicles, trains, machines, dinosaurs, balls. Girls categorization involves dress up and books and reading.

The role of processing speed

How quickly children can process information often influences what they can do. 9 to 14 year olds, revealed faster, processing speed linked to higher level of world, reading fluency. Speed is linked to competence in thinking the speed with which children can articulate a series of words affects how many words they can remember. Fast processing is generally linked with a good performance and cognitive tasks. Some compensation of solar processing speed can be achieved by creating effective strategies.

Metamemory

Individuals knowledge about memory, especially important form of metacognition. Includes general knowledge about memory, such as knowing that recognition test such as multiple choice are easier than recall test, such as essay questions. Encompasses knowledge about one's own memory, whether you have studied enough for an upcoming test.

Comparison to Piaget

Infants advances in processing information through attention, memory, imitation, and concept formation is much richer, more gradual, and less stage lake occurring earlier than was envisioned by earlier theorists.

First memories

Infants can remember perceptual motor information. Tie ribbon to ankle and mobile baby kicks makes mobile move weeks later without the ribbon the baby will kick only if the surrounding stimuli are exactly the same. Some infants at 2 to 6 months can remember experiences through one and a half to two years. This may only be a case of implicit memory.

Analogies to solve problems

Involves correspondence in some respects between things that are different. Young children, drawing reasonable, analogies under circumstances, and use them to solve problems.

Executive function in early childhood

Involves development advances in cognitive inhibition, inhibiting, a strong tendency that is incorrect. Cognitive flexibility, shifting attention to another item or topic. Goalsetting, sharing a toy, or mastering a skill like catching a ball. Delay of gratification, foregoing immediate pleasure, or reward for a more desirable one later. Stimulus driven toddler is transformed into child, capable of flexible, goal, directed problem-solving, that categorizes executive function.

Elaboration strategy

Involves engaging in more extensive processing of information, thinking of examples is a good way to elaborate information or thinking about personal associations. Adolescence are more likely to use this than children.

Attention

Is the focussing of mental resources. Improves cognitive processing for many tasks from grabbing a toy to hitting a baseball or adding numbers. Overtime children can pay attention to only a limited amount of information. Infants tended to look away from events that were overly simple or complex preferring instead to attend to events of intermediate complexity.

Effective reading, strategy instruction

Skim over trivial information, ignore redundant information, replace less inclusive terms with more inclusive ones, use more inclusive action term to combine series of events, choose a topic sentence, create topic sentence is if none is given. The summarizing strategies improved reading performance in elementary school children.

Individual differences in memory susceptibility

Some preschoolers are highly resistant to suggestions where is others immediately succumb to the slightest suggestion.

Alan Baddley's Model of Working Memory

The central executive is the middle Central executive, go back and forth with a Visuospatial working memory Central executive goes back and forth with phonological loop where rehearsal takes place Phonological loop and visuospatial are connected by input via sensory memory Central executive goes back-and-forth between long-term memory Working memory is a limited capacity system and information is stored there for only a brief time, interacts with long-term memory, using information from long-term memory and its work and transmitting information to long term memory for longer storage

Attention in childhood

The child's ability to pay attention improve significantly during the preschool years. Young children especially make advances in executive and sustained attention Television watching in video game playing we're both linked to attention, problems, and children. As children are better able to understand their environment this increased appreciation of their surroundings helps them to sustain attention for longer periods of time. As executive attention system supports rapid increase in a fruitful control in toddler and preschool years in part two advances in comprehension and language development. iContact or stop and go activities can improve children's attention.

Differences between children in scientific thinking

The degree to which they can separate theory from evidence and their ability to design conclusive experiments.

Metacognition

Thinking about and knowing when, and where to use particular strategies for learning, or for solving problems.

Executive function

Umbrella light concept that consists of a number of higher level cognitive processes linked to the development of the brains, prefrontal cortex. Executive function involves managing one's thoughts to engage in goal directed behaviour into exercise, self control.

Theory of mind and early adolescence

Understanding that people can feel happy and sad about the same event. Engaging more recursive thinking: thinking about what other people are thinking about.

Repetition with variation strategy

Variations on lesson theme increased number of associations in memory storage and link expands the network of memory associations.

Michael Pressley strategies for solving problems.

When given instruction about effective strategies, they can apply them and use them Teachers: 1. Models the appropriate strategy. 2. Verbalizes the steps in the strategy. 3. God's children to practice the strategy and supports their practice with Feedback. Practice means using the strategy over and over until they can perform it automatically.

Reflective science

a cross-disciplinary term that involves the study of how various types of mental and physical training might enhance children's development

Information Processing approach

approach to the study of cognitive development by observing and analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and handling information In this approach children's cognitive Development results from their ability to overcome processing imitations by increasingly executing, basic operations, expanding information, processing capacity, and acquiring new knowledge and strategies. Lead information, monitor it, and create strategies for handling it.

Self modification

children learn to use what they have learned in previous circumstances to adapt their responses to new situations

Concepts

cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas. Without concepts, you would see each object and event as unique you would not be able to make any generalizations. It is uncertain how early concept formation begins.

Divided attention

concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

Executive attention

involves action planning, allocating attention to goals, error detection and compensation, monitoring progress on tasks, and dealing with novel or difficult circumstances

Organization strategy

memory strategy in which similar items are grouped together for encoding or retrieval. How we can say the months in order chronologically versus saying it quickly alphabetically. Preschool children don't have access to this type of strategy.

Schema theory

people mold memories to fit information that already exists in their minds If one person is talking about football, and someone else doesn't know the sport the person who doesn't know the sport doesn't have a schema for football, and is likely to miss hear what is said, might create a false memory, in terms of a schema for another support.