Psych 111 - Exam #2
What are two basic functions of working memory?
(1) Active processing of incoming visual and auditory information, and (2) focusing our spotlight of attention.
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.
stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response.
Which theory of pitch perception would best explain a symphony audience's enjoyment of a high-pitched piccolo? How about a low-pitched cello?
place theory; frequency theory
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.
social clock
the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
proactive interference
the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.
sensory memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
embodied cognition
the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.
retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.
difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
memory consolidation
the neural storage of a long-term memory.
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).
figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.
memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there.
conservation
the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.
Weber's law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).
imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life.
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.
encoding
the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.
storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time.
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
long-term memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Pain
the sensation that warns an individual of damage to the body. Has biopsychosocial influences.
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.
audition
the sense or act of hearing.
parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.
psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.
kinesthesia [kin-ehs-THEE-zhuh]
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
instinctive drift
the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. (In operant conditioning, generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations.)
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red- green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
What are three ways we forget, and how does each of these happen?
(1) Encoding failure: Unattended information never entered our memory system. (2) Storage decay: Information fades from our memory. (3) Retrieval failure: We cannot access stored information accurately, sometimes due to interference or motivated forgetting.
What findings in psychology support (1) the stage theory of development and (2) the idea of stability in personality across the life span?
(1) Stage theory is supported by the work of Piaget (cognitive development), Kohlberg (moral development), and Erikson (psychosocial development). (2) Some traits, such as temperament, exhibit remarkable stability across many years.
What is the rapid sequence of events that occurs when you see and recognize a friend?
(light, retina, transduction, brain detector cells, interpretation, perception) Light waves reflect off the person and travel into your eyes. Receptor cells in your retina convert the light waves' energy into millions of neural impulses sent to your brain. Your brain's detector cells and work teams process the subdimensions of this visual input—including color, movement, form, and depth—separately but simultaneously. Your brain interprets this information, based on previously stored information and your expectations, and forms a conscious perception of your friend.
teratogens
(literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
What are the basic steps in transforming sound waves into perceived sound?
(outer ear, mechanical transduction, fluid waves, transduction, electrical waves, neural impulses, interpretation) The outer ear collects sound waves, which are translated into mechanical waves by the middle ear and turned into fluid waves in the inner ear. The auditory nerve then translates the energy into electrical waves and sends them to the brain, which perceives and interprets the sound.
critical period
an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development
Fill in the three blanks below with one of the following terms: positive reinforcement (PR), negative reinforcement (NR), positive punishment (PP), and negative punishment (NP).
1. PR (positive reinforcement); 2. NP (negative punishment); 3. PP (positive punishment);
Atkinson Shiffrin Memory Model
1. We record sensory memory. 2. Information is put into short-term memory, where it is encoded through rehearsal. 3. Information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.
Bitterness indicates what?
Potential poisons
Match the examples (1-5) to the appropriate underlying learning principle (a-e): a. Classical conditioning b. Operant conditioning c. Latent learning d. Observational learning e. Biological predispositions 1. Knowing the way from your bed to the bathroom in the dark 2. Your little brother getting in a fight after watching a violent action movie 3. Salivating when you smell brownies in the oven 4. Disliking the taste of chili after becoming violently sick a few hours after eating chili 5. Your dog racing to greet you on your arrival home.
ANSWER: 1.c, 2.d, 3.a, 4.e, 5.b
Instinctive drift and latent learning are examples of what important idea?
ANSWER: The success of operant conditioning is affected not just by environmental cues, but also by biological and cognitive factors.
Using sound as your example, explain how these concepts differ: absolute threshold, subliminal stimulation, and difference threshold.
Absolute threshold is the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular sound 50 percent of the time. Subliminal stimulation happens when, without your awareness, your sensory system processes a sound that is below your absolute threshold. A difference threshold is the minimum difference needed to distinguish between two stimuli.
Which strategies are better for long-term retention: cramming and rereading material, or spreading out learning over time and repeatedly testing yourself?
Although cramming and rereading may lead to short-term gains in knowledge, distributed practice and repeated self- testing will result in the greatest long-term retention.
What distinguishes imprinting from attachment?
Attachment is the normal process by which we form emotional ties with important others. Imprinting occurs only in certain animals that have a critical period very early in their development during which they must form their attachments, and they do so in an inflexible manner.
Emotions
Can move our perceptions in one direction or another.
Bob had a frightening experience immediately after hearing a strange sound. He now fears he may be aroused when hearing that sound again. This best illustrates:
Classical Conditioning
Information Processing Model of Memory
Compares human memory to computer operations, involves encoding storage, and retrieval.
Five-year-old Otto complained to his mom that the pizza was not big enough. When she cut the pizza into smaller slices, Otto was happy because he now thought that the pizza was larger. Otto lacks the concept of:
Conservation
Improved judgment and impulse control and the ability to plan for the future develops during the late teens and early twenties, largely as a result of:
Development of the frontal lobe of the brain
Although he is more than a year old, Adrian wakes up frequently during the night and is hard to soothe back to sleep. In general, he cries easily, is a fussy eater, and rarely naps at the same time every day. Adrian would most likely be categorized as:
Difficult
Twenty-three-year-old Jenna graduated from college and has a job, but she is seeking a better employment situation. She is still living at home and is dependent on her family for insurance and most meals. Jenna is in the stage of life known as:
Emerging adulthood
Sweetness indicates what?
Energy source
Connectionism information-processing model
Focuses on parallel processing, memory in this theory is a product of interconnected neuronal firings.
What do we mean when we say that, in perception, "the whole may exceed the sum of its parts"?
Gestalt psychologists used this saying to describe our grouping the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.
Motives
Gives us energy as we work toward a goal.
Sourness indicates what?
Potentially toxic acid
preoperational stage
In Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
sensorimotor stage
In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
One main difference between punishment and reinforcement is that the goal of reinforcement is to ____________ a behavior, while the goal of punishment is to ____________ a behavior.
Increase; decrease
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
Does perceptual set involve bottom-up or top-down processing? Why?
It involves top-down processing, because it draws on your experiences, assumptions, and expectations when interpreting stimuli.
gestalt
an organized whole.
Imagine being a jury member in a trial for a parent accused of sexual abuse based on a recovered memory. What insights from memory research should you offer the jury?
It will be important to remember the key points agreed upon by most researchers and professional associations: Sexual abuse, injustice, forgetting, and memory construction all happen; recovered memories are common; memories from our first four years are unreliable; memories claimed to be recovered through hypnosis are especially unreliable; and memories, whether real or false, can be emotionally upsetting.
Jason's parents and older friends all drive over the speed limit, but they advise him not to. Juan's parents and friends drive within the speed limit, but they say nothing to deter him from speeding. Will Jason or Juan be more likely to speed?
Jason may be more likely to speed. Observational learning studies suggest that children tend to do as others do and say what they say.
What are the names of the three famous stage developmental psychologists?
Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg, and Erik Ericcson
Where are the kinesthetic receptors and the vestibular sense receptors located?
Kinesthetic receptors are located in our joints, tendons, and muscles. Vestibular sense receptors are located in our inner ear.
How has Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning been criticized?
Kohlberg's work reflected an individualist worldview, so his theory is less culturally universal than he supposed.
If you try to make the material you are learning personally meaningful, are you processing at a shallow or a deep level? Which level leads to greater retention?
Making material personally meaningful involves processing at a deep level, because you are processing semantically— based on the meaning of the words. Deep processing leads to greater retention.
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff that causes your eye to blink. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?
NS = tone before conditioning; US = air puff; UR = blink to air puff; CS = tone after conditioning; CR = blink to tone
Debra regularly buckles her seatbelt simply because it turns off the car's irritating warning buzzer. This best illustrates the value of:
Negative reinforcement
Rods: What is their number in the average eye, their location in the retina, sensitivity in dim light, color sensitivity, and detail sensitivity?
Number: 120 million Location: Periphery of retina Sensitivity in dim light: High Color sensitivity: Low Detail sensitivity: Low
Cones: What is their number in the average eye, their location in the retina, sensitivity in dim light, color sensitivity, and detail sensitivity?
Number: 6 million Location: Center of retina Sensitivity in dim light: low Color sensitivity: High Detail sensitivity: High
It is 1965, and Professor B. F. Skinner is lecturing in your introductory course. He defines psychology as "the scientific study of . "
Observable behavior.
Tina is a 7-year-old girl who frequently witnesses her father's anger and physically abusive acts on her mother. Later, when she's in her room playing with her toys, she begins to yell at them and hit them for "being so stupid and not having dinner ready." Her behavior is a clear example of
Observational Learning
Your friend has experienced brain damage in an accident. He can remember how to tie his shoes but has a hard time remembering anything you tell him during a conversation. How can implicit versus explicit information processing explain what's going on here?
Our explicit conscious memories of facts and episodes differ from our implicit memories of skills (such as tying shoelaces) and classically conditioned responses. The parts of the brain involved in explicit memory processing (the frontal lobes and hippocampus) may have sustained damage in the accident, while the parts involved in implicit memory processing (the cerebellum and basal ganglia) appear to have escaped harm.
What is priming?
Priming is the activation (often without our awareness) of associations. Seeing a gun, for example, might temporarily predispose someone to interpret an ambiguous face as threatening or to recall a boss as nasty.
What—given the commonness of source amnesia—might life be like if we remembered all our waking experiences and all our dreams?
Real experiences would be confused with those we dreamed. When seeing someone we know, we might therefore be unsure whether we were reacting to something they previously did or to something we dreamed they did.
What is the rough distinction between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the bottom-up process by which your sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimuli. Perception is the top-down process by which your brain creates meaning by organizing and interpreting what your senses detect.
Experiencing sudden pain is to _____________ as recognizing that you are suffering a heart attack is to _____________.
Sensation; Perception.
Millie has been having difficulties remembering what people have just said. And she is unable to follow along during her favorite television shows. Millie is having difficulty with her __________ memory.
Short-term
Saltiness indicates what?
Sodium essential to physiological processes
How does the working memory concept update the classic Atkinson-Shiffrin three-stage information-processing model?
The newer idea of a working memory emphasizes the active processing that we now know takes place in Atkinson- Shiffrin's short-term memory stage. While the Atkinson- Shiffrin model viewed short-term memory as a temporary holding space, working memory plays a key role in processing new information and connecting it to previously stored information.
People who send spam e-mail are reinforced by which schedule? Home bakers checking the oven to see if the cookies are done are on which schedule? Sandwich shops that offer a free sandwich after every 10 sandwiches purchased are using which reinforcement schedule?
Spammers are reinforced on a variable-ratio schedule (after sending a varying number of e-mails). Cookie checkers are reinforced on a fixed-interval schedule. Sandwich shop programs use a fixed-ratio schedule.
Which memory strategies can help you study smarter and retain more information?
Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material to boost long-term recall. Schedule spaced (not crammed) study times. Make the material personally meaningful, with well-organized and vivid associations. Refresh your memory by returning to contexts and moods that activate retrieval cues. Use mnemonic devices. Minimize interference. Plan for a complete night's sleep. Test yourself repeatedly—retrieval practice is a proven retention strategy.
The four parenting styles may be described as "too hard, too soft, too uncaring, and just right." Which parenting style goes with each of these descriptions, and how do children benefit from the "just right" style?
The authoritarian style would be described as too hard, the permissive style too soft, the negligent style too uncaring, and the authoritative style just right. Parents using the authoritative style tend to have children with high self- esteem, self-reliance, self-regulation, and social competence.
Frequency or Temporal Theory (long definition)
The brain reads pitch by monitoring the frequency of neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve. The whole basilar membrane vibrates with the incoming sound wave, triggering neural impulses to the brain at the same rate as the sound wave. If the sound wave has a frequency of 100 waves per second, then 100 pulses per second travel up the auditory nerve. But frequency theory also has a problem: An individual neuron cannot fire faster than 1000 times per second. How, then, can we sense sounds with frequencies above 1000 waves per second (roughly the upper third of a piano keyboard)? Enter the volley principle: Like soldiers who alternate firing so that some can shoot while others reload, neural cells can alternate firing. By firing in rapid succession, they can achieve a combined frequency above 1000 waves per second.
If the aroma of a baking cake sets your mouth to watering, what is the US? The CS? The CR?
The cake (including its taste) is the US. The associated aroma is the CS. Salivation to the aroma is the CR.
Which parts of the brain are important for implicit memory processing, and which parts play a key role in explicit memory processing?
The cerebellum and basal ganglia are important for implicit memory processing, and the frontal lobes and hippocampus are key to explicit memory formation.
sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
What does theory of mind have to do with autism spectrum disorder?
Theory of mind focuses on our ability to understand our own and others' mental states. Those with autism spectrum disorder struggle with this ability.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Samantha is interpreting new sensory information within the framework of a past memory she has. This illustrates:
Top-down processing.
How do we normally perceive depth?
We are normally able to perceive depth thanks to (1) binocular cues and (2) monocular cues.
How does our system for sensing smell differ from our sensory systems for touch and taste?
We have four basic touch senses and five taste sensations. But we have no specific smell receptors. Instead, different combinations of odor receptors send messages to the brain, enabling us to recognize some 1 trillion different smells.
According to the _________________, the retina has three types of color receptors, each of which is sensitive to one of three colors: red, green, or blue.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
preparedness
a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value.
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
cochlea [KOHK-lee-uh]
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
monocular cue
a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone.
binocular cue
a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes.
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.
autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.
conduction hearing loss
a less common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.
recognition
a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
echoic memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage.
Alzheimer's disease
a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities.
working memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.
emerging adulthood
a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
reconsolidation
a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again.
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors
dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. Example: The cocktail party effect.
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli; as a result, to illustrate with Pavlov's classic experiment, the first stimulus (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food).
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.
neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)
acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia.
The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called _________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is called ________.
acquisition, extinction
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored or forgotten.
accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation.
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.
anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories.
long-term potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Subliminal Persuasion
behavior change induced by subliminal processing
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
Which of the following options has NOT been proven to reduce pain? a. Distraction b. Hypnosis c. Phantom limb sensations d. Endorphins
c.
Developmental researchers who emphasize learning and experience are supporting ___________; those who emphasize biological maturation are supporting ___________.
continuity; stages.
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
Subliminal Sensation
detection of stimuli below absolute threshold
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
With classical conditioning, we learn associations between events we _______ (do/do not) control. With operant conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and __________ (resulting/random) events.
do not; resulting
sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness)
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; the most common form of hearing loss, also called nerve deafness.
Gestalt psychologists
emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
shallow processing
encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.
deep processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
semantic memory
explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory).
episodic memory
explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory).
source amnesia
faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. (p. 322)
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.
According to the ____________ theory, the spinal cord contains a neurological opening that either blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.
gate-control theory
Infants' ___________ to repeated stimulation helps developmental psychologists study what they can learn and remember.
habituation
Sensory adaptation helps us focus on
important changes in the environment.
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood.
egocentrism
in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.
concrete operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
formal operational stage
in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
scaffold
in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
acquisition
in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. (In operant conditioning, the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced.)
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch. (Also called temporal theory.)
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.
assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.
observational learning
learning by observing others.
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning).
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Increased efficiency at the synapses is evidence of the neural basis of learning and memory. This is called:
long-term potentiation
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backward, or loss of memory for the past
The amplitude of a sound wave determines our perception of___________
loudness
The longer the sound waves, the___________(lower/higher) their frequency and the___________(higher/lower) their pitch.
lower, lower.
The biological growth process, called _____________, explains why most children begin walking by about 12 to 15 months.
maturation
mnemonics [nih-MON-iks]
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.
misinformation effect
occurs when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event.
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.
serial position effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list
theory of mind
people's ideas about their own and others' mental states— about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.
According to Kohlberg, ___________ morality focuses on self-interest, ___________ morality focuses on self-defined ethical principles, and ___________ morality focuses on upholding laws and social rules.
preconventional; postconventional; conventional.
Place theory (long definition)
presumes that we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane. Thus, the brain determines a sound's pitch by recognizing the specific place (on the membrane) that is generating the neural signal. When Nobel laureate-to-be Georg von Békésy (1957) cut holes in the cochleas of guinea pigs and human cadavers and looked inside with a microscope, he discovered that the cochlea vibrated, rather like a shaken bedsheet, in response to sound. High frequencies produced large vibrations near the beginning of the cochlea's membrane. Low frequencies vibrated more of the membrane and were not so easily localized. So there is a problem: Place theory can explain how we hear high-pitched sounds but not low- pitched sounds.
encoding specificity
principle the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it.
parallel processing
processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.
Gretta is 85 years old and having trouble with her hearing. She worked in a factory for many years at a time before there were regulations against too-high noise levels. The most likely reasons for her sensorineural hearing loss are normal aging and:
prolonged exposure to ear-splitting noise or music.
Umami indicates what?
proteins to grow and repair tissue
For his chemistry test in two days, Tarik has to memorize the elements on the periodic table. He writes them on index cards and then keeps the cards with him at all times, periodically reading through them. Tarik is using _______________ to encode information for storage.
rehearsal
partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
Freud believed that we ___________ unacceptable memories to minimize anxiety.
repress
Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) _______ behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) ______ behavior.
respondent; operan
explicit memory
retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)
implicit memory
retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
cones
retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.
While taking an American history exam, Marie was surprised and frustrated by her momentary inability to remember the name of the first president of the United States. Her difficulty most clearly illustrates:
retrieval failure
You will experience less _______ (proactive/retroactive) interference if you learn new material in the hour before sleep than you will if you learn it before turning to another subject.
retroactive
continuous reinforcement
schedule reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
sensory receptors
sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.
When we are tested immediately after viewing a list of words, we tend to recall the first and last items best, which is known as the ______________ effect.
serial position
Ricardo distributes his study time rather than cramming because he wants to retain the information for the long term. He is using the ___________ effect.
spacing
Ralph came home quite drunk from a party on Saturday night. (Luckily he was given a ride home.) Once in the apartment, he threw his keys down somewhere and immediately fell asleep. He may not be able to find his keys again until he is once again drunk because of:
state-dependent memory
posthypnotic
suggestion a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.
déjà vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships.
perceptual adaptation
the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response.
intensity
the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height).
Which brain area responds to stress hormones by helping to create stronger memories?
the amygdala
object permanence
the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
retroactive interference
the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.
automatic processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
The first two weeks of prenatal development is the period of the ___________. The period of the ___________ lasts from 9 weeks after conception until birth. The time between those two prenatal periods is considered the period of the ___________.
zygote; fetus; embryo
