psych 21 exam 2
22. What is the most frequent cause for death of children, worldwide?
#1 accidents, #2 drowning
84. Define seriation (Piaget).
***children realize that things can be arranged in a logical sense(alphabets, numbers, etc.)
51. What is the range for IQ that is considered normal?
100
Hypothalamus
A brain area that responds to the amygdala and the hippocampus as well as various experiences to produce hormones that activate the pituitary and other parts of the brain and body.
hippocampus
A brain structure that is a central processor of memory.
24. Use of "time-out" is most often used by what segment of the population? For which age group?
A disciplinary technique in which a person is separated from other people and activities for a specified time. A disciplinary technique often used with young children in North America is the time-out, in which a misbehaving child is required to sit quietly, without toys or playmates, for a short time. head start- 3 y/o
70. What is the nuclear family? How common is it in the United States?
A family that consists of a father, a mother, and their biological children under age 18. Nuclear families are composed of children and their biological parents (married or not) without other relatives in the same home. Other two-parent structures include adoptive, foster, step, same-sex, and grandparents. More than two-thirds of all U.S. school-age children live with two married adults. Nuclear family (55%). Named after the nucleus (the tightly connected core particles of an atom), the nuclear family consists of a man and a woman and their biological offspring under 18 years of age. About half of all school-age children live in nuclear families. About 10 percent of such families also include a grandparent, and often an aunt or uncle, living under the same roof. These are extended families.
15. Define "kinship care".
A form of foster care in which a relative, usually a grandmother, becomes the approved caregiver.
corpus callosum
A long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between them.
44. What best describes the child's level of coping with learning disabilities? What is dyslexia?
A specific learning disorder characterized by unusual difficulty with reading.
47. What is "immersion learning"?
A strategy in which instruction in all school subjects occurs in the second (usually the majority) language that a child is learning. Methods for teaching children the majority language range from immersion, in which instruction occurs entirely in the new language, to the opposite, in which children are taught in their first language until the second language can be taught as a "foreign" tongue (a rare strategy in the United States but common elsewhere).
amygdala
A tiny brain structure that registers emotions, particularly fear and anxiety.
73. What common characteristic do bullies share?
According to Kohlberg, intellectual maturation advances moral thinking. Unlike bully-victims, most bullies are not rejected. Although some have low self-esteem, others are proud; they are pleased with themselves and have allies who admire them and classmates who fear them. some are quite popular, with bullying a form of social dominance and authority. Over the years of middle childhood, bullies become skilled at avoiding adult awareness, picking victims who are rejected by most classmates and who will not resist or tell. Boy bullies usually physically attack smaller, weaker boys. Girl bullies usually use words to attack shyer, more soft-spoken girls. Young boys may bully girls, although girls ignore rather than bully boys. By puberty (about age 11), cross-sex bullying usually stops, and sexual teasing becomes apparent. Boys who are thought to be gay become targets; suicide attempts are one consequence
43. How does Kanner decribe autism?
Any of several conditions characterized by inadequate social skills, impaired communication, and unusual play.
41. Define Baumrind's parenting styles. Describe their respective impact on child development.
Authoritarian parents raise children who become conscientious, obedient, and quiet but not especially happy. Such children tend to feel guilty or depressed, internalizing their frustrations and blaming themselves when things don't go well. As adolescents, they sometimes rebel, leaving home before age 20. Permissive parents raise children who lack self-control, especially in the give-and-take of peer relationships. Inadequate emotional regulation makes them immature and impedes friendships, so they are unhappy. They tend to continue to live at home, still dependent on their parents in adulthood. Authoritative parents raise children who are successful, articulate, happy with themselves, and generous with others. These children are usually liked by teachers and peers, especially in cultures that value individual initiative (e.g., the United States). Neglectful/uninvolved parents raise children who are immature, sad, lonely, and at risk of injury and abuse, not only in early childhood but also lifelong.
20. By what age do children use the rules of grammar?
Children apply rules of grammar as soon as they figure them out. They use their own theories about how language works and use their personal experiences regarding when various rules apply
35. What is the learning theory explanation for gender development?
Cognitive theory offers an alternative explanation for the strong gender identity that becomes apparent at about age 5 (Kohlberg et al., 1983). Remember that cognitive theorists focus on how children understand various ideas. One idea that children develop is the difference between the sexes. A gender schema is the child's understanding of male-female differences
79. According to Piaget, how does thinking change during middle childhood?
Concrete operational: productive thinking, logical operations, apply reasoning skills to concrete situations. Thinking During Early Childhood 7. Piaget stressed the illogical and egocentric aspects of thought during the play years; he called thinking at this stage preoperational because young children often cannot yet use logical operations. They sometimes focus on only one thing (centration) and see things only from their own viewpoint (egocentrism), remaining stuck on appearances and current reality, unable to understand reversibility. 8. Vygotsky stressed the social aspects of childhood cognition, noting that children learn by participating in various experiences, guided by more knowledgeable adults or peers who scaffold to aid learning. Such guidance assists learning within the zone of proximal development. 9. Children develop theories to explain human actions. One theory about children's thinking is called theory-theory—the hypothesis that children develop theories because people innately seek explanations for everything they observe. 10. In early childhood, children develop a theory of mind—an understanding of what others may be thinking. Advances in theory of mind occur at around age 4. Theory of mind is partly the result of brain maturation, but culture and experiences also have an impact.
27. What are the four dimensions of parenting styles, and their affects on the child?
Expressions of warmth; strategies for discipline; Communication; Expectations for maturity
77. At what stage of development are children beginning to assimilate cultural values?
In middle childhood, children seek to differentiate right from wrong. Peer values, cultural standards, and family practices are all part of each child's morality.
34. For the young child, what is "private speech." Is it normal?
Internal dialogue when people talk to themselves through which ideas are developed and reinforced. Verbal interaction is a cognitive tool.
38. Distinguish between a child's internalizing and externalizing a problem.
Internalizing behaviors are negative behaviors that are focused inward. They include fearfulness, social withdrawal, and somatic complaints. ... Bullying, vandalism, and arson are examples of externalizing behaviors. Both internalizing and externalizing behaviors result in rejection and dislike by peers and adults.
18. According to your text book, what is now considered one of the main possible causes for autism?
It is known that biology is crucial (genes, copy number abnormalities, birth complications, prenatal injury, perhaps chemicals during fetal or infant development) and that family nurture does not cause ASD but may modify it. Social and language engagement of the child early in life seems the most promising treatment.
lateralization
Literally, sidedness, referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity.
19. What is the difference between fine and gross motor skills?
Mastery of gross and fine motor skills results not only from body growth and maturation but also from extensive, active play. Children take every opportunity to exercise their bodies, and the results are obvious. Many 2-year-olds fall down and bump clumsily into each other. By contrast, some 5-year-olds are skilled and graceful. large movements; fine movements: gross and fine motor skills fine: involves using the small muscles of the hands and fingers
85. What does the research show regarding the degree of parental influence over a child's developing personality?
No one doubts that genes affect personality as well as ability, that peers are vital, and that schools and cultures influence what, and how much, children learn. Almost all personality traits and intellectual characteristics can be traced to the combined influence of genes and nonshared environments, with little left over for the shared influence of being raised together.
23. Define the "just-right" phenomenon? How does the parent best cope with this condition?
OCD like; 6 yrs; patience
21. How might the relative thickness of the corpus callosum affect handedness?
One part of the brain that grows and myelinates rapidly during early childhood is the corpus callosum, a long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right sides of the brain. Growth of the corpus callosum makes communication between the hemispheres more efficient, allowing children to coordinate the two sides of their brains and hence, both sides of their bodies.
32. Name Freud's stages of development. What stage is true for a child of five years old?
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital, -Adulthood. Age 5-Phallic
61. How might the quality of industriousness be expressed in a child?
Overall, children judge themselves as either industrious or inferior—deciding whether they are competent or incompetent, productive or useless, winners or losers. Self-pride depends not necessarily on actual accomplishments but on how others view those accomplishments. Social rejection is both a cause and a consequence of feeling inferior
63. In cases of a conflict between peer values and those of parents, which more often wins out?
Peers win. Kids may lie to protect their friends, cheat, play hookie, etc
54. Describe relational bullying versus physical bullying, and physical versus verbal bullying.
Physical (hitting, kicking, etc); Verbal (teasing, taunting, etc.)' Relational (destroying peer acceptance)
89. What are the essential functions of family structure in meeting the needs of children?
Physical necessities, Learning, self-respect, peer relationships, harmony and stability
68. According to Kohlberg, what advances an person's morality? What is the major criticism of Kohlberg's theory? Which cognitive theorist provided the basis for Kohlberg's theory? Describe their corresponding stages of development
Piaget wrote extensively about the moral development of children, as they developed and enforced their own rules for playing games together (Piaget, 1932/2013). His emphasis on how children think about moral issues led to a famous description of cognitive stages of morality (Kohlberg, 1963). According to Kohlberg, intellectual maturation advances moral thinking. Kohlberg has been criticized for not appreciating cultural or gender differences. For example, in some cultures, loyalty to family overrides any other value, so highly moral people might avoid postconventional actions that hurt their family. Also, Kohlberg's original participants were all boys, which may have led him to discount nurturance and relationships, thought to be more valued by females than males Rewards and Punishment, then payback and future again. ????
2. Distinguish between the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky.
Piaget: Preoperational Thought Preoperational intelligence is the second of Piaget's four periods of cognitive development (described in Table 1.6 on p. 29). He used the prefix pre- because children do not yet use logical operations (reasoning processes). Vygotsky: Social Learning Vygotsky emphasized another side of early cognition, the social aspects. He stressed the power of culture, acknowledging that "the culturally specific nature of experience is an integral part of how the person thinks and acts" Learning is not done in isolation; according to many contemporary educators, it depends on joint engagement. Mentors and Scaffolding Vygotsky agreed with Piaget that children are curious and observant. They ask questions—about how machines work, why weather changes, where the sky ends—and seek answers from more knowledgeable sources, called mentors. A mentor is anyone who provides guidance—teachers, older siblings, strangers, and, especially, parents. All of them are affected by their culture, and thus culture shapes a child's cognition. 7. Piaget stressed the illogical and egocentric aspects of thought during the play years; he called thinking at this stage preoperational because young children often cannot yet use logical operations. They sometimes focus on only one thing (centration) and see things only from their own viewpoint (egocentrism), remaining stuck on appearances and current reality, unable to understand reversibility. 8. Vygotsky stressed the social aspects of childhood cognition, noting that children learn by participating in various experiences, guided by more knowledgeable adults or peers who scaffold to aid learning. Such guidance assists learning within the zone of proximal development.
30. Define rough-and-tumble play. What are its benefits?
Play that seems to be rough, as in play wrestling or chasing, but in which there is no intent to harm. Many scientists think that rough-and-tumble play helps the prefrontal cortex develop, as children learn to regulate emotions, practice social skills, and strengthen their bodies (Pellis & Pellis, 2011). Indeed, some believe that play in childhood, especially rough-and-tumble play between father and son, may prevent antisocial behavior (even murder) later on
67. In Kohlberg's model, what are the three levels of moral reasoning? Give examples of each.
Preconventional (preoperational, egocentric, interested in personal pleasure and avoiding punishment); Conventional (concrete operational, watch mentors and follows examples); Postconventional (formal operational, uses abstractions, can decide "what should be")
1. What are the characteristics associated with preoperational thinking?
Preoperational intelligence is the second of Piaget's four periods of cognitive development (described in Table 1.6 on p. 29). He used the prefix pre- because children do not yet use logical operations (reasoning processes). symbolic thought In preoperational intelligence, understanding that words can refer to things not seen and that an item, such as a flag, can symbolize something else (in this case, a country); animism The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive in the way that humans are, as in a rock having emotions and a spirit.; centration A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others; egocentrism Piaget's term for children's tendency to think about other people and their own experiences as if everything revolves around them.; focus on appearance A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child assumes that the visible appearance of someone or something is also their essence.; static reasoning A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be.; irreversibility In preoperational thought, the idea that change is permanent, that nothing can be restored to the way it was before a change occurred.; conservation The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes.
81. What describes the "resilient" child?
Resilience is aided by the child's interpretation of the situation and the availability of supportive adults, peers, and institutions.The capacity to adapt well to significant adversity and to overcome serious stress.
83. Define selective attention, attention span, and metacognition.
Selective attn: focus on stimuli while ignoring others . Attn span: length of time one can focus. Metacognition: the ability to evaluate a cognitve task
80. What percentage of children live in a household headed by a single father?
Single father (4%). About 1 father in 25 has physical custody of his children and raises them witho
52. Which group is most likely to be diagnosed for ADHD.
Someone with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is often inattentive, unusually active, and impulsive. DSM-5 says symptoms must start before age 12 (in DSM-IV it was age 7) and must impact daily life. (DSM-IV said impaired, not just impacted.). One surprising comorbidity is deafness: Children with severe hearing loss often are affected in balance and activity, and that seems to make them prone to developing ADHD
8. Define a "theory of mind" and a "theory of theory". What influences the development of these abilities?
TOM: children have a limited ability to understand how others think and feel,. lacking social intelligence. TOT: Gopnik's term for the idea that children attempt to construct a theory to explain everything. theory of mind A person's theory of what other people might be thinking. Children gradually realize that other people do not always know and think what they themselves do. Theory of mind develops slowly in young children, typically emerging at about age 4. Some aspects of theory of mind develop sooner, and some later. Generally, the preschool years begin with 2-year-olds not realizing that other people think differently than they do and end with 6-year-olds aware that other minds might not know what they know
29. Which type of television viewing is most likely to cause aggression in a child? How many hours per day does the typical 2-4 year-old watch television? What percentage of three-year- old children have a television in their room?
That children copy superheroes and villains from video screens is troubling to many developmentalists 90 mins a day
at what age is a child's brain adult size?
The brain continues to grow in early childhood, reaching 75 percent of its adult weight at age 2 and 90 percent by age 5. Maturation of the prefrontal cortex, known as the executive of the brain, results in better sleep and more predictable behavior.
executive function
The cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavio
69. Define "family structure"?
The legal and genetic relationships among family members. Possible structures include nuclear family, extended family, stepfamily, single-parent family, and many others. Family structure refers to the legal and genetic connections among related people. Legal connections are via marriage, years of cohabitation, or adoption. Genetic connections are from parent to child, or between siblings, cousins, grandparents and grandchildren, and so on.
48. How do "pragmatics" in language use help children?
The practical use of language, adjusting communication according to audience and context. Without an understanding of how other people might think, children often blurt out questions that embarrass their parents ("Why is that lady so fat?" or "I won't kiss grandpa because his breath smells."). The pragmatics of polite speech require more understanding than many young children possess.
56. What are the three forms of intelligence described by Robert Sternberg?
The triarchic theory describes three distinct types of intelligence that a person can possess. Sternberg calls these three types practical intelligence, creative intelligence, and analytical intelligence
58. What is the TIMSS? What is the DSM-IV-R?
Trends in Math and Science Study (TIMSS) An international assessment of the math and science skills of fourth- and eighth-graders. DSM-IV-R-The DSM-5 diagnosis of specific learning disorder now includes disabilities in both perception and processing of information, evident in unexpected low achievement in reading, math, or writing (including spelling) (Lewandowski & Lovett, 2014). Children with specific learning disorders have difficulty mastering skills that most children acquire easily.
86. What are Erikson's stages of development? What conflict characterizes each stage?
Trust/Mistrust; Autonomy'Shame; Initiative/Guilt; Indentity/Confusion; Intimacy/Isolation; Gerativity/Stagnation; Integrity/Despair ***
17. Describe the key characteristic of foster care.
When a person (usually a child), is cared for by someone other than the parents.
42. When has been shown as the best way to combat bullying in schools? What are the long terms consequences of bullying both for the bully and the victim of bullying?
While school approach. Victims suffer depression., relationship difficulties, lower school achievement, mental illness. Bullies risk increased violence, die young, jail and destructive marriages
74. Describe the withdrawn-rejected child.
Withdrawn-rejected children are often victims; they are isolated, feel depressed, and are friendless.
62. In which ethnic group is single-parenting more likely to be supported?
african american
14. What is one of the benefits of children having imaginary friends?
aids emotion, regulation, controls fear and temper
33. Define "psychopathology".
an illness of mind, psyche
49. Distinguish between IQ tests, achievement tests, and aptitude tests.
aptitude The potential to master a specific skill or to learn a certain body of knowledge. In theory, aptitude is the potential to master a specific skill or subject, such as the potential to become an accomplished musician, engineer, or student. Learning aptitude is usually measured by answers to a series of questions achievement test A measure of mastery or proficiency in reading, mathematics, writing, science, or some other subject. In theory, achievement is what has actually been learned, distinct from aptitude. School achievement tests compare scores to norms established for each grade. For example, children of any age who read as well as the average third-grader would be at the third-grade level in reading achievement. Flynn effect The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many. Because changes in cohort and education produced intellectual growth in children, IQ tests need to be revised, updated, and renormed to keep the average score at 100—which would have been 115 two generations ago. Both major IQ tests for children, the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), are now in fifth editions, with changes to criteria for average scores. Psychologists now agree that the brain is like a muscle, affected by mental exercise—encouraged or discouraged by the social setting. Brain structures grow or shrink depending on past experience.
55. Define cognitive "automatization".
automatization A process in which repetition of a sequence of thoughts and actions makes the sequence routine, so it no longer requires conscious thought. One final advance in brain function in middle childhood is automatization, when a sequence of thoughts and actions is repeated so often that it seems to be automatic. Firing one neuron sets off a chain reaction, just as saying a few words brings to mind an entire phrase. Consider again learning to read. At first, eyes (sometimes aided by a guiding finger) focus intensely, painstakingly making out letters and sounding out each one. This slowly leads to the perception of syllables and then words. Eventually, the process becomes so routine that people driving along a highway read billboards that they have no interest in reading. Children do the same, gradually learning to read without conscious control.
39. According to Erikson, how does the preschool children view themselves?
better than everyone, high self esteem
72. Define bullying. Describe the child most likely to be a victim to bullying.
bullying Repeated, systematic efforts to inflict harm on other people through physical, verbal, or social attack on a weaker person. Bullying is defined as repeated, systematic attacks intended to harm those who are unable or unlikely to defend themselves. Children new to a school, or who do not know how to make friends, are especially vulnerable. Victims tend to be "cautious, sensitive, quiet . . . lonely and abandoned at school. As a rule, they do not have a single good friend in their class. Victims are chosen because of their emotional vulnerability and social isolation, not how they look. Children new to a school, or who do not know how to make friends, are especially vulnerable.
76. How does play serve the purpose of child development? In what way?
children learn social interaction, emotional regulation
3. What is the "zone of proximal development"?
distance between actual developmental level determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers. zone of proximal development (ZPD) In sociocultural theory, a metaphorical area, or "zone," surrounding a learner that includes all the skills, knowledge, and concepts that the person is close ("proximal") to acquiring but cannot yet master without help.
87. How does self-esteem change over the school years?
drops significantly once self-understanding and social comparison start
37. What is the key accomplishment for regulating emotion during ages 2 to 6?
effortful control
13. How are the social skills of a maltreated child affected?
enduring deficits in social skills seem more crippling than physical harm.
7. The development of emotional regulation is dependent on development of which areas of the brain?
frontal lobe(cerebral cortex) and limbic system
26. Of the various forms of aggression, which is most worrisome?
instrumental, reactive, relational, and bullying. Bullying is the most worrisome.
5. Define irreversibility, centration, egocentrism, seriation, and conservation.
irreversibility: something cannot be repaired, reversed,or changed. Centration: focus on the aspect of a situation ; contemplation of the world exclusively from child's perspective (empathy is an exception). Egocentrism: failure to distinguish the symbolic viewpoints of others from one's own (assume that others think and feel the same way they do. Seriation: children realize that things can be arranged in a logical sense(alphabets, numbers, etc.) An example of concrete logic and happens during concrete operational. Conservation: principle that amount of substance stays the same even when its appearance changes pg6-7
4. When is BMI lowest in the life-span? What is the range for overweight and obese?
is lower at ages 5 and 6 than at any other time of life. overweight:85th-94th percentile obese:> or equal to 95th percentile
what are the effects of spanking?
kids become bullies, delinquents, abusive adults. As spanking increases, so does misbehavior (Gershoff, 201
11. What is "lateralization" of the brain?
lateralization Literally, sidedness, referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity.
90. According to the research, how are children of single parenting at risk?
less income and stability, filling too many roles, depression , etc
36. How does myelination of the neuron effect neural transmission?
myelination=insulation of fatty tissue that surrounds neuron. Increased myelination decreases the rate/speed of response to stimulus, leading to faster reactions, coordination and judgement
66. Define "differential sensitivity".
one child is more affected by an event or environmental condition than the other
40. With whom do children prefer to play?
other children/peers
46. What are "codes" in communication?
pragmatic allows for people to switch linguistic codes (formal, informal, dialects, etc)
31. Give examples of pro- and anti-social behavior.
prosocial behavior Actions that are helpful and kind but that are of no obvious benefit to the person doing them. ex) Empathetic preschoolers were more likely to share, help, and play with other children in the first grade antisocial behavior. Actions that are deliberately hurtful or destructive to another person. ex) Two-year-olds find it hard to share, even to let another child use a crayon that they have already used.
64. Comparisons of oneself to peers, self-criticism, and self-consciousness leads to a decline in what for the individual?
self-esteem
88. What influences a child's resilience and ability to cope with negative conditions in their life?
social context, family support, child's interpretation of the events
25. Name and define the four kinds of play identified by Mildred Parten.
solitary- plays alone, unaware of other children. Onlooker-watches others play. Parallel-kids play with similar objects but not together. Associative-kids interact, share material, but play is not reciprocal. Cooperative-play together, taking turns
6. Define fast-mapping.
tentative general categorization ofnew words as language develops. Connect new words with underlying concepts after only a brief encounter.
50. The IQ test for preschoolers is called __________?
the Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
91. What is social cognition? What contributes to growth in this area during the school years?
the encoding retrieval and processing of social/cultural info
65. In cases of bullying, where there is a transgressor, define the term "retribution".
the transgressor is the person who breaks the rules or hurts someone. Retribution is when the victim hurts the transgressor in response
82. Define metacognition.
thinking about thinking. Ability to evaluate a cognitive task and how to accomplish it. metacognition "Thinking about thinking," or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task in order to determine how best to accomplish it and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task.
9. During language development, what is the state of "overregularization". Why does it occur?
when children apply learned rules of grammar (ex=tooth=tooths) and don't yet master pragmatics
