PSYCH 250 Exam 2
Trends in play
Researchers are concerned with the decline in the amount of free play time that children have because it has important cognitive and socioemotional benefits
Sternberg's Triarchic theory
Theory that intelligence consists of analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence (application). Students high in analytic thinking are often at the top of their class whereas students high in creative thinking are not, children who are high in practical intelligence also do not often respond well to the demands of school
ADHD
A disability in which children consistently show one or more of the following characteristics: (1) inattention, (2) hyperactivity, and (3) impulsivity. May be caused by brain damage, maternal stress, smoke exposure, biogenetic influence on brain function (frontal lobe). Can be reduced by neurofeedback, mindfulness, physical exercise Affects 5-10% of population Important to be careful when diagnosing because children diagnosed with ADHD have an increased risk of school dropout, adolescent pregnancy, substance use problems, and antisocial behavior
Neo-Piagetians
Argue that Piaget got some things right but that his theory needs considerable revision -Give more emphasis to how children use attention, memory, and strategies to process information Education and culture exert strong influences on children's development Fragile competences possible under simplified conditions
Personality and emerging self (Erikson)
Children need to establish a healthy identity -initiative is a desirable outcome Children's sense of identity and self-awareness stem from bio X social experiences & cognitive development -Social, theory of mind, understanding one self in relation to others' views. -Cognition, understanding one self objectively -Temperament and other biological predispositions for emotional self-regulation
Brain development
Continuing development of the brain and nervous system. Increasing brain maturation linked to emerging cognitive abilities. Most rapid growth in the prefrontal cortex from 3-6 years but continues past age 6. Myelination: process through which axons are covered with a layer of fat cells -increases the speed and efficiency of information traveling through the nervous system -linked to attention, hand-eye coordination, higher-level thinking skills Frontal lobes-protracted development, not fully developed until around 21 -Executive function- inhibition, planning, and directing thinking -Myelination continues -Synaptogenesis continues (more pruning after 9 years)
High/low self-esteem
High self-esteem may refer to accurate, justified perceptions of one's worth as a person and one's successes and accomplishments, but it can also refer to an arrogant, grandiose, unwarranted sense of superiority over others. Low self- esteem may reflect either an accurate perception of one's shortcomings or a distorted, even pathological insecurity and inferiority. Low self-esteem has been implicated in overweight and obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency
IQ: distribution, mental vs chronological age
IQ-A person's mental age divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. Mental age-Binet's measure of an individual's level of mental development, compared with that of others. Chronological age- actual age Normal distribution-symmetrical distribution with most scores falling in the middle of the possible range of scores and few scores appearing toward the extremes of the range
Pre-operational thinking (Piaget)
Includes imagination- capacity to represent the external world internally through symbols. Children are free from boundaries of here and now. Language- most of language is acquired by age 7 Includes egocentrism, conservation, centration, animism (belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action) Symbolic function substage (ages 2-4)- child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present Intuitive thought substage (ages 4-7)- children use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to questions
Dyslexia
Individuals who have a severe impairment in their ability to read and spell despite adequate intelligence and adequate opportunity to learn Language deficit Life-long Causes: biogenetic influence on brain function, especially the language networks Treatment: obviate the rules of spoken language and rules of reading, phonological awareness, improve metalinguistic cognition
Morality: seeing rules as fixed vs flexible, growing role of intentionality
Infants experience intentionally motivated and goal-directed actions by their first birthday Rules are seen as more flexible as the child experiences greater levels of morality
Memory & Thinking pg.201
LTM is a relatively permanent type of memory that holds huge amounts of information for a long period of time. unlimited type of memory, increases with age during middle and late childhood. Thinking involves manipulating and transforming information in memory. Two important aspects of thinking are being able to think critically and creatively. Critical thinking involves thinking reflectively and productively, and evaluating evidence.
Impulsivity and delay of gratification (e.g. marshmallow test)
Older kids near 6 years old can do this because their EF is more advanced.
Brain development (diffuse vs focal activation)
One shift in activation that occurs is from diffuse, larger areas to more focal, smaller areas. This shift is characterized by synaptic pruning, in which areas of the brain not being used lose synaptic connections and those areas being used show an increase in connections. In one study, researchers found less diffusion and more focal activation in the prefrontal cortex from 7 to 30 years of age
Piaget's view on the role of parenting in moral development
Parent-child relations, in which parents have the power and children do not, are less likely to advance moral reasoning, because rules are often handed down in an authoritarian manner. Peer relations have a bigger influence
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
Part of Vygodski's social constructivist approach which emphasizes social contexts of learning and the construction of knowledge through social interaction Range of tasks that are too difficult for the child alone but that can be learned with guidance -scaffolding-changing the level of support -more-skilled person adjusts amount of support to fit child's current performance level
Scaffolding
Part of ZPD Changing the level of support
Conservation
Part of the intuitive thought substage Altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties
Centration
Part of the intuitive thought substage. Centering attention on one characteristic to exclusion of all others
Egocentrism
Part of the symbolic function substage along with animism. Inability to distinguish one's own perspective from someone else's (understanding that a blind person does not see)
Private speech
Vygodksi's concept Use of language for self-regulation Young children use language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior. This use of language for self-regulation is called private speech.
Inner speech
Vygodski's concept After a while, self-talk becomes second nature to children, and they can act without verbalizing. When this occurs, children have internalized their egocentric speech in the form of inner speech, which becomes their thoughts. Ages 3-7
Gross motor skills
involve large muscles -balance improves -greater speed and endurance -e.g. pump swings, climb ladders, ride tricycle, throw & kick a ball
Fine motor skills
involve small coordinated movements -requires muscular control, patience, judgment -slowly developing abilities -e.g. self-help, dressing, eating, drawing, painting
Friendships: why friendships are important and what they provide for the developing child
-Friendships serve to experience social aspects of life with other people and also to develop autonomy -Typically characterized by similarity -cognitive and emotional resources -foster self-esteem and sense of well-being -serve 6 functions: companionship, stimulation, physical support, ego support, social comparison, affection and intimacy
Interpreting differences in IQ scores
-Influences of genetics -Environmental influences -Group and cohort differences (e.g., increased vocabulary in current generation? Increased IQ across generations?) -Cultural biases in IQ tests
Erikson's psychosocial tasks of initiative/guilt
-ages 3-5 -conflict around desire to take initiative and guilt about initiatives that are met with criticism and hinder others -successful resolution: a balance between one's initiative and willingness to cooperate with others -example: assigning a child to take care of "baby feet" Initiative is a desirable outcome to establish a healthy identity (Erikson)
Obesity: what are the consequences of early childhood obesity?
-low self-esteem, depression, bullying -type 2 diabetes -high blood pressure -heart disease -combined consequence: shorter life expectancy
Project "Head-Start"
A government funded program that is designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for school success A recent study found that one year of Head Start was linked to higher performance in early math, early reading, and receptive vocabulary. In another recent study, the best results occurred for Head Start children who had low initial cognitive ability, whose parents had low levels of education, and who attended Head Start more than 20 hours a week. Early Head Start (birth-3) had a protective effect on risks young children might experience in parenting stress, language development, and self-control
Concept of gender schemas
A mental model containing information about males and females that are used to process gender-relevant information Includes features of both social learning and cognitive-developmental theories Gender Schema theory -establishment of a basic gender identity (2.5 years) -experiences and beliefs are organized into schemas that are used to interpret the world and guide behavior -in-group vs. out-group schema
Authoritative
A parenting style in which parents encourage their children to be independent but still place limits and controls on their actions. Extensive verbal give- and-take is allowed, and parents are warm and nurturant toward the child. Associated with children's social competence
Authoritarian
A restrictive, punitive style in which parents exhort the child to follow their directions and to respect work and effort. The authoritarian parent places firm limits and controls on the child and allows little verbal exchange. Authoritarian parenting is associated with children's social incompetence.
Self-esteem
A sense of self-worth, global self evaluation Preschoolers are very positive Older children: -Learn to combine experiences into view of self -Increase in social comparisons -Become better at reading messages received from others and at incorporating these into self-descriptions
Indulgent
A style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children but place few demands or controls on them. Associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
Neglectful
A style of parenting in which the parent is very uninvolved in the child's life; it is associated with children's social incompetence, especially a lack of self-control.
Cognitive development in relation to brain development (speed of processing, reaction time, improved attention)
Ability to pay attention improves significantly in the preschool years. Improvements in executive attention and sustained attention The speed with which a child processes information is an important aspect of the child's cognitive abilities, and there is abundant evidence that the speed with which many cognitive tasks are completed improves dramatically during the childhood years Reaction time improves
Intelligence
Ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences Individual differences - stable, consistent ways in which people differ from each other Environmental factors play a large role, along with genetics pg. 204
Play: Erikson/Freud vs Piaget/Vygodsky's theoretical perspectives on why play is important
According to Freud and Erikson, play helps the child master anxieties and conflicts. Because pent-up tensions are released through play, the child can cope better with life's problems. Therapists use play therapy both to allow the child to work off frustrations and to analyze the child's conflicts and ways of coping with them Both Piaget and Vygotsky concluded that play is the child's work. Piaget maintained that play advances children's cognitive development. At the same time, he said that children's cognitive development constrains the way they play. Play permits children to practice their competencies and acquired skills in a relaxed, pleasurable way. Piaget thought that cognitive structures need to be exercised, and play provides the perfect setting for this exercise. Vygotsky also considered play to be an excellent setting for cognitive development. He was especially interested in the symbolic and make-believe aspects of play, as when a child substitutes a stick for a horse and rides the stick as if it were a horse. For young children, the imaginary situation is real. Parents should encourage such imaginary play because it advances the child's cognitive development, especially creative thought.
Games
Activities engaged in for pleasure that include rules and often involve competition between two or more individuals. Take on the strongest role in elementary school (ages 10-12)
Industry vs Inferiority (Erikson)
Age 6-12 -conflict around the necessity to learn the many activities values by sociocultural groups and possible failure to develop the necessary attitude towards work -successful resolution: industry-willingness to work to achieve goals -example: willingness to work towards better grades or family needs
Montessori
An educational philosophy in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities and are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire. -seek to develop self-regulated problem solvers who can make choices and manage their time effectively -deemphasizes verbal interaction between the teacher and child and between peers (neglects socioemotional development) -it restricts imaginative play and its heavy reliance on self-corrective materials may not adequately allow for creativity and for a variety of learning styles.
Cross cultural variation between US/Western and Asian parenting styles
Asian American parents often continue aspects of traditional Asian child-rearing practices that have sometimes been described as authoritarian.The parents exert considerable control over their children's lives. This style of parenting is distinct from the domineering control that is characteristic of the authoritarian style. It reflects concern and involvement in children's lives and is best conceptualized as a type of training. The high academic achievement of Asian American children may be a consequence of their parents' "training" Asian American parents put a different twist on the authoritarian style of parenting Arab families are very authoritarian and are taught strict rules
Theory of mind: desires, false-beliefs
Awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others Ages 2-3- children begin to understand the following 3 mental states: perceptions, emotions, and desires (e.g. grapes or celery) Ages 4-5- realization that others have false beliefs (e.g. mean monkey sticker test) Can be influenced by autism, parents, language deficits can make it harder pg. 151
Reading Wars: What to do?
Balanced approaches to reading instruction
Motor development in relation to brain development (why are toddlers so self-destructive?)
Because children must stay active to develop gross and fine motor skills. It takes more time for fine motor skills to develop because myelination is not yet complete.
Self-efficacy
Belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes Critical factor in students' achievement
Movement (gross motor/fine motor)
Body proportions change, gross and fine motor skills develop rapidly, strength in boys/agility in girls, good age to practice physical activities and exercise, balance improves, beware of danger
Language acquisition: morphology, syntax, pragmatics
By age 5-7, children master the basics of their language: -sounds (phonology) -grammar (syntax and morphology-units of meaning) -meaning and language use (semantics and pragmatics- using language appropriately across different contexts, improves with schooling) Next step in middle school is increased complexity (e.g. complex phonological awareness, rule exceptions, complex causes) and metalinguistic cognition which is the ability to manipulate linguistic units and reason about language. Phonological awareness is critical for learning to read (rhyme in kindergarten was the strongest predictor of reading in 2nd grade)
Learning disabilities: causes, treatments
Causes- The precise causes of learning disabilities have not yet been determined. To reveal any regions of the brain that might be involved in learning disabilities, researchers use brain-imaging techniques, such as magnetic resonance imaging This research indicates that it is unlikely learning disabilities reside in a single, specific brain location. More likely, learning disabilities are due to problems in integrating information from multiple brain regions or subtle difficulties in brain structures and functions. Treatments- Interventions with children who have a learning disability often focus on improving reading ability. Intensive instruction over a period of time by a competent teacher can help many children. pg. 193
Different types of cognitive abilities and cross-cultural differences
Changes in the brain during early childhood enable children to plan their actions, attend to stimuli more effectively, and make considerable strides in language development. pg. 136 Cross-cultural differences- what is viewed as intelligent varies by culture
Whole-Language Approach
Children can learn to read just like they learn to speak without over instruction, simply by absorbing the rules of reading and spelling from practice and exposure to print Meaning to print Pros: more fun and engaging Cons: literacy is not intuitive e.g. how to spell neighbor
Phonics Approach
Children must receive overt instruction in sound-to-letter correspondence and the rules of reading and writing in English Sound to print Pros: obviates the rules of reading Cons: boring, doesn't work well for English
Piaget's concrete operations
Coordinated mental actions that fit into a logical system in a way that creates greater unity of thinking. Children can reason logically for as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples
Obesity in early childhood and its influence on later development
Defined as 20% higher than the ideal weight. Determined by BMI Increasing rapidly among children, youth, and adults in the US. 32% of US children/teens are overweight and 11% are obese. Prevalence has increased by 325%. Increases found in all regions of the country, urban/rural, both sexes, all ethnic groups, rich and poor U.S. has the second highest rate of childhood obesity Trend towards obesity begins in early childhood when children begin to make their own food choices Reasons -portion sizes have been changing -not as much exercise -strongly influenced by caregiver's behavior -serious health problems in early childhood Exercise -young children should engage in 2 hours of physical activity every day
Self-regulation
Deliberate efforts to manage one's behavior, emotions, and thoughts: Increased capacity for self-regulation Leads to increased social competence and achievement
Theory of mind: know the developmental differences in understanding others' desires vs others' beliefs
Desires- what a person wants Beliefs- what a person thinks, should realize false-beliefs by age 5
Same/different sex playmate preferences in children
Develop strong preferences for same-sex playmates (gender segregated play) by 3 years By 4 years, spend far more time with same sex, by 6 years spend 11x more with own sex Contributions to gender-stereotype play -biological underpinning- role of T -socialization of behaviors- traditional gender roles -impact of cognition-schemas of boy/girl behaviors
Gender roles and identity
Differences in roles and behavior of males and females that are prescribed by culture Gender stereotypes- broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about males and females Gender similarities and differences -physical and brain development -cognition and achievement -socioemotional development (types of aggression- girls more likely to engage in relational aggression) Gender in context- the extent of gender differences depends on the context
Divergent vs Convergent thinking
Divergent-Thinking that produces many answers to the same question and is characteristic of creativity. Convergent-The type of thinking that produces one correct answer and is typically assessed by standardized intelligence tests.
Learning to Read
Dual Route Model- know that the word cat (sound) is associated with an animal that says meow (meaning) Phonological route reading- can rhyme words without knowing what they mean. Foundation for learning to read Semantic route- reading by whole words, letters in the middle can be switched
Vygodski's social constructivist theory
Emphasizes social contexts of learning Construction of knowledge through social interaction ZPD Scaffolding More-skilled person adjusts amount of support to fit child's current performance level Language and thought- children use speech to communicate socially and to help them solve tasks, private speech Criticism: Not specific enough about age-related changes, overemphasized the role of language in thinking, how much is too much collaboration and guidance?
Information-Processing (memory, attention, executive function)
Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it ,and strategize about it Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information Analogous to computer processing Use of EF to manage thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and self-control, cognitive inhibition and flexibility, delay of gratification Children lack in memory, attention, overall knowledge and experience
Development according to Information-Processing Theories: executive function (attention: saliency vs. relevance, inhibition, memory/rehearsal, link to frontal lobe development)
Emphasizes that individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it Individuals develop a gradually increasing capacity for processing information, analogous to computer processing Differences in attention (salient vs relevant dimensions). Pay more attention to relevant details in the preschool years. Executive function -umbrella-like concept that encompasses higher-level competitive processes -managing one's thoughts to engage in goal-directed behavior and self-control -cognitive inhibition and flexibility -delay of gratification (e.g. marshmallow test) -advances in EF linked to school readiness -EF training improve academic performance -EF improves with frontal lobe development
Gender: psychoanalytic, social cognitive, gender schema, biology X socialization interaction (see also reading 3)
Freud- children are caught in hidden conflicts between their fears and desires. -Phallic stage (ages 3-4)- attraction for opposite sex parent (oedipus and electra complexes) -Resolution: ID with same-sex parent (age 5-6) Social cognitive view- two primary mechanisms -Modeling: the process by which children observe and imitate individuals of their own sex -Differential reinforcement: the process by which girls and boys are differentially rewarded for engaging in gender-appropriate behavior -reinforcing gender-appropriate behaviors, disapproval of gender-inappropriate behaviors -observational learning Gender schema theory- establishment of a basic gender identity around 2.5 years motivates children to learn about gender -experiences and beliefs are organized into schemas that are used to interpret the world and guide behavior -in-group vs out-group schema Biology x Socialization interaction- biological differences like T prevalence interact with socialization to form these schemas
Moral development: Piaget's heteronomous and autonomous morality
From ages 4 to 7, children display heteronomous morality, the first stage of moral development in Piaget's theory. Children think of justice and rules as unchangeable properties, beyond the control of people. Judge rules based on consequences and believe they cannot be changed, believe in immanent justice From ages 7 to 10, children are in a period of transition, showing some features of the first stage of moral reasoning and some of the second stage, autonomous morality. Intentions are more important, believe rules can be changed From about age 10 and older, children show autonomous morality. They become aware that rules and laws are created by people, and in judging an action they consider the actor's intentions as well as the action's consequences.
Sense of self
Further developed in middle and late adulthood
Gilligan's moral development
Gender care perspective- it's not about the justice, but the person and relationships. -A moral perspective that views people in terms of their connectedness with others and emphasizes interpersonal communication, relationships with others, and concern for others. According to Gilligan, Kohlberg greatly underplayed the care perspective, perhaps because he was a male, because most of his research was with males rather than females, and because he used male responses as a model for his theory -but, both genders understand relational and "universal" morals
Multiple Intelligence Approach pg.207
Intelligences are verbal, mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist According to Gardner, everyone has all of these intelligences to varying degrees. As a result, we prefer to learn and process information in specific ways. People learn best when they can do so in a way that uses their stronger intelligences.
Dyscalculia
Involves difficulty in math computation
Language: Jean Burco "wug" example of grammar acquisition. Recall in-class video with Steven Pinker
Jean Berko presented pre-school and first-grade children with cards The children were asked to look at the card while the experimenter read aloud the words on the card. Then the children were asked to supply the missing word. Berko was interested in the children's ability to apply the appropriate morphological rule—in this case, to say "wugs" with the z sound that indicates the plural. Although the children's answers were not perfect, they were much better than chance Children could not base their responses on remembering past instances of hear- ing the words. That they could make the plurals or past tenses of words they had never heard before was proof that they knew the morphological rules.
Kohlberg's moral development
Kohlberg- learned behaviors leads to social conventions which leads to universal morality -preconventional: no internal moral sense, responses focused on personal punishments and rewards -conventional: most adults are here, responses focused on obeying society's rules and norms -postconventional: begins to emerge in adolescence but rarely achieved at any age, egocentric, responses focus on inner moral guidelines apart from society -justice is a key component -but is there "universal" morality?
Memory: long term, verbal working memory, verbatim vs gist
Long-term memory- young children can remember a great deal of information if given appropriate cues and prompts. Not always reliable, depends on contexts such as intensity, timing, etc. Verbal working memory- ability to recall information that was recently presented, important for taking notes in school Verbatim consists of the precise details of the information, whereas gist refers to the central idea of the information. Verbatim is used by young children and then they make the transition to gist memory in elementary school
High/low self-efficacy
Low self-efficacy for learning may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging. By contrast, their high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks. Students with high self-efficacy are more likely to expend effort and persist longer at a learning task than students with low self-efficacy.
Play
Makes important contributions to children's cognitive and socioemotional development Play therapy used to allow the child to work off frustrations and to analyze the child's conflicts and ways of coping with them Play is fun and satisfies exploratory drive Important context for the development on language and communication skills
Gender differences
Males- better visuospatial skills, more aggressive Females- better emotional skills, slightly better verbal skills, engage in more prosocial behavior
How Piaget and Vygodski differ (differences between cognitive vs sociocultural constructivism)
Piaget- child thinking is qualitatively different from adults: egocentric, magical, centric Vygodski: Child thinking is shaped through interaction with adults
Symbolic/pretense play
Play in which the child transforms the physical environment into a symbol. They learn to transform objects—substituting them for other objects and acting toward them as if they were these other objects Between 9 and 30 months e.g. may treat a table as if it were a car
Social play
Play that involves interaction with peers. It increases dramatically during the pre- school years.
Practice play
Play that involves repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when physical or mental mastery and coordination of skills are required for games or sports.
Differences in attention (salient vs relevant dimensions)
Preschool children are likely to pay attention to stimuli that stand out, or are salient, even when those stimuli are not relevant to solving a problem or performing a task. For example, if a flashy, attractive clown presents the directions for solving a problem, preschool children are likely to pay more attention to the clown than to the directions. After age 6 or 7, children attend more efficiently to the dimensions of the task that are relevant, such as the directions for solving a problem. This change reflects a shift to cognitive control of attention, so that children act less impulsively and reflect more.
Autism
Range from the severe disorder labeled autistic disorder to the milder disorder called Asperger syndrome. These disorders are characterized by problems in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and repetitive behaviors pg. 196
Peer relations: friendship and its role
Reciprocity becomes important in peer interchanges Size of peer group increases Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults Children's preference is for same-sex peer groups Typically characterized by similarity -Cognitive and emotional resources, foster self-esteem, sense of well-being Serve six functions: -Companionship -Stimulation -Physical support -Ego support -Social comparison -Affection and intimacy
Memory- susceptibility to suggestion and ability to serve as eyewitness early in childhood
Retention of information over time STM- individuals can retain information up to 30 seconds with no rehearsal -increases during early childhood -assessed with memory span task -capacity goes up with age There are age differences in children's susceptibility to suggestion Can child memories be trusted? -Piaget: kids have difficulty separating magic from reality, magical thinking -Freud: kids are in a hyper-sexual stage so they will believe they were touched inappropriately -Vygodsky: Adults are scaffolding and leading on the child -Information-processing: dolls are salient and the holes interest children Ask immediately after the event. Avoid asking misleading questions when asked about highly-salient events (e.g. vaccination)
High/low self-regulation
Self-control increased from 4 to 10 years of age and that high self-control was linked to lower levels of deviant behavior, also a protective factor for low SES children
Understanding self in early childhood
Self-esteem: a sense of self-worth -preschoolers are very positive -older children learn to combine experiences into view of self, increase in social comparisons, become better at reading messages received from others and at incorporating these into self-descriptions Self-efficacy: belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes -critical factor in students' achievements Self-regulation: deliberate efforts to manage one's behaviors, emotions, and thoughts -increased capacity for self-regulation -leads to increased social competence and achievement Two components are self-concept and self-esteem
Piaget: concrete operations-seriation, transitivity, gaps in abstract reasoning
Seriation-The concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along a quantitative dimension (such as length). Transitivity-The ability to logically combine relations to understand certain conclusions. Gaps in abstract reasoning-can reason logically as long as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples.
Piaget stages of development (symbolic function, intuitive thought)
Symbolic function (ages 2-4)- child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present -egocentrism, animism Intuitive thought (ages 4-7)- children use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to questions -centration, conservation -"why?" questions signify an interest in reasoning
Creativity
The ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems. Thus, intelligence and creativity are not the same thing. Cognitively competent children can think critically and creatively Components involve divergent thinking Creativity in children can differ in different domains
Bilingualism & Second Language Education
There are sensitive periods for learning a second language. These sensitive periods likely vary across different areas of language systems. Late language learners, such as adolescents and adults, may learn new vocabulary more easily than new sounds or new grammar Children's ability to pronounce words with a native-like accent in a second language typically decreases with age, with an especially sharp drop occurring after the age of about 10 to 12. Adults tend to learn a second language faster than children, but their level of second-language mastery is not as high as children's. And the way children and adults learn a second language differs somewhat. Compared with adults, children are less sensitive to feedback, less likely to use explicit strategies, and more likely to learn a second language from large amounts of input Children who are fluent in two languages perform better than their single-language counterparts on tests of control of attention, concept formation, analytical reasoning, cognitive flexibility, and cognitive complexity. They also are more conscious of the structure of spoken and written language and better at noticing errors of grammar and meaning, skills that benefit their reading ability However, recent research indicates that bilingual children have a smaller vocabulary in each language than monolingual children do Subtractive bilingualism is going from being bilingual to monolingual, usually occurs after a move
Screen time vs play
Too much screen time can have a negative influence on children by making them passive learners, distracting them from doing homework, teaching them stereotypes, providing them with violent models of aggression, and presenting them with unrealistic views of the world. Decreased time spent in play, less time interacting with peers, reduced physical activity, increased risk of being overweight or obese, poor sleep habits, and higher rates of aggression.
