PSYCH 1000 Final Exam

cognition

(thinking) involves processes in perception, knowledge, problem-solving, judgment, and memory

Ranges of the correlation coefficient

-1 to +1; the closer the value is to 0 the WEAKER the relationship

Steps to Critical Thinking

1. Making observations 2. Remaining skeptical 3. Recognizing our own internal biases 4. Using logical thinking 5. Asking the right questions

linguistic intelligence

Perceives different functions of language, different sounds and meanings of words, may easily learn multiple languages

traumatic stressors

Situations involving exposure to actual or threatened death or serious injury (e.g., exposure to military combat, sexual assault)

random assignment

assigning participants to either a control group or an experimental group; all participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either group

glial cells (neuroglia)

assist in communication between neuron cells; not only responsible for supporting nerve tissue structure but help nourish neurons and protect them as well

role schema

assumptions about how individuals in a certain role will behave o Helpful in terms of quickly drawing conclusions/quick processing o But unhelpful in that these can lead to inaccurate assumptions and stereotypes

operant conditioning

based on principles of reinforcement and punishment

phonemes

basic sound units in a language (ex: "ah" and "eh"; different languages have different phonemes)

normed

before IQ tests are released for public use, they are given to multiple people from different ages, grades, race/ethnicity status, SES, etc.; norming allows you to compare groups and leads to better interpretation

Around 1/3 to 1/2 of adolescents receive treatment for mental disorders, but ________ ________ (such as ADHD or Conduct Disorder) are more likely to be treated.

behavior disorders

just-world hypothesis

belief that people get the outcomes they deserve •Can lead to victim blaming

locus of control (Rotter)

beliefs about the power we have over our lives. o Proposed as a cognitive factor that affects learning and personality development

developed multiple intelligence theory

believed each person has at least 8 different types of intelligence; hard to test this theory and we need more research to confirm these ideas

Karen Horney

believed personality developed through three styles of coping, which children use to relieve anxiety

Hans and Sybil Eysenck

believed that our personality traits are influenced by our genetic inheritance.

hindsight

believing in predictable outcomes

pre-frontal cortex

involved in remembering semantic tasks, such as word knowledge, and involved in the processes of encoding and retrieval

learning disability

involves specific neurological impairments

Harry Harlow (monkey experiment)

it was determined that newborn monkeys separated from their mothers at birth and given two "fake" mothers (one made out of wire mesh that dispensed milk and one made out of cloth that did not dispense milk), the monkeys preferred spending time with the cloth monkey and only went to the wire monkey for food. •Results suggested feelings of comfort and security are the critical components to maternal-infant bonding. It's not just about getting physical needs met (e.g., nursing/milk).

primary appraisal of stress

judgement about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor may entail

secondary appraisal of stress

judgement of the options available to cope with a stressor, as well as how effective such options for coping will be

avolition

lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity

absent-mindedness

lapses of attention that result in forgetting (ex: forgetting location of car keys)

cerebrum

largest region of the brain; located in the front area of the skull; divided into 2 hemispheres (left and right) and four lobes

observational learning

learning by observing someone else's behavior and its consequences. o Teaches us which behaviors are acceptable and rewarded in our culture and which behaviors are unacceptable.

relearning

learning information that was previously learned

observational learning

learning that occurs through watching others and then imitating what they do/say

self-efficacy

level of confidence in our own abilities, developed through social experiences.

Components of Language

lexicon, grammar, phonemes, morpheme, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics

undersupply of serotonin

linked to depression

oversupply of dopamine

linked to schizophrenia

3 Kinds of Models

live, verbal, and symbolic

cerebellum

located in the back of the brain; has a more specialized role related to movement, controlling posture, balance, coordination, and fine motor control (e.g., walking, speech production); has more neurons compared to the cerebrum, despite being smaller

forgetting

loss of info from long-term memory

amnesia

loss of long-term memory occurring due to disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma

retrograde amnesia

loss of memory for events occurring prior to the trauma; cannot remember some or all of their past • Difficulty with episodic memories

amygdala

main role is to regulate emotions but related to memory storage; releases stress hormones

hippocampus

main role relates to memory and spatial navigation

peripartum onset (postpartum depression)

major depression during pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth.

Broca's aphasia

makes producing words difficult

Wernicke's aphasia

makes understanding words difficult

availability

making decisions based on what is available

PROS of naturalistic observation

often more valid and accurate observations, because you're observing something in its natural setting instead of in a lab where it's hard to recreate a natural context

proactive interference

old info hinders recall of new info

confirmation

only focusing on info confirming your belief

innate behaviors

organisms are born with these and help them adapt to their environment

operant conditioning

organisms learn to associate a behavior with its consequence (what happens after the behavior; remember that consequences can be pleasant or unpleasant); proposed by BF Skinner; based on law of effect

reciprocal interaction

our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how we interact with our environment

dendrites

outer root-like structures; TAKING IN AND RECEIVING information from other nerve cells

IQ score

overall score used to summarize a person's intelligence

eyewitness identification (often incorrect)

overtime, we can become more convinced we're correct related to eyewitness identification

concrete operational

thinking logically about concrete events; grasping concrete analogies and performing arithmetical operations; conservation, mathematical transformations

cognition

thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, understanding

dispositionism

view that our behavior is determined by internal factors (such as personality traits and temperament); Favored in the U.S.; Used by personality psychologists

cerebellum

involved in implicit memory formation

fluid intelligence

(information processing abilities, reasoning, and memory) begins to decline.

crystalized intelligence

(information, skills, and strategies gathered through experience) remains steady or improves.

learned helpessness

- an acquired belief that one is powerless to do anything about a situation; results in poorer outcomes and may lead to depression

unconscious

- mental activity that we are unaware of and are unable to access

Why we use research

-advance knowledge -inform action -distinguish the difference between fact and opinion -inform public policy

phobias may be acquired through

-classical conditioning -vicarious learning -verbal transmission of information

Factors of Long-Term Memory

-does not have a storage capacity -divided into explicit and implicit memories

Factors of Memory

-helps us used the information we learn -helps us navigate our environment, share ideas, complete daily tasks, etc. -just like learning and other processes we've discussed, form an evolutionary perspective, memory helps us adapt to our environment

aspects of one's genotype

-individuals vary genetically -genetic variation helps us adapt to our environment -each parent gives us 23 chromosomes or long strands of genetic information resulting in our DNA -sequences of our DNA make up our genes, which partially control for our characteristics or traits

Factors of Sensory Memory

-only lasts a couple of seconds -we can't absorb most info in this stage and only absorb what we really pay attention to; everything else is discarded

Factors of Short-Term Memory

-takes info from sensory memory and may connect it to info already in LTM -rehearsal happens here -has storage capacity/limit

What parts about the human experience do psychologists study?

-the basic workings of the human brain -consciousness -memory -language -reasoning -personality -mental health

Factors of an IQ Score

-this score falls on a bell curve -an exactly "average" IQ score is 100, with scores falling from 85-115 being considered somewhere in the average range

To qualify for an intellectual disability, you have to have deficits in adaptive functioning and an IQ score that is at 70 or below (only 2.2% have a score below 70)

.

3 stages of general adaption syndrome

1. Alarm Reaction - the body's immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency. o Physiological reactions that provide energy to manage the situation (and can also improve immune system functioning temporarily and decrease our sensitivity to pain). 2. Stage of Resistance - The body has adapted (readjusted) to the stressor but remains alert and prepared to respond (with less intensity). o Physiological reactions diminish. 3. Stage of Exhaustion - Person can no longer adapt to the stressor (depletion of physical resources). Physical wear takes its toll on the body's tissues and organs. o May result in illness, disease, or death.

Steps to the Scientific Method

1. Ask a question and research your topic 2. Formulate a hypothesis 3. Conduct an experiment 4. Analyze data 5. Make conclusions

Steps in Shaping

1. Reward any response resembling desired behavior. 2. Reinforce responses that more closely resembles desired behavior and no longer reinforce the previously reinforced response. 3. Begin to reinforce responses that resembles desired behavior even more closely. 4. Continue to reward closer and closer approximations of desired behavior. 5. Lastly, only reinforce the desired behavior.

3 primary factors influencing conformity

1. Size of the majority (more people = greater likelihood of conformity) 2. Presence of someone else who disagrees (= more likely the subject will also disagree) 3. Public or private nature of the response (public = less likely the subject will disagree)

Criteria of Research

1. Supports a claim 2. Advances knowledge 3. Informs action 4. Helps us distinguish between fact and opinion 5. Informs public policy

Maslow

1. self-actualization 2. esteem 3. love/belonging 4. safety 5. physiological

structure of a therapy session

1. therapist gather specific info to address client's immediate needs 2. therapist informs client about confidentiality, fees, and what to expect in treatment 3. treatment goals are discussed and a treatment plan is formed

Freud posited that personality results from efforts to balance two competing forces.

1.Biological aggressive and pleasure-seeking drives. 2.Internal (socialized) control over these pleasure-seeking drives.

John Bowlby

1.Caregiver must be responsive to the child's physical, social, and emotional needs. 2.The caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions.

3-Stage Model

1.record fleeting sensory memory 2.process info into short-term memory (encode through rehearsal) 3.info moves to long-term memory for later retrieval

How much of our life do we sleep?

1/3

eustress

A good kind of stress associated with positive feelings, optimal health, and performance (e.g., athletes may be motivated by pregame stress; a healthy amount of stress may motivate us at times to study or engage in work)

antagonists

decrease a neurotransmitter's action by blocking production or release

stress (standard)

A process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming and threatening to his well-being

intrapersonal intelligence

Ability to access personal feelings and motivations, and use them to direct behavior and reach personal goals

interpersonal intelligence

Ability to understand and be sensitive to the various emotional states of others

humanists

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers; emphasizes the potential for good that is innate to all humans

developmental milestones

Although children develop at slightly different rates, we can use these age-related averages as general guidelines to compare children with same-age peers to determine the approximate ages they should reach specific normative events (e.g., crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty).

dopamine

mood, sleep, learning, movement, attention, and emotion

Factors of Classical Conditioning

Because of this learned association, organisms also begin to anticipate events in response to a stimulus Discovered by Ivan Pavlov

acute stressors

Brief events that sometimes continue to feel overwhelming, even after the event ends (e.g., breaking a leg; car breaking down)

Factors of Cerebellum

Classical conditioning involves the cerebellum! The reason HM could still engage in procedural tasks/motor learning (e.g., he likely still remembered how to ride a bike), is because his cerebellum was undamaged.

Factors of Reflexes

Can be a motor or neural reaction Simpler than instincts Involve activity of specific body parts and systems (e.g., knee-jerk reflex often tested in the doctor's office; when your instructor puts her hands out to protect her head, when she falls while running) Involve more primitive/less developed centers of the central nervous system (e.g., spinal cord)

The Asch Effect

Can lead to conformity; the group majority influences an individual's judgement, even if the individual knows the group opinion seems inaccurate

logical-mathematical intelligence

Capable of seeing numerical patterns, strong ability to use reason and logic

stress (stimulus-based)

Characterize stress as a response to a stimulus, such as a life event or challenging situation (e.g., high-stress job, financial strain, death in the family

stress (response-based)

Characterize stress as the physiological response that occurs when faced with a demanding or threatening situation (e.g., increased arousal, increased heart rate)

resistant attachment

Child does not explore the toys in the room, becomes extremely disturbed and angry when the parent leaves the room, and is difficult to comfort when the parent returns. Can show clingy behavior towards caregiver but then is also resistant when the caregiver tries to interact or comfort them. Can occur when caregivers inconsistently provide response to their children and inconsistently respond to child needs.

disorganized attachment

Child shows odd behavior around their caregiver. When caregiver leaves the room, child may freeze or run around erratically. They may also run away from their caregiver when the caregiver returns to the room. This can indicate that the child has been abused.

secure attachment

Child was distressed with the mother left the room, but happy to see them and easily comforted when their mother returned. Indicates that the child can use their parent as a secure base from which to explore their environment and that caregivers are sensitive and responsive to child needs

avoidant attachment

Child was slow to show positive reaction when mother returns and not very responsive to parent interaction. Indicates that the caregivers may be insensitive and inattentive to their child's needs. Child does not use their parent as a secure base to explore and does not typically care if their parent leaves the room

Factors of Learning

E.g., acquiring the skills to ride a bike; what you're doing in Intro Psych Takes time and practice; not innate Involves both conscious and unconscious processes Involves associative learning, which occurs when organisms make connections among events occurring close together

chronic stressors

Events that persist an extended period of time (e.g., long-term unemployment; having a child with a chronic illness)

Learning disabilities and an intellectual disability are the same thing.

FALSE

social psychology

Field of psychology that examines how people interact with each other and how people affect each other. •The field of social psychology examines how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by social situations. •Social psychology studies both intrapersonal topics (pertaining to individuals) and interpersonal topics (pertaining to groups).

humanistic therapy

Focuses on helping people achieve their potential, with a goal of increasing self-awareness and acceptance through a focus on conscious thoughts o Also called client-centered therapy o Developed by Carl Rogers o Emphasized the importance of the person taking control of their own life to overcome life's challenges o Non-directive form of therapy: Therapist is not giving advice or providing interpretations, but instead helps client identify conflicts and understand feelings

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

High ability to control the movements of the body and use the body to perform various physical tasks

naturalist intelligence

High capacity to appreciate the natural world and interact with the species within it

arousal theory

Idea that strong emotions trigger formulation of strong memories and weaker emotions trigger formation of weaker memories

generativity vs. stagnation

In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose

Factors of Hippocampus

Involved in object recognition and spatial memory Gives memories meaning by connecting them with other memories and transferring this info into LTM In class, we discussed H.M. who had both hippocampi removed to prevent seizures; as a result, he had impaired explicit memory (couldn't store new sematic knowledge, such as facts), but he could still remember events and information acquired prior to the surgery.

Behaviorists

Ivan Pavlov, John Watson, and BF Skinner; focused on observing and controlling behaviors; believed on could only study what could be seen/observed

fight-or-flight response

Occurs when a person has a strong emotional and physical reaction in response to a threat; results in arousal of the nervous system and the endocrine system

Research suggests that a relationship exists between depression and heart disease.

One reason for this seems to be that people diagnosed with depression as children have been found to be more likely to be obese, to smoke, and to be physically inactive. Therefore, depression may increase the likelihood of living an unhealthy lifestyle and in-turn increase the chances of heart disease.

lymphocytes

One way that the immune system is weakened is through stress is through the hormones released during stress. These hormones inhibit the production of lymphocytes (white blood cells important in the immune response).

asian cultures

more collectivist, tend to be less extroverted

behavior therapy

Principles of learning are applied to change undesirable behaviors. Based on the belief that dysfunctional behaviors can be changed by teaching clients more constructive behaviors.

two general phases of sleep

REM and NREM

_________ research findings to ensure reliability, or the ability to consistently produce a given result.

REPLICATE

Theorists who believed in multiple factors of intelligence

Raymond Catell and Howard Gardner

panic disorder

Recurrent and unexpectant panic attacks, along with at least one month of persistent concern about additional panic attacks, worry about consequences of the attacks, or self-defeating changes in behavior related to the attacks

telomeres

Research suggests that stress can shorten telomeres (segments of DNA that protect the ends of chromosomes). Shortened telomeres can inhibit/block cell division, which includes growth and proliferation of new cells, leading to more rapid aging.

states of consciousness are on a ________ of different conditions

SPECTRUM

cortisol

Stress hormone that helps provide a boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor and prepares us to either fight or flee

psychodynamic psychotherapy

Talk therapy based on belief that the unconscious and childhood conflicts impact behavior

spatial intelligence

The ability to form mental images of objects and to think about their relationships in space.

What does "ology" mean?

The scientific study of

Factors of Instincts

Thought to be more common in lower animals compared to humans (e.g., bears hibernating in the winter) Can be triggered by aging or changing seasons Can involve organism movement, such as sexual activity and migration Involves higher brain centers

musical intelligence

Understands and appreciates rhythm, pitch, and tone; may play multiple instruments or perform as a vocalist

individualist cultures (US and England)

Value independence, competition, and personal achievement

collectivist cultures (Asia and Africa)

Value social harmony, respectfulness, and group needs over individual needs

What happens with research?

We are able to prove certain ideas through study and testing

What would happen without research?

We would only have intuition and groundless assumptions

distress

When stress exceeds an "optimal level" and is no longer positive/helpful; instead it becomes excessive and debilitating, leaving one feeling burned out, fatigued, and exhausted, causing performance to decline.

mutation

a change in an organism's genetic material/DNA; these can occur when DNA is being copied or can occur due to chemicals or radiation

institutional board

a committee required to review proposals for research involving human participants

psychological disorder

a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. o Behaviors, thoughts, and inner experiences that are atypical, dysfunctional, or dangerous are signs of psychological disorders.

positive reinforcement

a desirable stimulus is added to increase behavior

job burnout

a general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one's job. § Occurs frequently among people in human service jobs (e.g., social workers, teachers, police officers).

social norm

a group's expectation of what is appropriate and acceptable behavior for its members

development

a lifelong process, which occurs from birth all the way until death

attachment

a long-standing connection or bond with others. Forming healthy attachments is one of the main psychosocial milestones of infancy!

peripheral nervous system

a network of thick bundled axons also called nerves. These nerves are responsible for relaying messages back and forth between the central nervous system as well as muscles, organs, and different senses within the periphery of the body

social role

a pattern of behavior that is expected of a person in a given setting or group

genes and environment

aspects that have a deep interaction beyond our basic genotype

motor skills

ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects.

theory of mind

ability to understand others have their own thoughts and perspective

emotional intelligence

ability to understand your own emotions, show empathy, understand social cues, etc.

formal operational

abstract reasoning; abstract logic, potential for mature moral reasoning

recall

accessing information without cues

retrieval

act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness

Moving toward people

affiliation and dependence. o As adults - likely to have an intense need for love and acceptance.

Moving against people

aggression and assertiveness. o As adults - likely to lash out and exploit others.

learning

also helps organisms adapt to their environment BUT involves change and experience

negative punishment

an aversive stimulus is removed to decrease behavior

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

confounding variable

an unanticipated outside factor affecting both variables of interest; gives the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

positive punishment

an undesirable stimulus is added to decrease behavior

negative reinforcement

an undesirable stimulus is removed to increase behavior

Errors in Problem-Solving

anchoring, confirmation, hindsight, representative, and availability

Individuals that indicated they responded to pressure with _____ were over 6 times more likely than those who indicated less _____ to have had a heart attack by age 55.

anger

Further research suggested that the one of the most important factors in the development of heart disease is the _____/_______ dimension of Type A behavior pattern.

anger/hostility

____________ medications were introduced; successful in treating symptoms of "_________" (common diagnosis at the time, characterized by symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, indicating a loss of contact with reality- likely what we call schizophrenia today)

antipsychotic; psychosis

socioemotional selectivity theory

as we get older, our social support and friendships dwindle in number, but remain as close, if not closer than in our earlier years

teratogen

any environmental agent (biological, chemical, or physical) that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus •Alcohol - can cause fetal-alcohol syndrome. •Smoking - can result in premature birth, low-birth weight, stillbirths, sudden infant death syndrome. •Drugs - heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine as well as prescription drugs. •Radiation, viruses (e.g., HIV, Herpes, Rubella).

seasonal pattern depression

applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year

anxiety

apprehension, avoidance, and cautiousness regarding a potential threat, danger, or other negative content. • Motivates us to take action, avoid certain things. • Level and duration of anxiety usually matches the magnitude of the potential threat. However, some people experience anxiety that is excessive, persistent and out of proportion with the actual threat, leading to...

diagnosis

appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms -requires classification systems that organize psychological disorders systematically

prototypes

best example or representation of a concept (ex: NYC as a prototype for a big city; MLK as a prototype for the civil rights' movement)

double-blind studies

both the researchers and participants are unaware of group assignments

bio-psychology

branch of psychology analyzing how our brain, neurotransmitters, and other aspects of our biology impact our behaviors, thoughts, and feelings; often studies psychological behavior from a more genealogical standpoint, focusing on how inherited genes can affect not just the physiological, but the psychological traits of a person

forensic psychology

branch of psychology dealing with justice system; tasks include assessment of individuals' mental competency to stand in trial, sentencing and treatment suggestions, and advisement regarding eyewitness testimonies (requires a strong understanding of the legal system)

cognitive psychology

branch of psychology that focuses on cognition and thoughts

sleep spindles

brief bursts of brain activity occurring in stage 2

client- centered therapy (unconditional positive regard)

came from humanism; when the therapists show basic acceptance and support for a person, without judgement, regardless of what they might say during session

anterograde amnesia

cannot remember new information, but you can remember info and events prior to the injury/event causing the amnesia • Hippocampus is usually affected • Damage to brain results in inability to transfer info from STM to LTM, meaning memory consolidation is impaired

concepts

categories or grouping of ideas, memories, images, or linguistic information; like the title of files in the mind's file cabinet

Correlations doe not equal _________.

causation

two major parts of the nervous system

central and peripheral

aCcommodation

changing a schema based on new information (create new schema)

traits

characteristics or ways of behaving

conscientiousness

characterized by competence, self-discipline, thoughtfulness, and goal-directed behavior/striving for achievement; people who score high on this trait are typically hardworking and dependable

openness to experience

characterized by imagination, feelings, actions, and ideas; people who score high on this trait are typically curious and have a wide range of interests

extroversion

characterized by the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured; people who score high on this trait are usually considered outgoing and warm

agreeableness

characterized by the tendency to be pleasant, cooperative, trustworthy, and good-natured; people who score high on this trait are usually considered polite

neuroticism

characterized by the tendency to experience negative emotions; people who score high on this trait may experience emotional instability

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers of the nervous system; chemicals used to send a signal across the synaptic gap; different neurons release different types of neurotransmitters which all have many different functions

competence vs. inferiority

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

example of the influence of nurture

children who grow up in low SES homes may be at a higher risk of having fewer words spoken to them per day

flashbulb memory

clear recollection of an important even, but can decrease in accuracy with time (and result in a false memory)

reciprocal determinism

cognitive processes (beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics), behavior, and context (environment/situation) all interact.

(CBT) Helps clients examine how their thoughts affect their feelings and behavior. Combination of ________ _______ (making individuals aware of irrational, negative thoughts and replacing them with positive ways of thinking) and ________ _________ (teaches people to practice and engage in more positive, healthy approaches to situations).

cognitive therapy; behavior therapies

language

communication system involving using words and rules to organize these words in order to transmit information from one individual to another

bias

current knowledge and beliefs distort our memories of the past (ex: recalling past attitudes in line with current attitudes)

longitudinal research

data is gathered for the same subjects, repeatedly, over an extended period of time

artificial concepts

concepts defined by specific set of rules/characteristics

informative social influence

conforming with the group because of the belief that the group is competent (knows what they're doing) and has accurate information

normative social influence

conforming with the group to fit in, feel good, or to be accepted

Evolutionary psychology

considers how behaviors and cognitive processes have evolved over time through inherited traits

axon

consists of a long, thin fiber which TRANSMITS SIGNALS AWAY from the neuron to other neurons or muscles/glands; speaks to other neuron

central nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord and is the general command center of the entire body; o Covered in a layer called the cerebral cortex, the brain is separated into two hemispheres: the left and right hemispheres and are separated by a bridge of neural fibers called the corpus callosum.

temporal lobe

contains the auditory cortex and is responsible for hearing as well as memory and emotion

trial and error

continue trying until you figure it out

long-term memory

continuous storage of info

parietal lobe

controls responses related to touch, temperature, pain, and felt change

natural concepts

created naturally through either direct or indirect experiences

storage

creating a permanent record of information; allows our brain to retain information

How do child care practices vary?

culture. different practices have been found to accelerate or inhibit achievement of developmental milestones such as sitting, crawling, and walking

extinction

decrease in conditioned response then the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus are not paired together for a period of time; therefore, the conditioned response weakens and eventually disappears (so, if Pavlov stopped giving the dogs food after ringing the bell, the dogs would no longer salivate to hearing the bell)

As a person gets older, the amount of sleep they need _________, along with the amount of REM time they need.

decreases

intelligence

defined differently by different psychologists and theorists; varies based on whether or not you consider intelligence to be one single factor or more than one (Charles Spearman believed intelligence was based on just one factor)

stressors

demanding or threatening events

persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

depressed moods most of the day nearly every day for at least two years, as well as at least two of the other symptoms of major depression; Chronically sad but do not meet all the criteria for major depression.

standard deviations

describe how far a score is from the mean/average value of 100

Moving away from people

detachment and isolation. o As adults - likely to avoid love/friendship and avoid interaction with others

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin

developed the 3-stage model

continuous development

development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills (gradual change ex: height)

discontinuous development

development as a process that occurs in unique stages. It occurs at specific times or ages. (change is more sudden ex: age at which you start walking)

CONS of naturalistic observation

difficult to set-up and control; may be prone to observer bias (when researchers skew their observations to fit their research goals or expectations)

disorganized thinking

disjointed and incoherent thought processes

However, there is no single definition of psychological abnormality or normality. § Just because something is atypical, does not mean it is _________. § Violating _______ ____________ is not enough by itself to identify a psychological disorder.

disordered; cultural expectations

adaptive

dressing, eating, washing

stress-reduction techniques

exercise, meditation, relaxation techniques (e.g., deep breathing), and biofeedback are also helpful in coping with stress

intake

during the first appointment

Five Factor Model

each person has five traits, known as the Big Five personality traits. •Each trait is scored on a continuum from high to low. •The first letter of each trait spells the mnemonic OCEAN.

genotype

each person's genetic makeup

PROS of surveys

easy to collect a lot of information quickly

PROS archival research

easy; takes little time to conduct your research since the data you need is already available to you

suggestibility

effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories

emotion-focused coping

efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress. § Can include avoiding, minimizing, or distancing oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others, or seeking something positive in a negative event. § Treats the symptoms of stress, not the cause. § More often used for stressors we feel powerless to change, or perceived as uncontrollable

functionalism

emphasizes how mental activities and behavior contributed to basic environmental survival/environmental adaptation

Erik Erikson

emphasizes the SOCIAL nature of development; argues that personality development takes place across the LIFESPAN, not just in childhood

visual encoding

encoding of images

acoustic encoding

encoding of sounds or words using sound to encode

semantic encoding

encoding of words and word meaning

wakefulness

encompasses relatively higher levels of sensory awareness, thought activity, and behavior

Hans Selye

endocrinologist who discovered the general adaptation syndrome

major depressive disorder is _______.

episodic: symptoms are usually present at their full magnitude for a certain period of time and then gradually diminish

Sigmund Freud

established psychoanalytic theory; practiced talk therapy; theorized that many of his patients' problems arose from the unconscious mind

What two things are in order to ensure the well being of research participants?

ethics and conduct

vicarious reinforcement

if you see the model was reinforced for their behavior, you are more likely to copy it

sensorimotor

experiencing the world through senses and actions (looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping); object permanence and stranger anxiety

A hypothesis regarding cause and effect can be tested through ________________.

experimentation

misinformation effect

exposure to incorrect info can result in misremembering the event

myelin sheath

fatty layer that covers the axon; acts as an insulator and aids in the speed of electrical impulse transfer

symbolic models

fictional characters or real people who demonstrate the behavior in books, movies, TV shows, video games, on the internet, etc.

cognitive psychology

field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think

psychoneuroimmunology

field that studies how psychological factors influence the immune system and immune functioning.

William James

first American psychologist (functionalism)

Wilhelm Wundt

first person to call himself a psychologist (structuralism)

gross motor skills

focus on large muscle groups that control arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running).

fine motor skills

focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions (e.g., gripping a pencil).

behaviorism

focused on making psychology objective studying observable behavior, and focusing less on any aspect of mental processes (e.g., thoughts and feelings) that could not be observed

structuralism

focused on understanding the structure and characteristics of the mind through introspection

personality psychology

focuses on behaviors and thought patterns that are unique to each individual; studies in this field include conscious and unconscious thinking and personality traits

clinical psychology

focuses on diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and problematic patterns of behavior (includes clinical therapy and counseling)

health psychology

focuses on how individual health is directly related or affected by biological, psychological, and socio-cultural influences

case studies

focuses on one individual or social unit in depth, in hope that the findings can be generalized; the studied individual is typically in an extreme or unique psychological circumstance that differentiates them from the general public

sports and exercise psychology

focuses on psychological aspects regarding sports and physical performance (includes motivation, performance related anxiety, and general mental well-being)

psychoanalytic theory

focuses on the unconscious mind

anchoring

focusing on one piece of info

PROS of longitudinal research

for many research questions, longitudinal designs are the only way to determine if there is a lasting effect and prove if something really works over time

classical conditioning

form of associative learning, given that it occurs when organisms learn to make connections between events that occur close together in time

Because psychology is a science, research is required to not only _______ ___________ something but provide ____________ and _______ of findings.

further investigate, verification, support

heuristic

general framework

motor coordination

gross/fine motor skills, jumping, hopping, throwing/catching, drawing stacking

automatic processing

happens easily, without much effort; encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words

acquisition

happens when an organism learns to connect the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus

recognition

happens when you identify info you have previously learned after encountering it again

undersupply of dopamine

has been linked to decreased mobility and tremors in Parkinson's disease

multiple sclerosis

has damaged myelin sheaths

balanced id and superego

healthy personalty

norepinephrine

heart and intestine functioning, alertness, and arousal

CONS of longitudinal research

high attrition rate; people tend to drop out of longitudinal studies because of the time commitment

melatonin

hormone released by the pineal gland in response to daily cycles of light and dark and regulates our sleep-wake cycles

social psychology

how individuals interact and relate with others and how such interactions can affect behavior

progressive relaxation

how to relax each muscle group to achieve a relaxed and comfortable state of mind. · Could also be taught other relaxation strategies, such as deep breathing

cultural intelligence

how well you can relate to the values of a given culture; also called cultural competence

altruism

humans' desire to help others even if the costs of doing so outweigh the benefits

trust vs. mistrust

if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of basic trust

threat

if one believes it may lead to harm, loss, or another negative consequence

vicarious punishment

if you see the model was punished for their behavior, you are less likely to copy it

suggestibility (sin of memory)

implanted memories about things that never occurred (ex: leading questions produce false memories)

PROS to case studies

in-depth study; richness of information

anhedonia

inability to experience pleasure

aSsimilation

incorporating information into an existing schema (same old schema)

agonists

increase neurotransmitter's action/production or release of neurotransmitter

When we go into deeper sleep, we have __________ brain activity, but slower heart rate and respiration.

increasing

correlations

indicates how factors are related

problem-focusing coping

individual attempts to manage or alter the problem that is causing them to experience stress; proactive § Involves identifying the problem, considering possible solutions, weight the costs and benefits of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative. § More likely to be used when the stressor is perceived as controllable.

models

individuals performing the initiated behavior

endorphins

influences perceptions of pain and pleasure

episodic memory

info about events we have personally experienced (what/when/where of an event)

blocking

info is present but temporarily accessible (ex: tip-of-the-tongue)

social interaction

initiating peer contact, group play

temperament

innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment.

encoding

input of information into the memory system

John Watson (behaviorist)

inspired by Pavlov's work and wondered if these same processes could occur in humans and with human emotion (Little Albert Experiment)

IQ scores are one component used to diagnose someone with an ____________ __________.

intellectual disability

misattribution

memories are attributed to an incorrect source (ex: confusing a dream for a memory)

implicit (non-declarative) memories

memories now part of our consciousness; formed from behaviors

explicit (declarative) memory

memories we consciously try to remember and recall

schema

mental construct consisting of a cluster of related concepts

daily hassles

minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives (e.g., sitting in traffic). o Often lead to negative and distressed mood states. o Can build up and leave us feeling stressed. o Frequency of daily hassles is a better predictor of physical and psychological health than life change units.

serotonin

mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

Carl Jung

most important contribution to the field of psychology was developing the idea of extroversion vs. introversion

Mary Ainsworth (Strange Situation experiment)

mothers and infants were placed in a room together with toys. The mother then left and returned, and Ainsworth was interested in the child's reaction to their mother's return

acetycholine

muscle action, learning, and memory

critical periods

must get the skill at that point or you won't pick it up at all. (critical period for language development)

unconditioned response (UCR)

natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus

difficult temperament

negative emotions, difficulty adapting to change and regulating emotions. More likely to evoke irritation and cause parents to withdraw

imbalanced id and superego

neurosis (tendency to experience negative emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors

retroactive interference

new info hinders recall of old info

Some mutations can kill or cause diseases, but...

not all mutations are bad; mutations are how we became different from every species on earth

control group

not manipulated

biopsychosocial model

notes that the INTERACTION of biological, psychological, and social factors determines HEALTH

play therapy

o : When working with children, toys are used instead of talk in order to help the children prevent/resolve psychological difficulties and also help the therapist make observations to understand the roots of the child's thoughts or behaviors (and can be used to make a diagnosis) § Can be directive (therapist provides structure/guidance for play session) or non-directive (children are encouraged to play freely)

Dorothea Dix

o A social reformer who became an advocate for the indigent insane. o Investigated the state of care for the mentally ill and poor. o Discovered an underfunded and unregulated system that perpetuated abuse of the mentally ill. o Instrumental in creating the first American mental asylum by relentlessly lobbying state legislatures and Congress to set up and fund such institutions. § American Asylums · Usually filthy. · Offered little treatment. · Individuals were often institutionalized for decades.

addiction

o Chronic substance use can permanently alter the neural structure in the prefrontal cortex (associated with decision-making and judgement); once a person becomes addicted it can be extremely difficult to stop using (about 40-60% of people relapse after seeking treatment) • Treatment: Can include behavior therapy and/or medication

extroversion/introversion (Eysenck)

o High in extroversion - sociable, outgoing. o High in introversion - high need to be alone, engage in solitary behaviors.

neuroticism/stability (Eysenck)

o High in neuroticism - anxious, overactive sympathetic nervous system. o High in stability - more emotionally stable

Ivan Pavlov's study of Classical Conditioning

o In the 1920s, Pavlov realized the dogs he was working with in research, would begin to salivate in response to things other than the food itself (e.g., food bowl, sound of footsteps of someone who usually fed them). o He, therefore, wondered if he could train the dogs to salivate in response to stimuli having nothing at all to do with food (outside of their association through pairing), such as a bell. He could!

Diathesis-Stress Model

o Integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder. Diathesis + Stress à Development of a disorder o People with an underlying predisposition for a disorder, due to genetic factors or psychological vulnerability (diathesis), are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (e.g., death in the family, loss of a job, life change such as starting college)

cultural competence

o Mental health professionals must understand and address issues of race, culture, and ethnicity and use strategies to effectively address needs of various populations. § Integrates the impact of cultural and social norms. § Aims to work with clients and define goals consistent with their life experiences and cultural values.

applied behavior analysis

o Operant conditioning technique designed to reinforce positive behaviors and punish unwanted behaviors. o Effective in helping children with autism. o Child-specific reinforcers (e.g., stickers, praise, candy) are used to reward and motivate autistic children when they demonstrate desired behaviors. o Punishment (e.g., timeout) might be used to discourage undesirable behaviors.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

o Published by the American Psychiatric Association. o First published in 1952 and has since undergone numerous revisions (e.g., the first two editions listed homosexuality as a disorder but was removed in 1973).

spectrum of consciousness

o Unconsciousness o Sleeping o Hypnotic states o Intoxication due to alcohol or drug use o Daydreaming o Sleep deprivation o Fully awake

token economy

o Used in controlled settings such as psychiatric hospitals or schools. o Individuals are reinforced for desired behaviors with tokens (e.g., a poker chip), that can be exchanged for items or privileges.

Freud

o We are only aware of a small amount (about one-tenth) of our mind's activities and most of it remains hidden from us in our unconscious. o Unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through repression. o The information in our unconscious affects our behavior, although we are unaware of it.

social support

o a huge protective factor in managing stress. § A psychosocial factor affecting health outcomes - individuals with stronger social relationships have a 50% greater likelihood of survival compared to those with weak social relationships. § Research suggests social support boosts the immune system and reduces blood pressure.

hypertension

o high blood pressure; major risk factor for heart disease § Can be caused by stressors including job strain, marital conflict, and natural disasters. § Forces the heart to pump harder, thus putting increased physical strain on the heart. § Can lead to a heart attack, stroke, or heart failure, as well as kidney failure and blindness.

autoimmune disease

o immune system mistakes the body's own healthy cells for invaders and repeatedly attacks them (can affect almost any part of the body).

biomedical therapy

o involves medication and/or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders. Most often used in combination with psychotherapy

perceived control

o our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes. § Has major implications for health and happiness. § Greater personal control is associated with: · Better physical and mental health. · Greater psychological well-being. · Lower reactivity to stressors in daily life.

psychophysiological disorders

o physical disorders/diseases whose symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors. § Common examples include: · Tension headaches. · Asthma. · Acne. · Eczema. · Hypertension. · Irritable bowel syndrome. · Coronary heart disease.

DSM-5

o the classification system used by most mental health professionals. o Categorizes and describes each disorder. § Diagnostic features - overview of the disorder. § Diagnostic criteria - specific symptoms required for diagnosis. § Prevalence - percent of population thought to be afflicted. § Risk factors.

asylums

o the first institutions created for the specific purpose of housing people with psychological disorders. § Focus was ostracizing them from society rather than treatment. § Individuals often kept in windowless dungeons, chained to beds, little to no contact with caregivers. · Philippe Pinel (Late 1700s) o French physician. o Argued for more humane treatment of the mentally ill. o Suggested that they be unchained and talked to. o Implemented in Paris, 1975. o Patients benefited and many were able to be released from hospital.

involuntary treatment

o therapy that is not the individual's choice. § E.g. weekly counseling sessions might be a condition of parole; cases of concern of imminent harm to self or others

What are two aspects that are focused on in learning approaches?

observable and measurable

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior as it occurs in its natural setting

psychosocial development

occurs as children form relationships, interact with others, and understand and manage their feelings.

associative learning

occurs when organisms make connections among events occurring close together

uninvolved style

parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don't respond to the child's needs and make relatively few demands

authoratative style

parents give children reasonable demands and consistent limits, express warmth and affection, and listen to the child's point of view

permissive style

parents make few demands and rarely use punishment.

authoritarian style

parents place a high value on conformity and obedience, are often rigid, and express little warmth to the child

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

participants were not allowed to seek (or informed of) available treatment, after a cure was found for syphilis

selective migration

people choose to move to places that are compatible with their personalities and needs.

CONS of surveys

people do not always provide accurate info and sometimes feel the need to lie

stereotype

specific beliefs or assumptions about individuals based solely on their membership in a group, regardless of their individual characteristics

confederates

people who work for the researcher and are aware of the experiment but act as if they are a participant in order to manipulate the social situation being studied in the experiment.

hallucinations

perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation. (Auditory hallucinations are most common). • Paranoid delusions - belief that other people or agencies are plotting to harm them. • Grandiose delusions - belief that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important. • Somatic delusions - belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one's body. • Thought withdrawal/insertion.

actor-observer bias

phenomenon of explaining other people's behaviors as being due to internal factors (e.g., personality, character flaws) and our own behaviors as being due to situational forces (e.g., we're tired or stressed)

problem-solving strategy

plan of action used to find a solution

easy temperament

positive emotions, adapt well to change, and capable of regulating emotions. More likely to elicit warm and responsive parenting.

initiative vs. guilt

preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent

semantics

process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words (focuses on literal meaning)

memory reconstruction

process of bringing up old memories

memory construction

process of formulating new memories

Lawrence Kohlberg

proposed a theory of development based on MORAL reasoning; used the dilemma of "should a person steal medicine to save a loved one's life (even though stealing is wrong)?"

informed consent

providing a written description of what they can expect in an experiment

Asylums have since been replaced with ___________ _________ ___ _____ _________ ________ focused on _____-____ ____ (average stay is less than two weeks), due to high costs of psychiatric hospitalization (Insurance coverage often limits length of time individuals can be hospitalized)

psychiatric hospitals and local community hospitals; short-term care

cognitive dissonance

psychological discomfort arising from holding two or more inconsistent cognitions (i.e., thoughts, behaviors, opinions), attitudes, or behaviors •Distressing if it affects our positive self-image •Can also cause physiological arousal •We reduce cognitive dissonance by aligning our cognitions, attitudes, or behaviors through changing our behavior, changing our cognitions by rationalization or denial, or adding in a new cognition (remember smoking example)

psychotherapy

psychological treatment that employs various methods to help someone overcome personal problems, or to attain personal growth.

pre-conventional morality

stage 1: obedience and punishment: behavior driven by avoiding punishment stage 2: individual interest: behavior driven by self-interest and rewards

How are correlation coefficients represented?

r

3 Ways to Retrieve Info

recall, recognition, relearning

experimental group

receiving experimental manipulation

alogia

reduced speech output

fluid intelligence

refers to the ability to reason and think flexibly (ex: solving new problems, such as when completing a puzzle-you're not having to pull any information from stored knowledge

crystallized intelligence

refers to the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that are acquired throughout life (ex: stored knowledge; understanding of word definitions; identifying objects in your environment)

fixed ratio

reinforcement delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (ex: may receive reinforcement after 3 responses on time, and after 5 another time)

fixed interval

reinforcement delivered at predictable time intervals (ex: after every 5 minutes)

variable interval

reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (ex: may be delivered after 5 minutes the first time, but after 10 minutes the second time)

situationism

view that our behavior and actions are determined by our immediate environment and surroundings; used by social psychologists

semantic memory

relates to language/stored facts or knowledge (ex: Who was the first US president?)

learning (definition)

relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge from experience

preoperational

representing things with words and images; using intuitive rather than logical reasoning; pretend play, egocentrism, language development

effortful processing

requires effort, work, and attention to encode information; such as when you're studying for a test

conditioned response (CR)

response caused by the conditioned stimulus

frontal lobe

responsible for higher thinking skills such as reasoning, language acquisition, emotions, and motor control (Phineas Gage)

occipital lobe

responsible for taking in visual information through the primary visual cortex

language abilities

results of having fewer words spoken to you per day during early development

spontaneous recovery

return of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period (so, after extinction occurs, if Pavlov goes a period of time without ringing the bell at all and then suddenly rings the bell again, salivation would return)

shaping

rewarding successive approximations of a target behavior

exposure therapy

seeks to change the response to a conditioned stimulus. · Used to treat fears or anxiety. · Client is repeatedly exposed to the object/situation that causes their problem, with the idea that they will eventually get used to it.

conventional morality

stage 3: interpersonal: behavior driven by social approval stage 4: authority: behavior driven by obeying authority and conforming to social order

event schema

set of behaviors that start to feel like a routine o Way of doing things over and over o Also helpful in terms of efficiency but can result in habits that are hard to break!

memory

set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve information over various periods of time

grammar

set of rules used to convey meaning through the use of lexicon (ex: we know if something happened in the past, present, or future because of grammar)

taste aversion

several hours may pass between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus

Therapy can be individual or group-based (can also be structured as couples' therapy to focus on relationship difficulties or as family therapy to focus on growth of each family member and the family system as a whole). Group therapy is often helpful for issues such as divorce or substance abuse (can decrease _____ ___ _________). Group sessions can also be used for _______________, where there is a strong "educational" component to therapy (e.g., behavioral parent training; groups for children and/or parents of children with chronic medical conditions to help them learn more about the condition)

shame and isolation; psychoeducation

CONS of archival research

since the research has already been conducted, you cannot design the study the way that you would like to best answer and research questions you may have; less control over study design

bystander effect

situation when a witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a person in distress (maybe due to thinking someone else will do it instead)

hypothalamus

small but important area in the brain, is a clock-like mechanism responsible for controlling the sleep-wake cycle

synapse

small space; an important site where communication between neurons occurs; located at the nerve endings are receptors that respond to neurotransmitters

morpheme

smallest units of language that convey meaning (ex: "unhappy" has two morphemes: "un-" and "happy")

asociality

social withdrawal

CONS of case studies

sometimes hard to generalize and determine the same effect you found in your case study will be found in others

What does "psych" mean?

soul

post-conventional morality

stage 5: social contract: behavior driven by balance of social order and individual rights stage 6: universal ethics: behavior driven by internal moral principles

deductive reasoning

starts with a theory, confirms a hypothesis; often involves quantitative research and experiments 1. Theory 2. Hypothesis 3. Observation 4. Confirmation

inductive reasoning

starts with data, infers conclusions based on data; often involves qualitative research and case studies 1. Observation 2. Pattern 3. Hypothesis 4. Theory

sleep

state marked by relatively low physical activity as well as a reduced sense of awareness

law of effect

states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are likely to be repeated; whereas, behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

algorithm

step-by-step

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response due to being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

sensory memory

storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and tastes

What do correlation coefficients and scatterplots tell us about the correlation?

strength and direction

developmental psychology

studies the physical and mental attributes of aging and maturation; this can include how cognitive, social, and psychological skills are acquired throughout growth

evolutionary psychology

studies the ultimate biological causes of behavior and how behavior has changed due to evolution; there has to be a GENETIC basis for this behavior; it is hard to determine if a behavior is genetically based due to the influence of CULTURE

developmental psychologists

study how humans change and grow from conception through childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and death

pragmatics

study words and word meanings in a language with concern to the context; focuses on social aspects of language (not only focuses on literal meaning but also focuses on intended or inferred meaning)

health psychology

subfield of psychology interested in understanding the importance of psychological influences (including stress and mental health conditions, such as anxiety and depression) on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill.

random sample

subset of a larger population, in which every member has an equal chance of being selected; allows you to get a pool of research participants who represent the population you're trying to learn about (although experiments may require specific demographics, a random sample is used to ensure that the sample pool was selected randomly without any biased dispositions)

unconditioned (unlearned) responses

such as reflexes (ex: salivating in response to food); therefore, food is an unconditioned stimulus [this action would occur naturally without any learning involved]

conditioned (learned) responses

such as when the dogs learn to salivate in response to hearing a bell (because they began associating hearing a bell, with receiving food); therefore the bell is the conditioned stimulus

consciousness

the basic awareness of both internal and external stimuli. o Internal awareness can range from feelings of hunger or pain to thoughts and emotions (thoughts, feelings, sensations, and perceptions) o External stimuli are generally more physical and include detection of light, the feeling of temperature, or even listening during a conversation.

Throughout most of history, mental illness was believed to be caused by ____________ forces such as witchcraft or demonic possession. People with mental illnesses at this time were often subjected to cruelty and poor treatment.

supernatural; o Exorcism - involving incantations and prayers said over the individual's body by a priest/religious figure. o Trephining - a hole was made in the skull to release spirits from the body. This often led to death. o Execution or imprisonment - many mentally ill people were burnt at the stake after being accused of witchcraft.

today, exposure therapy is largely based on...

systematic desensitization; client is taught progressive relaxation; virtual reality exposure therapy

identity vs. role confusion

teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are

short-term memory

temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory; also called working memory

internal locus of control (Rotter)

tend to believe that most of our outcomes are the direct result of our efforts. o Perform better academically, achieve more in careers, more independent, healthier, less depressed.

external locus of control (Rotter)

tend to believe that our outcomes are outside of our control. o Believe lives are controlled by other people, luck, or chance

europeans

tend to score higher on neuroticism.

central and south american cultures

tend to score higher on openness to experience

self-serving bias

tendency of an individual to take credit by making dispositional/internal attributions for positive outcomes (e.g., I did well on this test because I'm smart) but situational/external attributions for negative outcomes (e.g., I did poorly on this test, because it was hard) • Protects self-esteem ------> allows people to feel good about their accomplishments.

fundamental attribution error

tendency to overemphasize internal factors as explanations for behavior and underestimate the power of the situation. •Research suggests that people from an individualistic culture have the greatest tendency to commit the fundamental attribution error.

selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input

cognitive empathy (theory of mind)

the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others; (increases in adolescence and an important part of social problem solving and conflict avoidance)

neurons

the basic units of the nervous system and are responsible for conducting nerve impulses needed for tasks throughout the nervous system; consists of an outer membrane, or semipermeable membrane, that allows uncharged molecules to move freely through it

circadian rhythm

the biological rhythm that cycles every 24 hours.

general adaption syndrome

the body's physiological response to stress (which may differ for different people). It has three stages

soma

the cell body; HOUSES the nucleus (general center of command within a neuron)

comorbidity

the co-occurrence of two disorders

immunosupression

the decreased effectiveness of the immune system. § Causes people to become susceptible to infections, illness, and disease.

transience

the decreasing accessibility of memory over time (ex: simple forgetting of long-past events)

language determinism

the idea that language may determine how we think

sensitive periods

the idea that there are times that are more important to subsequent development that others, but are not absolute gatekeepers for future psychological growth

single-blind studies

the participants are unaware of which group they are in (experimental group or control group), while the researcher who developed the experiment knows which participants are in each group

voluntary treatment

the person chooses to attend therapy to obtain relief from symptoms. o Sources of psychological treatment - community mental health centers, private or community practitioners, school counselors, school psychologists or school social workers, group therapy. Treatment providers include psychologists, psychiatrists, clinical social workers, marriage and family therapists, licensed professional counselors, etc

Psychology

the scientific study of the mind and behavior (the mind refers to how people think, believe, and feel while behavior refers to how people act)

psychopathology

the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (causes), and treatment.

homeostasis

the tendency towards equilibrium (or balance) within our biological system, is maintained

confidentiality

the therapist cannot disclose confidential communications to any third party unless mandated or permitted to do so by law (e.g., court-ordered, in cases of abuse or neglect, if risk of harm to self or others)

Jean Piaget

theory of development is focused on COGNITIVE growth; proposed assimilation and accommodation

Charles Darwin further explored the concept of inheritance of traits in his ______ __ _________ through natural selection.

theory of evolution

range of reaction

theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup. According to this idea, your genetic potential is a fixed quantity, but whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood

placebo effect

this effect can occur during a blind or double-blind study, when experimental effects occur in the control group, die to participants' expectations about the intervention; beneficial effect is attributed to the participant's belief in the treatment/intervention

dependent variable

variable the researcher measures in order to see how much effect the independent variable had

autonomy vs. shame and doubt

toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Examples of Problem-Solving Strategies

trial and error, algorithm, and heuristic

____ _______ show us that there is a huge genetic component to IQ.

twin studies

sytematic desensitization

type of exposure therapy wherein a calm and pleasant state is gradually associated with increasing levels of anxiety-inducing stimuli. § Fear and relaxation are incompatible - if client can relax around fear-inducing stimuli, the unwanted fear response will eventually be eliminated.

representative

unintentional stereotyping

instincts and reflexes

unlearned behaviors (do not have to be taught)

instincts

unlearned knowledge; involves complex patterns of behavior

reflexes

unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in its environment

persistence

unwanted recollections that we can never forget (ex: traumatic war memories)

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

used to assess varying degrees of how much "readjustment" a person believes they would experience in response to a life event. o Death of a spouse was ranked highest (100), and divorce was ranked second highest (73). o Research demonstrates that accumulating a high number of LCUs within a brief time period is related to a range of physical illnesses/symptoms and mental health problems.

surveys

used to gather a large amount of data from a sample within a population; typically asks people to respond in depth to a series of question or to report on their behavior

virtual reality exposure therapy

uses a simulation to help conquer fears when it's too impractical, expensive or embarrassing to recreate anxiety-inducing situations.

aversive conditioning

uses an unpleasant stimulus to stop an undesirable behavior. · Used to eliminate addictive behaviors. · Client is repeatedly exposed to something unpleasant, such as a mild electric shock or bad taste while they engage in a specific behavior à client learns to associate the unpleasant stimulus and unwanted behavior. · Antabuse (substance that causes negative side effects such as vomiting when combined with alcohol) has been used effectively to treat alcoholism.

archival research

using existing data to answer new research questions

independent variable

variable manipulated independently of the other variables; determines the only important difference between the experimental and control groups

standardized

way the test is given, scored, and then understood/explained to others is supposed to remain consistent each time

syntax

way words are organized into sentences (ex: order of the noun, verb, etc. to create a sentence); syntax is a component involved in grammar

interference

when info is stored in our memory but is inaccessible, meaning we can't get to it for some reason

weaker correlation

when points are more scattered

stronger correlation

when points fall closer to the straight sloped line on a scatterplot

integrity vs. despair

when reflecting on his or her life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure

groupthink

when the group members modify their opinions to match what they think is the group consensus

live models

when the model demonstrates the behavior in person

verbal models

when the model does not perform the behavior, but instead, explains or describes it

negative correlation

when two variables move in different directions (as one variable increases, the other decreases)

positive correlation

when two variables move in the same direction (as one variable increases, so does the other)

REM sleep

where most vivid dreams occur; brainwaves resemble a person who is awake

lexicon

words in a language; a language's vocabulary

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

works to change cognitive distortions and self-defeating behaviors. (Aims to change both how people think and how they act).

stroop effect

you can name a color more easily if it appears in that printed color

state dependent memory

you will remember something better if you are experiencing the same state as that memory

intimacy vs. isolation

young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated

techniques in humanistic therapy

§ Active listening - therapist acknowledges, restates, and clarifies what the client expresses. § Unconditional positive regard - therapist does not judge clients and simply accepts them for who they are. § Genuineness, empathy, and acceptance towards clients - Rogers felt that therapists should demonstrate these because it helps the client become more accepting of themselves, which results in personal growth.

ethical disparities

§ Lack of bilingual treatment. § Stigma. § Fear of not being understood. § Family privacy. § Lack of education on mental illness.

We now think of psychological disorders as involving a component related to harmful dysfunction.

§ Occurs when an internal mechanism (e.g., cognition, perception, learning) breaks down and cannot perform its normal function, leading to negative consequences for the individual or for others

Example: You are stressed because you are failing a class.

§ Problem-focused approach - study more, contact professor for help, find a tutor. § Emotion-focused approach - watch a movie or play games to distract yourself from the problem.

perceptions and attitudes

§ Self-sufficiency and not seeing the need for help. § Not seeing therapy as effective. § Concerns about confidentiality. § Fear of psychiatric hospitalization or treatment itself.

APA definition of psychological disorder

§ Significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. · Outside of cultural norms. § The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction. § The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in one's life. · E.g. difficulty performing appropriate and expected roles.

negative affectivity

§ tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness.

Types of anger

· Type A - tend to be extremely competitive, intensely driven, impatient, rushed, and hostile toward others. · Type B - tend to be relaxed and laid back.

verbal transmission of information

• : A child is continuously told that snakes are dangerous à child starts to fear snakes. • Why are certain types of phobias more common than others? One theory argues that because our ancestors associated certain stimuli with danger (e.g., snakes, spiders, and heights), we are evolutionarily predisposed to associate those stimuli with fear.

obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD)

• A disorder involving thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions)

barriers to treatment

• Access and availability of mental health services: § Lack of insurance. § Transportation. § Time. • Even when access is comparable among racial and ethnic groups, minorities utilize mental health services less than white, middle-class Americans.

common specific phobias

• Acrophobia - heights. • Aerophobia - flying. • Arachnophobia - spiders. • Claustrophobia - enclosed spaces.

anxiety disorders

• Characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior. Prevalence: Effects approximately 25%-30% of the U.S. population during their lifetime; More common in women than men.

social anxiety disorder

• Characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others, leading to serious impairments in life. • People with social anxiety disorders engage in safety behaviors, or mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes (e.g., avoiding eye contact or rehearsing sentences before speaking)

classical conditioning

• Child is bitten by dog (US) à dogs become associated with biting (CS) à child experiences fear around dogs (CR). • Conditioned fears develop more readily to fear-relevant stimuli (images of snakes and spiders) than to fear-irrelevant stimuli (images of flowers).

vicarious learning

• Child observes cousin react with fear around spiders à child later expresses the same fears even though spiders have never presented any danger to him.

autism

• Deficits in social interaction (e.g., do not make eye contact, turn head away when spoken to, prefer playing alone). • Deficits in communication (e.g., one-word responses, difficulty maintaining conversation, echoed speech, and problems using and understanding nonverbal cues). • Repetitive patterns of behavior or interests. • Prevalence: Affects approximately 1 in 88 children in the U.S.; 5 times more common in boys.

major depressive disorder

• Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day • Loss of interest and pleasure in usual activities. • At least 5 additional symptoms for at least a two-week period. • Weight loss or weight gain/increased or decreased appetite. • Difficulty falling asleep or too much sleep. • Psychomotor agitation or psychomotor retardation. • Fatigue/loss of energy. • Feelings of worthlessness or guilt. • Difficulty concentrating, indecisiveness. • Suicidal ideation - thoughts of death, thinking about/planning suicide, suicide attempt • 90% of those who commit suicide have at least one mental disorder • Suicide is 4x higher in males than females (but females make more attempts)

inattention

• Difficulty sustaining attention. • Failure to follow instructions. • Disorganization. • Lack of attention to detail. • Easily distracted and forgetful.

hyperactivity

• Excessive movement. • Interrupting and intruding on others. • Blurting out responses before questions have been completed. • Difficulty waiting ones turn.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

• Individual was exposed to, witnessed, or experienced the details of a traumatic experience ("actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence") • Symptoms must occur for over one month • Symptoms include: • Intrusive and distressing memories of the event. • Flashbacks - states during which individual relives the event and behaves as if it were occurring at that moment. • Avoidance of stimuli connected to the event. • Persistently negative emotional states. • Feelings of detachment from others. • Irritability. • Proneness toward outbursts. • Exaggerated startle response. • Prevalence - Experienced by approximately 7% of the U.S. population in their lifetime.

specific phobia

• Involves excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation. • People may realize their fear and anxiety is irrational but may still go to great lengths to avoid the stimulus. • Prevalence - affects 12.5% of the U.S. population at some point in their lifetime.

bipolar disorder

• Involves mood states that fluctuate between depression and mania. • Symptoms of Mania • Excessively talkative. • Excessively irritable. • Exhibit flight of ideas - talk loudly and rapidly, abruptly switching from one topic to another. • Easily distracted. • Exhibit grandiosity - inflated but unjustified self-esteem and self-confidence. • Show little need for sleep. • Take on several tasks at once. • Engage in reckless behaviors. • Onset is typically before the age of 25. • Affects 1 out of 100 people in the U.S. in their lifetime. • 36% of these individuals attempt suicide. • Comorbidity - anxiety disorder and substance abuse disorder.

agoraphobia

• Listed as a separate anxiety disorder. • Characterized by intense fear, anxiety, and avoidance of situations in which it might be difficult to escape or receive help if one experiences a panic attack. • These situations include public transportation, crowds, being outside the home alone.

Mischel

•Determined that behavior is inconsistent across different situations but consistent in equivalent/similar situations across time. •Proposed people use cognitive processes to assess the situation in their own way and behave in accordance with that interpretation •Conducted the Marshmallow study on self-regulation (or will power)- revealed children differ in levels of self-control; children who can delay gratification had better outcomes (behaviorally, academically, and socially) later in life

generalized anxiety disorder

• Relatively continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and pointless worry and apprehension • Diagnostic Criteria: • The diffuse worrying and apprehension is not part of another disorder. • Symptoms occur more days than not for at least 6 months. • Symptoms are accompanied by any three of the following symptoms: • Restlessness, difficulty concentrating, being easily fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties. • Prevalence: Affects about 5.7% of U.S. population during their lifetime; Females are 2 times as likely as males to experience the disorder.

schizophrenia

• a chronic and severe mental disorder that affects how people think, feel, and behave. Characterized by the following symptoms: -hallucinations -delusions -disorganized thinking -negative symptoms

panic attack

• a period of extreme fear or discomfort that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes. • Can be expected (in response to an external trigger) or unexpected. • Symptoms may include shortness of breath, feeling dizzy or lightheaded, chest pain, increased heart rate, nausea or abdominal distress, sweating, trembling, and fear of losing control • Panic attacks alone are not a disorder (see above definition of panic disorder)

attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

• constant pattern of inattention and/or hyperactive and impulsive behavior that interferes with normal functioning. • Can be diagnosed with ADHD- Combined Type (meaning, one has both hyperactive and inattentive symptoms), ADHD- Hyperactive Type, or ADHD- Inattentive Type -inattention -hyperactivity

obsessions

• persistent, unintentional, and unwanted thoughts and urges that are highly intrusive, unpleasant, and distressing. • Common obsessions: • Concerns about germs and contamination • Doubts • Order and symmetry • Aggressive or lustful urges

compulsions

• repetitive and ritualistic acts, typically carried out primarily as a means to minimize the distress that obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event. • Not performed out of pleasure. • The person usually knows these obsessions and compulsions are irrational but suppressing them is extremely difficult. • Prevalence: Experienced by approximately 2.3% of the U.S. population in their lifetime.

disorganized or abnormal motor behavior

• unusual behaviors/movements. • Catatonic behaviors - decreased reactivity to the environment

Bandura

•Agreed that personality develops through learning but disagreed with the behaviorist approach because thinking and reasoning are important parts of learning. •Believed personality is a result of an interaction between a person and their social context/environment

ego (self)

•Attempts to balance the id with the superego. •Rational •Operates on the "reality principle" - helps the id satisfy desires in a realistic way. •The part of the personality seen by others.

warm, healthy parent-child relationships have been associated with

•Better grades. •Fewer school behavior problems

Stanford Prison Experiment

•Conducted by Philip Zimbardo & colleagues in 1971 •Demonstrated the power of social roles, social norms, and scripts. •A mock prison was constructed and participants (male college students), were randomly assigned to play the role of prisoners or guards. •In a very short amount of time, the guards started to harass the prisoners in an increasingly sadistic manner.

Id

•Contains primitive urges (for hunger, thirst, and sex). •Impulsive, instinctual. •Operates on the "pleasure principle" - seeks immediate gratification.

superego

•Develops through interactions with others, learning social rules for right and wrong. •Moral compass that tells us how we should behave based on rules •Strives for perfection. •Judges behavior - leads to feelings of pride or guilt.

The Asch Effect (experiment)

•Each group of participants had only one true, naive subject. The remaining members of the group were confederates of the researcher. In Asch's study, the confederates identified a line segment that was obviously shorter than the target line—a wrong answer. The naive participant then had to identify aloud the line segment that best matched the target line segment. •76% of participants agreed with the "confederates'" incorrect response

Minnesota study of twins reared apart

•Found that identical twins, whether raised together or apart, have very similar personalities. •Suggests the heritability of some personality traits.

Gall

•German physician •Proposed that the distances between bumps on the skull reveal a person's personality traits, character, and mental abilities. •Discredited for lack of empirical support.

Galen

•Greek physician, writer, and philosopher •Believed diseases & personality differences could be explained by imbalances in the humors •Prevalent view for over 1000 years

Hippocrates (Humorism)

•Greek physician; considered father of medicine •Theorized that personality traits and human behaviors are based on four separate temperaments associated with four fluids ("humors") of the body.

adolescents refine their sense of self as they relate to others

•May adopt the values and roles that parents expect for them. •May develop identities that are in opposition to their parents but align with a peer group. •Peer relationships become a central focus in adolescents' lives. •It turns out that parent-adolescent relationships are not as strained as researchers originally thought

sensory abilities in newborns

•Not yet fully developed at birth. •Vision is the least developed sense. •Infants prefer human voices, specifically their mother's voice over a stranger's. •Infants can distinguish between the smell of their mother and others.

Stanley Milgram Experiment

•Occurred at Yale in the 1960s •Influenced by the trial of a Nazi war criminal who claimed he was "just following orders" •Participants were told they were participating in a study on learning but really the study was on the power of obedience (or when one changes behavior in order to comply with an authority figure; potentially due to fear of an aversive consequence for non-compliance) •Participants thought they were giving the learners shocks (and many of the participants who thought they were giving shocks became emotionally distressed by this... one reason this study would no longer be considered ethical today) •65% of the participants continued the level of shocks to the maximum voltage and to the point where (they thought) the learners became unresponsive •For extra credit: be able to identify the common themes I discussed in class related to those who chose to not continue obeying during the study

Rogers

•Personality is linked to one's self-concept •People need congruence or alignment between their ideal self (who they would like to be) and their real self (who they actually are) •High congruence = greater sense of self-worth and a healthy, productive life. •Incongruence = maladjustment

Skinner

•Personality is shaped by reinforcements and consequences in the environment. •Personality develops over our entire life. •Personality can vary as we experience new situations.

Why are people taking longer to grow up?

•Product of Western culture and current times. •People are living longer allowing them extra time to start a career and family. •Higher levels of education are required for careers. •Higher cultural value placed on taking time to explore options

nervous system changes

•Size of the brain increases rapidly in early childhood (especially the frontal lobe during ages 3-6). o55% of adult size at age 2, 90% of adult size at age 6. •Brain growth continues into the early 20s. The development of the frontal lobe, in particular, is important during this stage. •The frontal lobe is responsible for judgement, impulse control, and planning. •May explain why adolescents engage in increased risk-taking behaviors and emotional outbursts.

personality testing is often used...

•To screen applicants for employment and job training. •In criminal cases and custody battles. •To assess psychological disorders.