Psych 101 Ch 1; The Science of Psychology (Study set)
Psychology definition
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
What are the major contemporary perspectives of psychology?
Behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, physiological, cognative, and sociocultural.
Psychological perspective
An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the relationships between biological processes and behavior.
Case study
An in-depth study of one or more individuals. Limited in that it relies on people memories, or an interviewers bias.
Placebo
An inert substance or experimental condition that resembles the active treatment.
Structured interview
An interview in which a set of specific questions is asked in a particular order.
Max Wertherimer and Gestalt Psychology
"The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."
Gestalt
A German word meaning "unitary form" or "pattern." The term Gestalt may be defined as an object, idea, or experience as being more than the sum of its parts. When you put the parts together, you get the whole - in other words, you get the Gestalt. Gestalt is the basis of Gestalt Psychology, which is the study of how people integrate and organize perceptual information (information they perceive - things they see, hear, etc) into meaningful wholes. For example, can you tell what this is?: 8> ) The reason you may be able to recognize a face is because you're able to see an overall form (a face) just by putting a few symbols or shapes together. In other words, you see the Gestalt, not just the symbols. This is incredibly useful but can sometimes lead to problems such as illusions or visual tricks.
Evolutionary Psychology
A branch of psychology that focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior.
Behavioral Perspective
A contemporary learning-based model that emphasizes the roles of cognitive and environmental factors in determining behavior.
Positive psychology
A contemporary movement within psychology that emphasizes the study of human virtues and assets rather than weaknesses and deficiencies. Positive Psychology is a relatively new branch of applied psychology started in 1998 by Martin Seligman and Mikhaly Csikszentmihalyi. This field seeks to "seeks to nurture genius and talent" rather than focusing solely on the treatment of mental illness as a means of making human existence more rewarding and fulfilling. The founders of this movement do not intend to replace traditional psychology, but to expand it through the encouragement of positive traits, relationships and institutions.
Operational definition
A definition of variable based on the procedures or operations used to measure it.
Variable
A factor of measure that varies within an experiment or among individuals.
Behavior therapy
A form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning. In 1952, Hans Eysenck coined this term in reference to a type of treatment that focuses on changing or reducing the occurrence of some maladaptive behavior as opposed to simply examining the unconscious conflicts or aspects associated with the maladaptive behavior. So instead of trying to "get to the root of a problem", behavior therapy aims to get rid of the problem regardless of the feelings about the behavior, the underlying causes, etc. In addition, behavior therapy is based on the premise that maladaptive behavior, like adaptive behaviors, are learned, and therefore can be unlearned. Thus, behavior therapies (like systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, and behavior modification) are based on the principles of learning.
Theory
A formulation that accounts for relationships among observed events or experimental findings in ways that make them more understandable and predictable.
Empirical approach
A method of developing knowledge based on evaluating evidence gathered from experiments and careful observation. Empiricism: The Philosophical school of thought that real knowledge comes from the senses. This formed the basis for the foundation of modern science - the reliance on empirical evidence, or evidence that is observable. You have probably heard the expression, "empirical data" before...it is referring to any data that are observable through the senses.
Scientific method
A method of inquiry involving careful observation and the use of experimental methods. The scientific method is a systematic, step-by-step procedure psychologists use when conducting research. By following these specific steps, psychologists seek cause and effect relationships which means that they can be certain (at least have a high level of confidence) that one variable causes an effect on another variable and that the results of the study are caused by the variable being studied and not some other, outside (extraneous) variables. The steps to the scientific method include describing the topic of study, making predictions (hypotheses), select a method for the study, controlling external variables, collecting data (running the study), analyzing & explaining the findings, and reporting & sharing the findings (usually via publication or lecturing). There are variations but these are the basic steps in the scientific method.
Random Assignments
A method of randomly assigning subjects to experimental or control groups.
Naturalistic Observation Method
A method of research based on careful observation of behavior in natural settings.
Random sampling
A method of sampling in which each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
Experimental method
A method of scientific investigation involving the manipulation of independent variables and observation or measurement of their effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions.
Hypothesis
A proposition, or set of propositions, set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena, either asserted merely as a provisional conjecture to guide investigation (working hypothesis) or accepted as highly probable in the light of established facts.
Survey method
A research method in which structured interviews or questionnaires are used to gather information about groups of people. Limited in accuracy because it is based on peoples memories and whether they want to answer the questions to appease a standard.
Correlational method
A research method used to examine relationships between variables, which are expressed in the form of a statistical measure called a correlation coefficient.
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical measure of association between variables that can vary from -1.00 to +1.00. Scores with a positive correlation coefficient go up and down together (as with smoking and cancer). A negative correlation coefficient indicates that as one score increases, the other score decreases (as in the relationship between self-esteem and depression; as self-esteem increases, the rate of depression decreases).
Questionnaires
A written set of questions or statements to which people reply by marking their responses on an answer form.
Informed consent
Agreement to participate in a study following disclosure of information about the purposes and nature of the study and its potential risks and benefits.
Population
All the individuals or organisms that constitute particular groups.
Humanistic Perspective
An approach to the study of psychology that applies the principles of humanistic psychology. This is the psychological perspective popularized by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of needs) that emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth. The overriding assumption is that humans have free will and are not simply fated to behave in specific ways or are zombies blindly reacting to their environments. So, the Humanists stated that the subject matter or psychology (what psychology should focus on) is the human subjective experience of the world - how humans experience things, why they experience things, etc.
Sociocultural perspective
An approach to the study of psychology that emphasizes the role of social and cultural influences on behavior.
Cognitive perspective
An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the processes by which we acquire knowledge. The Cognitive Perspective is the psychological viewpoint that the focuses on the how people (and other animals) process, store, and retrieve information and how this information is used to reason and solve problems. Obviously, the part about reasoning is generally reserved for humans, although there is some argument concerning the possibility that other animals also reason and engage in problem-solving behaviors.
William James: Functionalism
Behavior tied to function. Functionalism was the psychological school of thought that followed Structuralism and moved away from focusing on the structure of the mind to a concern with how the conscious is related to behavior... How does the mind affect what people do? One of the major proponents of Functionalism was Thorndike (created the ever-popular puzzle box) who studied the primary issue of functionalism...WHAT FUNCTION DOES A BEHAVIOR HAVE. In addition, this school of thought focused on observable events as opposed to unobservable events (like what goes on in someone's mind).
Wilhelm Wundt and Structuralism
Breaking down mental experience into its components parts. Structuralism was a school of thought that sought to identify the components (structure) of the mind -- the mind was considered the key element to psychology at this point. Structuralists believed that the way to learn about the brain and its functions was to break the mind down into its most basic elements. They believed, the whole is equal to the sum of the parts. Wilhelm Wundt, who is considered the pioneer Structuralist, set up the very first psychological laboratory in 1879. Following Wundt was Titchner who popularized the field (he was one of Wundt's students). TItchner was interested in the conscious mind. He used a technique called introspection to try to understand the conscious mind. Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward", focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they are experiencing at that moment. The Structuralism school of thought has influenced psychology in its pursuit of the analysis of the adult mind (the evaluation of the sum total of lifetime experiences). It seeks to evaluate these experiences in terms of the simplest definable components and then attempts to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences. Another goal is to find how these experiences correlate to physical events. This is accomplished through practices such as introspection, self-reports (of sensations), viewpoints, feelings, and emotions.
What are the various specialties in psychology?
Clinical and counseling psychology, school psychology, experimental psychology, geropsychology, forensic psychology, and sport psychology.
Ethics review committees
Committees that evaluate whether proposed studies meet ethical guidelines.
Consumer psychologists
Psychologists who study why people purchase particular products and brands.
Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis
Exploring the unconscious. Sigmund Freud is the most famous developer of this therapy approach. The therapy concentrates on bringing forward repressed unconscious thoughts. Freud believed that the ego and superego spent a considerable amount of energy to keep these feelings and thoughts repressed. It was this repression and the development of defense mechanism that left these hidden conflicts unresolved. Freud thought that these unresolved conflicts prevented normal psychosexual development, which in turn cause personality disorders. One of his most common techniques to bring these thoughts to the consciousness was the use of free association.
Independent variable
Factors that are manipulated in an experiment.
Clinical psychologists
Psychologists who use psychological techniques to evaluate and treat individuals with mental or psychological disorders.
Psychoanalysis
Freud's method of psychotherapy. It focuses on uncovering and working through unconscious conflicts he believed were at the root of psychological problems.
Control Groups
Groups of participants in a research experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment or intervention.
Unconscious
In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that lies outside the range of ordinary awareness and that contains primitive drives and instincts.
Double-blind studies
In drug research, studies in which both participants and experimenters are kept uninformed about which participants are receiving the active drug and which are receiving the placebo.
Single-blind Studies
In drug research, studies in which subjects are kept uninformed about whether they are receiving the experimental drug or the placebo.
Introspection
Inward focusing on mental experiences, such as sensations or feelings.
Psychiatrists
Medical doctors who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of mental or psychological disorders.
Gestalt psychology (Max Wertheimer)
Originating in the work of Max Wertheimer, Gestalt psychology formed partially as a response to the structuralism of Wilhelm Wundt. The school of psychology that holds that the brain structures our perceptions of the world in terms of meaningful patterns or wholes. The term Gestalt may be defined as an object, idea, or experience as being more than the sum of its parts. When you put the parts together, you get the whole - in other words, you get the Gestalt. Gestalt is the basis of Gestalt Psychology, which is the study of how people integrate and organize perceptual information (information they perceive - things they see, hear, etc) into meaningful wholes. For example, can you tell what this is?: 8> ) The reason you may be able to recognize a face is because you're able to see an overall form (a face) just by putting a few symbols or shapes together. In other words, you see the Gestalt, not just the symbols. This is incredibly useful but can sometimes lead to problems such as illusions or visual tricks.
Placebo effects
Positive outcomes of an experiment resulting from a participant's positive expectations about the treatment rather than from the treatment itself.
Forensic psychologists
Psychologists involved in the application of psychology to the legal system.
Experimental psychologists
Psychologists who apply experimental methods to the study of behavior and mental processes.
Sport psychologists
Psychologists who apply psychology to understanding and improving athletic performance.
School psychologists
Psychologists who evaluate and assist children with learning problems or other special needs.
Developmental psychologists
Psychologists who focus on processes involving physical, cognitive, social, and personality development.
Physiological psychologists
Psychologists who focus on the biological underpinnings of behavior.
Geropsychology
Psychologists who focus on the psychological processes involved in aging.
Health psychologists
Psychologists who focus on the relationship between psychological factors and physical health.
Counseling psychologists
Psychologists who help people clarify their goals and make life decisions or find ways of overcoming problems in various areas of their lives.
Comparative psychologists
Psychologists who study behavioral similarities and differences among animal species.
Social psychologists
Psychologists who study group or social influences on behavior and attitudes.
Educational Psychologists
Psychologists who study issues relating to the measurement of intelligence and the processes involved in educational or academic achievement.
Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychologists
Psychologists who study people's behavior at work.
Neuropsychologists
Psychologists who study relationships between the brain and behavior.
Environmental psychologists
Psychologists who study relationships between the physical environment and behavior.
Personality Psychologists
Psychologists who study the psychological characteristics and behaviors that distinguish us as individuals and lead us to act consistently over time.
John Watson: Behaviorism
Psychology as the science of observable behavior. The school of thought that stresses the need for psychology to be an objective science. In other words, that psychology should be a science based on observable (and only observable) events, not the unconscious or conscious mind. This perspective was first suggested and propagated by John Watson in 1913, who wanted psychology to study only observable behaviors and get away from the study of the conscious mind completely. Watson's primary rationale was that only observable events are verifiable and thus, are the only events that can be proven false. This is an extremely important concept for science; without it, how can you ever find out what is true, false, real, or fake.
Random Assignment
Random assignment of participants to experimental conditions is a commonly used experimental technique to help ensure that the treatment group and the control group are the same before treatment. For example, let us assume that we're curious to know the effects of eating an apple a day on your health (measured by blood pressure). One way of designing the study would be to select a sample of people and divide them into a control group (i.e., those who don't have an apple a day) and a treatment group (i.e., those who do have an apple a day). How do you decide to divide your subjects? The best way is to do it randomly in order to cancel out the idiosyncrasies of your subject pool. Imagine if you decided to choose the groups based on cholesterol intake. You decide to have the low cholesterol group in the control group and the high cholesterol group in the treatment group. Would this bias the results of your study? Yes. Since cholesterol affects blood pressure, you as an experimenter would not know if the changes in health were due to the apple a day or the amount of cholesterol intake.
Basic Research
Research focused on acquiring knowledge even if such knowledge has no direct practical application.
Applied Research
Research that attempts to find solutions to specific problems.
Structuralism
Structuralism was a school of thought that sought to identify the components (structure) of the mind -- the mind was considered the key element to psychology at this point. Structuralists believed that the way to learn about the brain and its functions was to break the mind down into its most basic elements. They believed, the whole is equal to the sum of the parts. Wilhelm Wundt, who is considered the pioneer Structuralist, set up the very first psychological laboratory in 1879. Following Wundt was Titchner who popularized the field (he was one of Wundt's students). TItchner was interested in the conscious mind. He used a technique called introspection to try to understand the conscious mind. Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward", focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they are experiencing at that moment. The Structuralism school of thought has influenced psychology in its pursuit of the analysis of the adult mind (the evaluation of the sum total of lifetime experiences). It seeks to evaluate these experiences in terms of the simplest definable components and then attempts to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences. Another goal is to find how these experiences correlate to physical events. This is accomplished through practices such as introspection, self-reports (of sensations), viewpoints, feelings, and emotions. Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using a method known as introspection.
What are the major early schools of psychology?
Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviorism, and Gestalt psychology.
What are the major research methods used in psychology?
Study method, survey method, naturalistic observation method, correlational method, and the experimental method.
Samples (of a population)
Subsets of a population.
What are the origins of psychology?
Systematic attempts have been made to explain human behavior throughout the centuries and can be traced to philosophers in ancient times. However, psychology emerged as a scientific discipline in the 19th century after Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig Germany, in 1879.
Critical Thinking
The adoption of a skeptical, questioning attitude and careful scrutiny of claims or arguments.
Replication
The attempt to duplicate findings
Statistics
The branch of mathematics involving the tabulation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data.
Dependent Variables
The effects of outcomes of an experiment that are believed to be dependent on the values of the independent variable(s).
What is the scientific method and its four principle steps?
The principles and empirical processes of discovery and demonstration considered characteristic of or necessary for scientific investigation, generally involving the observation of phenomena, the formulation of a hypothesis concerning the phenomena, experimentation to demonstrate the truth or falseness of the hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or modifies the hypothesis.
Wundt: Structuralism
The school of psychology that attempts to understand the structure of the mind by breaking it down into its component parts. Structuralism was a school of thought that sought to identify the components (structure) of the mind -- the mind was considered the key element to psychology at this point. Structuralists believed that the way to learn about the brain and its functions was to break the mind down into its most basic elements. They believed, the whole is equal to the sum of the parts. Wilhelm Wundt, who is considered the pioneer Structuralist, set up the very first psychological laboratory in 1879. Following Wundt was Titchner who popularized the field (he was one of Wundt's students). TItchner was interested in the conscious mind. He used a technique called introspection to try to understand the conscious mind. Introspection is a process of having a person "look inward", focus on, and try to understand the emotion or thought they are experiencing at that moment. The Structuralism school of thought has influenced psychology in its pursuit of the analysis of the adult mind (the evaluation of the sum total of lifetime experiences). It seeks to evaluate these experiences in terms of the simplest definable components and then attempts to find how these components fit together to form more complex experiences. Another goal is to find how these experiences correlate to physical events. This is accomplished through practices such as introspection, self-reports (of sensations), viewpoints, feelings, and emotions.
Humanistic psychology
The school of psychology that believes that free will and conscious choice are essential aspects of the human experience. This is the psychological perspective popularized by Carl Rogers (Client-Centered Therapy, Self-Actualization) and Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of needs) that emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth. The overriding assumption is that humans have free will and are not simply fated to behave in specific ways or are zombies blindly reacting to their environments. So, the Humanists stated that the subject matter or psychology (what psychology should focus on) is the human subjective experience of the world - how humans experience things, why they experience things, etc.
Functionalism
The school of psychology that focuses on the adaptive functions of behavior. Functionalism was the psychological school of thought that followed Structuralism and moved away from focusing on the structure of the mind to a concern with how the conscious is related to behavior... How does the mind affect what people do? One of the major proponents of Functionalism was Thorndike (created the ever-popular puzzle box) who studied the primary issue of functionalism...WHAT FUNCTION DOES A BEHAVIOR HAVE. In addition, this school of thought focused on observable events as opposed to unobservable events (like what goes on in someone's mind).
Behaviorism
The school of psychology that holds that psychology should limit itself to the study of overt, observable behavior.
Social Desirability Bias
The tendency to respond to questions in a socially desirable manner.
Volunteer Bias
The type of bias that arises when people who volunteer to participate in a survey or research study have characteristics that make them unrepresentative of the population from which they were drawn.
Psychodynamic perspective
The view that behavior is influenced by the struggle between unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses and opposing forces that try to keep this threatening material out of consciousness.