psych 120A final exam

Think of the two strings and the candle on the wall problems. In both cases, in order to solve the problem you need to overcome, specifically, (a) functional fixedness , and in the water-jug problem you need to overcome (a) mental set

(a) functional fixedness; (a) mental set

Select the best option for each theory of reasoning - Is based on the idea that mental representations are propositional and language-like in nature. - Is based on the idea that mental representations are diagrammatic in nature.

- Mental Rules - Mental Models

According to Vygotsky, the relationship between language and thought is dynamic and changes over time. Order the three main phases of the relationship between language and thought in the order in which they occur in development according to Vygotsky:

1. Language and thought are unrelated 2. Speech serves an external function 3. Speech serves an internal function

Using the example presented above, you should turn over the card with the 'E' and the to determine whether the rule was true or not.

7

According to Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence, when you solve a mathematical problem you are making use of your Analytical intelligence

Analytical intelligence

Consider the following scenario similar to that used in the Wason (1960) 4-card selection task. RULE: If the light is blue then the door is closed. In front of you are 4 cards. Each card has the color of a light on one side and a door on the other. Match each of the four cards to the logic inference they represent.

CARD WITH: Blue light → Modus Ponens, CARD WITH: Door closed → Affirmation of the Consequent, CARD WITH: Green light → Denial of the Antecedent, CARD WITH: Open door → Modus Tollens

Syntax is the systematic way in which specific words can be combined and sequenced in order to generate meaningful phrases and sentences. Select one: True False

False

_______are 'rules of thumb' type shortcuts to solving problems.

Heuristics

confuse the colors yellow and orange in tests of color recognition. This finding supports

Linguistic Relativism/Determinism

Match each theory to the position it takes in the debate on the relationship between language and thought: Language serves as an organizing principle for thought Thought development is necessary for language development Language and thought begin as independent aspects of the human mind and grow to be interconnected during development Thought is prior to language

Linguistic Relativism/Determinism, Piaget Vygotsky Universalism

Kay & Regier (2007) assessed color labels in 110 different languages. When they looked at languages with the same number of color words, they noticed that they all placed their color labels in similar sectors of the color space. This finding is consistent with Universalism . Second, they found that the exact boundaries separating the different color words were flexible and slightly different from language to language. This finding is consistent with Linguistic Relativism/Determinism

Universalism; Linguistic Relativism/Determinism

Being unable to think about a hammer as anything else than a tool used to pounds nails into a wall means that you are focusing on a specific characteristic of the hammer referred to as a __________. a Fixation b Well-defined problem c Heuristic d Problem

a Fixation

A fundamental distinction between deductive and inductive reasoning is that: a deduction starts with rules and induction infers rules from observations. b induction starts with rules and deduction infers rules from observations. c conclusions from induction are never wrong. d conclusions from deduction are never wrong.

a deduction starts with rules and induction infers rules from observations.

Chase and Simon (1973a, 1974b) studied the memories of expert and novice chess players for the arrangement of chess pieces on a chess board. They found that: a experts did better than novices only when pieces were in actual game arrangements. b experts did better than novices in all conditions. c experts have a higher IQ score than novices. d novices did better than experts only when pieces were in actual game arrangements.

a experts did better than novices only when pieces were in actual game arrangements.

The tendency to rely on information that quickly comes to mind when trying to make a decision is known as ... a. Availability heuristic b. Affect heuristic c. Representativeness heuristic d. Anchoring heuristic

a. Availability heuristic

Imagine the following scenario: You are out with a friend and you see a pen that you like, but it costs $50 and you don't think it's worth that much so you don't buy it. On your birthday someone gifts you that pen. A few days later, someone sees that pen and asks you if you would sell it to them. You say that you'd be willing to sell it for $50. The fact that the value that you attach to the pen changed in this scenario is an example of ... a. Endowment effect b. Framing effect c. Availability heuristic d. IKEA effect

a. Endowment effect

Poodle is to dogs, as _________is to _________. a. Exemplar; category b. Exemplar; feature c. Feature; category d. Category; concept

a. Exemplar; category

Bartlett's research was influential because it demonstrated which of the following? a. Our memories are influenced by our previous knowledge and beliefs b. Everyone shares the same schematic knowledge c. People's memories are usually quite inaccurate d. Our memories are influenced by task instructions

a. Our memories are influenced by our previous knowledge and beliefs

Metcalfe and Wiebe (1987) gave participants insight and non-insight problems. Participants reported every 15 seconds how close they felt they were to a solution by indicating their feeling of warmth. It was found that when solving a non-insight problem, participants: a. Predicted with some accuracy how close they were to solving the problem b. Did no better than when solving insight problems c. Were very poor at estimating how close they were to the final solution d. Took a lot longer and need more cues to solve the problem

a. Predicted with some accuracy how close they were to solving the problem

A productive process involves a. The restructuring of information b. Only experience and stored information c. Only non-insight problems d. Trial and error learning

a. The restructuring of information

In the lexical decision task, participants have to: a. decide whether a string of letters is a real word or not. b. define the meaning of words. c. recognize words in strings of letters. d. decide if a word is a verb, noun, adjective, etc.

a. decide whether a string of letters is a real word or not.

The most fundamental difference between human and animal language is the presence or absence of a(n) ___ a. Grammar b. Expression c. Vocal tract d. Punctuation mark

a. grammar

This principle states that we tend to attach incoming words to the phrase we are currently processing rather than assuming they belong to a different phrase that is still coming up. a Late closure b Parsing c Lexical decision d Parsing closure

a. late closure

The children of pidgin speakers take the broken language of their parents and turn it into a fully expressive new language, called a creole. This is an example of: a. people acquiring grammar without sufficient stimuli. b people acquiring grammar with sufficient stimuli. c. the relationship between all languages of the world. d the ambiguity of words.

a. people acquiring grammar without sufficient stimuli.

When TV announcers say something like, "How much would you pay? $200...how about $150...if you call now, we'll give it to you for the amazing price of just....", they are trying to get people to focus and rely on an initial piece of information (i.e., the price being $150-$200). This is related to which heuristic? a Affect b Anchoring c Availability d Confirmation

b Anchoring

The process of ___ is choosing a specific course of behavioral actions from among many possibilities. a Reasoning b Decision making c Cognition d Experience

b Decision making

In order to quantify creativity, we count the number of different ideas an individual can generate. This is called _________. a Fluid ideation b Ideational fluency c Creativity counter d Creative fluency

b Ideational fluency

Deciding what parts of a problem are irrelevant to solving it tends to be more difficult when you are dealing with what type of problem? a Well-defined b Ill-defined c Difficult d Easy

b Ill-defined

Why do people rate tornadoes to be a greater cause of death than asthma when, in fact, asthma kills 20 times more people than tornadoes? a People know more people that have died from asthma. b People have a tendency to rely on information that quickly comes to mind. c People underestimate the risk of events that generate a strong emotional reaction. d People make decisions that lead to quick decisions.

b People have a tendency to rely on information that quickly comes to mind.

A challenge during language processing that occurs when we speak because we do not pause between words in a sentence. a Phonemic restoration effect b Speech segmentation c McGurk effect d Phonological ambiguity

b Speech segmentation

The word "bananas" has how many morphemes? a One b Two c Three d Four

b Two

Choose the item that you think would most likely cause a belief bias. a Taking your time to consider whether you believe a syllogism b Working too quickly through a syllogism c Having beliefs that are considered outside of the norm d Having a clear and logical thought pattern

b Working too quickly through a syllogism

Using the lexical decision task, Swinney (1979) questioned whether the brain entertains, and therefore activates the multiple meanings of a word, such as bug (as in insect and a spying device). He found that: a we do not activate multiple meanings of a word. b we activate multiple meanings for a very short period of time. c we activate multiple meanings for as long as the information is in short-term memory (15-30 seconds). d we only activate both meanings of a word if the context is ambiguous.

b we activate multiple meanings for a very short period of time.

Why are context effects a problem for the prototype view of categorization? a Because not everyone has the same idea about what "context" means b Because prototype theory doesn't explain how characteristic features can differ between contexts c Because family resemblance changes across contexts d Because prototype theory doesn't account for individual differences in typicality ratings

b. Because prototype theory doesn't explain how characteristic features can differ between contexts

The tendency to think that the probability of a random event is modified by previous random events is known as ... a. Affect heuristic b. Gambler's fallacy c. Representativeness heuristic d. Conjunction fallacy

b. Gambler's fallacy

The smallest unit of speech that can change the meaning of a word is a(n) a. Speech segmentation b. Phoneme c. Morpheme d. Articulation

b. Phoneme

Select all the examples of information that is stored in semantic memory from the list below. a. Your memory of your first day of college b. The definition of semantic memory c. What you did on your 16th birthday party d. How old you are e. The words to your favorite song f. Knowing what a phone is used for g. What happened the first time you traveled by plane h. Remembering what sound the letter "d" makes

b. The definition of semantic memory d. How old you are e. The words to your favorite song f. Knowing what a phone is used for h. Remembering what sound the letter "d" makes

Think of the O'Kaine and Spelke (2001) experiment on number cognition in bilingual speakers of Spanish and English. If Spelke's hypothesis is correct, how do you expect participants to perform, on facts and calculation concerning approximate large numbers, in the trained versus untrained language? [Please do not consider things such as context effect, think only about Spelke's theory] a. They should be better in the trained language b. They should be equally accurate in the two languages c. They should be better in the untrained language

b. They should be equally accurate in the two languages

Using the Phonemic Restoration Effect, Warren (1970) found that most participants did not notice when the 's' sound in the word 'legislature' was removed and replaced with the sound of someone coughing. He suggested this occurred because there was a ____________ effect a. Bottom-up b. Top-down c. Phonetic d. Garden path

b. Top-down

Computing math problems and playing games such as chess are considered what types of problems? a. Insight problem b. Well-defined problem c. Ill-defined problem d. Restructuring problem

b. Well-defined problem

________-defined problems refer to problems that do not have a direct path to achieving the desired goal. a Well b Ill c Creatively d Basic

b. ill

When people notice similarities between past problems and current ones and use the same problem-solving techniques that have worked in the past they are creating: a Fixations b Mental sets c Prototypes d Trial and error

b. mental sets

Imagine a patient who is unable to name pictures of everyday objects (such as scissors) but is able to demonstrate how to use them. Does this patient likely have semantic dementia? a. yes b. no

b. no

Deaf isolates, who can't hear but are not exposed to any real sign language, a. never develop any form of sign language even if exposed to it by others. b. often develop some form of sign language even if not exposed to it by others. c. only develop some form of sign language even if they are exposed to it by others. d. develop some form of sign language if they had some hearing ability at birth.

b. often develop some form of sign language even if not exposed to it by others.

Alex the Parrot's language abilities included the ability to: a. understand lots of words, but not abstract terms such as color and shape. b. understand lots of words including abstract terms such as color and shape. c. mimic human speech without having an understanding of the terms. d. understand 50-100 words.

b. understand lots of words including abstract terms such as color and shape.

According to knowledge-based theories of categorization, we know an apple is a fruit because a. we have seen other similar fruits b. we have an implicit understanding of what makes something a fruit c. we test unconscious theories of category membership d. we have an innate ability to categorize natural categories, such as fruits

b. we have an implicit understanding of what makes something a fruit

___________-defined problems have correct answers, and certain procedures lead us to them. a. Ill b. Well c. Expert d. Basic

b. well

Maier (1931) provided participants with useful and useless hints to solve the two string problem. Some of the participants who correctly solved the problem mentioned the useless cues as helping them. This demonstrates a lack of _____________ of the nature of insight! a Control b Understanding c Consciousness d Unconsciousness

c Consciousness

According to Sternberg's triarchic theory, people who are 'street smart' have a high level of _______ intelligence. a Creative b Analytical c Practical d Standard

c Practical

Reasoning begins with ______________, which can be thought of as statements that can be true or false and can refer to properties of the external world. a Deductions b Decisions c Propositions d Inductions

c Propositions

People often do better in a Wason-card-like task if the rule they are checking involve: a Abstract meanings b Letters and numbers c Real-life examples d Impossible events

c Real-life examples

Problem solving by using previous experiences and what is already known is referred to as a: a. Trial and error process b Productive process c Reproductive process d Conscious process

c Reproductive process

Language learning begins: a around one year after birth. b shortly after birth. c before birth. d around two years after birth.

c before birth.

According to Collins and Quillian's model, which statement should you confirm the fastest? a. A poodle is an animal b. A fish breathes c. A canary is a bird d. A mouse has skin

c. A canary is a bird

Sometimes, just because the conclusion statement of an invalid deduction is true, reasoners are tempted to think that the deduction is actually valid. This effect is known as ... a. Atmosphere heuristic b. Modus tollens c. Belief bias d. Truethfulness heuristic

c. Belief bias

Pollack and Picketts' (1964) study where they recorded conversations of students and spliced out individual words from the recording demonstrated that a. We are very good at recognizing our own voice b. Speech segmentation exists c. Context plays an important role in speech perception d.It is easy to forget what you just sai

c. Context plays an important role in speech perception

Chase and Simon (1973a, 1974b) showed that expert chess players are far superior to novices in their memory for chess arrangements. They found that experts were able to remember more pieces in actual game arrangements. However, when the arrangement was a random placement of pieces: a. Experts still did better than novices b. Experts were faster at detecting the relevant areas c. Experts did no better than novices d. Novices did better than experts

c. Experts did no better than novices

How are prototype theory and exemplar theory different from each other? a. Only prototype theory can explain typicality effects b. Only exemplar theory considers the similarity between items c They differ in the number of items that are stored in memory d. They differ in how they define category features

c. They differ in the number of items that are stored in memory

The experiment by Tanenhaus and colleagues 1995 demonstrates that a. We parse sentences also with the help of their semantic content. b. We first derive the parsing of a sentence on the basis of syntax alone c. We make use of non-linguistic cues to parse sentences

c. We make use of non-linguistic cues to parse sentences

Alex the parrot, Washoe, and Nim demonstrated that: a. animals are unable to produce true language, unless they were taught from birth. b. animals are able to produce true language, with extensive training. c. animals are unable to produce true language, even with extensive training. d. animals produce true language, even in the wild.

c. animals are unable to produce true language, even with extensive training.

Prosody is _____ sounds are produced. a When b Why c How d Where

c. how

Imagine you are preparing for a math test. Unbeknownst to you, all the practice problems you use are all based on the same strategy to find the solution. At testing, the professor gives you a problem that requires a different strategy and you struggle with it. This is an example of how a. mental sets can help you solve novel problems b. functional fixedness can affect your ability to solve problems c. mental sets can interfere with your ability to solve novel problems d. mental sets are similar to functional fixation

c. mental sets can interfere with your ability to solve novel problems

B.F. Skinner proposed that all of language is learned based on: a. modeling and formal training. b. reinforcement and inborn mechanisms. c. reinforcement and modeling. d. genes and formal training.

c. reinforcement and modeling

What is the term for acquiring and processing information about the world in order to make behavioral decisions?

cognition

People are generally worse at correctly identifying a syllogism as invalid than they are at establishing that they are valid. This suggests that there is a type of [Confirmation bias] when evaluating syllogisms.

confirmation bias

What is the term for the tendency that people have to look for evidence that supports their current views rather than disprove them?

confirmation bias

One-shot learning refers to: a cases where we extrapolate from a limited number of observations to draw a conclusion. b going from observations about a group to an inference about an individual. c to a mathematical model for incorporating existing beliefs with new data. d learning a concept from a single example.

d learning a concept from a single example.

Which of the following is true of a prototype? a. It is a mental abstraction that doesn't have to be a real object b. It has the most family resemblance of all category members c. It has the largest number of characteristic features of all category members d. All of the above

d. All of the above

Why is it a problem for the classical approach to categorization that people believe some category members are "better" exemplars than others? a. Because the classical approach believes that category membership relies on lists of sufficient features b. Because the classical approach does not allow for individual's value judgments c. Because it is nearly impossible to identify defining category features for most categories d. Because, according to the classical approach, category membership is all-or-none

d. Because, according to the classical approach, category membership is all-or-none

Which of the following is NOT a function of semantic knowledge? a. Helps us predict how to behave in a new situation b. Helps us make inferences about information c. Helps us create an organized, connected understanding of the world d. Helps us create meaningful connections to other people

d. Helps us create meaningful connections to other people

Which is the best example of functional fixedness? a. Using a shoe as a hammer b. Using a pencil to play drums c. Using a feather as a bookmark d. Using a pair of kitchen tongs to grab something out of reach

d. Using a pair of kitchen tongs to grab something out of reach

Allen and Brook's (1991) experiments with "builders" and "diggers" provides evidence that a people can use similarity to categorize new exemplars when not given an explicit rule about categorization b. exemplar theories of categorization are unlikely how people form categories c. people can easily learn new categories d. people learn about categories based on how similar category members are to each other

d. people learn about categories based on how similar category members are to each other

Noam Chomsky proposed that: a. language is learned through reinforcement and modeling. b. language learning is not an inborn capacity. c. there is an innate capacity to learn language that is present only after experience with language. d. there is an innate capacity to learn language that is present prior to any actual language experience.

d. there is an innate capacity to learn language that is present prior to any actual language experience.

The topic of the following sentence exemplifies, in particular, which property of language: "Dark matter was was discovered by Fritz Zwicky in 1933." a. Organization at multiple levels b. Displacement c. Structure Dependence d. (Arbitrary) Symbolism e. Discrete Infinity f. all of the above

f. all of the above

According to Gleitman and Papafragou, the fact that language is very specific while thoughts can be ambiguous and need context to be properly interpreted suggests that language and thought cannot be the same thing. Select one: True False

false

Wynn (1992) demonstrated that infants are able to make exact small number calculations (e.g., 1+1=2 and 2-1=1). [The question starts here] This finding shows that language is necessary for certain forms of thought to emerge. Select one: True False

false

The most fundamental difference between human and animal language is the presence or absence of a blank1 - Word Answer for combining words.

grammar

What is the term for words such as 'ate' and 'eight' or 'son' and 'sun' (English words that sound the same but have different meanings)?

homophone

According to the hub-and-spoke model, the anterior temporal lobe corresponds to the _________ component of the model.

hub

An ___________ problem is one in which the solution occurs suddenly onto your consciousness, while a _________ problem is distinguished by the process of consciously working through each step of a problem to arrive at a solution.

insight, non-insight

Kahneman and Tversky demonstrated that people are often predictably

irrational

According to B.F. Skinner, language is mainly learned , whereas according to Chomsky language is largely innate

learned; innate

Tenehaus et al. (1995) presented participants with sentences about apples and towels while tracking their eye movements. It was found that --------ambiguity can be overcome by the contextual environment.

parsing

Noam Chomsky's argument that some language capabilities must be innate because the rules of grammar are often ambiguous just based on examples is called:

poverty of the stimulus

Inductive inferences are about whether the conclusion is [probable]. Deductive inferences are about whether the conclusion is [certain]

probable; certain

Say you are trying to decide which laptop to buy among several alternatives. First, you read about each laptop and their features and, from that, you try to infer how well each might perform for the kind of use that you need -- this is an example of reasoning . Then, with all this information at hand you pick which one you think you will like best -- this is an example of decision making

reasoning, decision making

To do this to information, you have to actively manipulate it and change its representation in your mind.

restructure/ restructuring

According to the theory of statistical learning , language learning is in large part based on the ability to extract regularities from the language we are exposed to.

statistical learning

According to the idea of Linguistic Relativism, the mechanism through which language affects thought is the variability of vocabulary and grammar across languages. Select one: True False

true

Ill-defined problems are problems in which the initial state, rules of the problem, or the solution (i.e., final state) are unclear. Select one: True False

true

Imagine someone suffered a brain injury which caused them to become aphasic. According to Universalism, this should not affect their ability to understand a number such a 42. Select one: True False

true

In their "Anagram task" experiment, Novick and Sherman (2003) showed that although insight appears sudden, it is in fact the result of an accumulation of (non-conscious) processing. Select one: True False

true

The McGurk effect demonstrates that we often make use of non-verbal cues in processing speech. Select one: True False

true

The experiment by Trueswell (1994) is evidence against the syntax-first approach. Select one: True False

true

The fact that people show framing effects when choosing among options is inconsistent with Expected Utility Theory. true false

true

Collins and Loftus proposed a Spreading activation model of semantic knowledge because a hierarchical model couldn't explain _________, which had been demonstrated empirically.

typicality effects

Participants give _________when they rate whether exemplars are good examples of a category.

typicality ratings

When evaluating syllogisms, people are generally ____________ at correctly identifying a syllogism as invalid and ____________ at establishing that they are valid, which demonstrates a type of confirmation bias.

worse; better