Psych 290 Final exam
What are types of plagiarism?
- Failure to give credit where it is due - difficult to fact check - makes it harder to trust researchers/scientists
What are some of the criticisms of the IRB?
- IRB may be too cautious in weighing the risk/benefit ratio leading to good studies never being completed. - There can be an overemphasis on certain models when evaluating proposals
What are types of data falsification?
- Not collecting data at all - cherry picking data
What is the difference between a content and process course?
- a process course empahsizes the "how" of getting information and also helps answer the "why" - a content course is the "what" of information
What is the difference between direct and conceptual replication?
Direct = same research repeated Conceptual = change certain aspects that could have affected previous research
What is the difference between induction and deduction?
Deduction moves from idea to observation, while induction moves from observation to idea. Deduction is idea-first, followed by observations and a conclusion. Sherlock Holmes usually used induction but said "I deduce"
How does laboratory and field research differ in control and realism?
Laboratory- allows greater degree of control Field research- higher level of realism
Thalidomide
Late 1950s - Thalidomide Approved as sedative in Europe but no FDA approval in USA Prescribed in US to control sleep and nausea during pregnancy...but later found that it caused severe deformities in fetus Many patients did not know they were taking an experimental drug, nor did they give informed consent
What are the levels of risk?
Minimal risk is situations that reflect normal life, anything higher than that can be considered at risk
Difference between manipulated independent variable and non-manipulated independent variable
Non-manipulated is something the researcher records but does not manipulate. Manipulated is when a researcher makes a change and records it to see how it will effect the dependent
PICK UP HERE
PICK UP HERE
What are the 4 types of validity?
1. statistical conclusion validity (is proper analysis being done) 2. internal validity (how well is the study being preformed) 3. construct validity (are the operational definitions of the IV and DV sufficient?) 4. external validity (can we apply this to other situations, people, settings)
What are the different types of validity?
face- is it surface level valid (someone looks at questionnaire and is able to tell what you are asking) (not a real type) content- does the content measure what you want (a questionnaire on intelligence that looks at it in the way you intend) criterion- does it align with other valid measurespredictive- can be used to predict future events and occurrences validly) concurrent- does it validly describe what is currently occurring construct- is the construct itself valid and measureable
How are theory and research related?
good theories allow for us to continue research by testing the theories
What do we do when the results of a study support a theory? What do we do (and not do) when they don't?
great if they do, if they dont we reanalyze methodology and restructure the research if need be
What is a population?
group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area
What is matching and what are the 2 ways it can be done?
guarantee groups are equal in terms of external factors. 1. you can either use people that are all the same 2. or you can measure the external factor and then "find a match for them" (like IQ)
What are the threats to internal validity?
history, maturation, testing (knowing the format or questions from pretest), instrumentation (like if you use a different device to measure something)
What is dehoaxing?
if there was deception you need to clear it up
What is confirmation bias?
interpreting new evidence as confirmation of someone's preconceived ideas
What is the definition of experiment?
involves manipulation of the factor of interest and has a clearly defined independent and dependent variable
Why is an operational definition necessary when reporting research findings?
it allows for replication
What is random assignment?
participants have an equal chance of being in every experimental group
What is informed consent, and why is it important to research?
participants must be given enough information about the purpose and procedure of an experiment so they can make an informed decision of whether or not they want to participate
How are reliability and validity related, including which one is necessary for the other, and why?
reliability and validity play off of each other but reliability is necessary but not sufficient for validity - Something can be reliable but not accurate
What are the 4 emphasizes of that established the scientific rigor of psychology?
replication (hallmark characteristic of science) -use of valid and reliable measures -controlling for external factors that may influence outcomes (could be very simple factors) -objectivity
What's the difference between quantitative and qualitative research?
Quantitative is number based and qualitative is descriptive experience based
What are the requirements for animal studies?
Researchers must justify the reason for the study, care for the animals, and avoid pointless repetition of studies
What is the relationship between science and proof?
Science cannot prove things it just provides evidence in favor of a certain conclusion (theory). It more about disproving things
Who were the founding fathers of psychology?
Wilhelm Wundt and William James
What was the significance of Woolworth's "Colombia bible"?
Woodworth published Experimental Psychology in 1938, which covered 30 topics and the experimental methodology of each. Before this, the word "experiment" had not been clearly defined.
What does it mean to be objective? (Explain in both the ideal and practical sense)
You want to be as objective as possible (free from all possible bias) however realistically you can only eliminate so much bias so this is why we have peer review
What is an operational definition?
a concept is defined in terms of the variables used to measure it
What is a confounding variable?
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. Somehow related to both the DV and IV - example, if you are researching how studying effects test grades you might record hours of studying. However, a confounding variable may be how many hours/days from the test they studied
What is a basic definition of ethics?
a set of standards for the conduct of people or members of a profession
What is a sample?
a subset of the population
What is a hypothesis?
a testable prediction
What is a theory?
a well-tested explanation for a broad set of observations
What is validity?
accuracy, does It measure what you intend for it to
What is determinism?
all events, including behaviors, have causes (not predestination, simply things happen because something caused them)
What is debriefing?
answer questions and explain things at the end of an experiment
What is an extraneous variable?
any variables other than the independent variable that seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study
What are participant problems?
)Things that have to do with the individuals of the study Subject selection effects (differences between groups that aren't due to the IV, they're due to the characteristics of the participants; if theres a difference from the start, its hard to conclude the effects of the IV) Attrition (some participants don't finish the study for reasons like death, discomfort with participation, moving out of the area, failing to continue to meet the criteria, or they change their minds; if the ones that leave share characteristics, then the remainder are a different sample than the original, influencing the external validity.)
What does a theory due? (4 things)
- best summarizes existing knowledge - organizes info into precise statements - proposes an explanation - gives basis of other predictions
What is meant by developing complexity, and why is that a good thing for psychological research?
- establish solid founding for research then see how more complex ideas are made - human behavior is incredibly complex so we need to look at each piece in order to understand how they influence each other
What are the 5 basic principals of the current code of ethics?
1. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence 2. Fidelity and Responsibility 3. Integrity 4. Justice 5. Respect for People's Right and Dignity
What are the 3 basic principals of the Belmont report?
1. Respect for persons 2. Beneficence 3. Justice
What are the characteristics of a good theory?
1. Testable: You can know whether you're right or wrong 2. Logically sound 3. Communicable 4. General: The theory should be explaining more than just a single event... so general enough to cover more than just one incident 5. Parsimonious We expect theories to explain reality in the most simple way possible The explanation that uses the smallest amount of assumptions is usually the best one
What does the APA code of ethics spell out?
1. Treat participants with respect, maintaining their dignity and rights 2. Care for the welfare of animals if they are the subject of research 3. Be scrupulously honest in the treatment of data
What are the two things about psychology the founding father emphasized to distinguish it from other disciplines?
1. emphasized scientific nature of the 'new psychology' to distinguish it from areas such as philosophy 2. emphasized laboratory nature to distinguish from areas such as physiology
What are the 2 requirements for random sampling?
1. every member has to have equal prob of being picked 2. every sample has to have equal prob of being picked
What is a construct?
It is an idea society has created and isn't tangible
What is counterbalancing?
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the opposite order.
What must be true to make a question empirical?
Answerable/data with defined terms
What are the ways of knowing?
Authority, Intuition, Rationalism, Empiricism (learning through experience)
What is the difference between basic and applied research?
Basic research (knowledge for knowledge sake) expanding general knowledge without having a specific problem in mind while applied research is trying to find a solution to a specific problem.
Project MKUltra
Began in the 1950s, ran until 1973 Committed many illegal actions, including using unwitting U.S. and Canadian citizens as subjects Studied process and effects of mind control and manipulation of mental states, interrogation and torture Administration of drugs, including LSD (put in water supply and air) Hypnosis, sensory deprivation, isolation, Verbal and sexual abuse, and torture Off the books, no one knew about it
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 6
What is stratified sampling?
Dividing the population into subgroups then selecting a sample from each of these groups
What is blocked random assignment?
Every condition occurs before any condition can be repeated (wrestling refs design with colors) each block is randomized
What is experimental realism?
How much a study impacts the participants, causes them to take it seriously, and involves them in the process (applies to both field and laboratory research and is highly important because it suggests validity)
What is the IRB and what is their job?
Institutional Review Board - THE ONLY THING THE IRB IS RESPONSIBLE FOR IS TO MAKE SURE A STUDY IS ETHICAL (composed of at least 5 people with one not being a scientist)
What are subject variables?
variables that characterize pre-existing differences among study participants
What are the types of manipulated independent variables?
Situational Variables- changes the characteristic of the environment (ex. Brightness of the room, number or people in the vicinity) Task Variables- varies what the participant needs to do; one group does one thing, another does another thing (ex. Participants must solve math vs. vocab problems) Instructional Variables- giving the same task to participants but with different instructions (ex. Solving a word problem by either vocalizing the steps or solving it silently
Wayne Dennis
Studied how environment would influence early development"Obtained" a pair of female newborn twins, and raised them in an impoverished environment (room with few toys, minimal view of the outside, little interaction with Dennis and his wife)Noted a delay in motor development, but paid little attention to the delay in language development. Claimed little effect of environmental deprivation on children.
Myrtle McGraw
Studied nervous system developmentTested children from birth to age 4 years, using 'pin pricks' on various parts of the body (face, arms, abdomen, legs)Children developed a fear of her, and of anyone with a pin
What are some reasons/examples where consent would not be required?
Studies are exempt from full review Use only of anonymous questionnaires Data that has already been collected Classroom projects only used for demonstration Certain employment-related data Observational studied in a public setting
What is Discoverability?
The assumption that it is possible to discover the regularities that exist in nature (the causes that we assume happen can be uncovered with a certain level of confidence)
What is meant by the "what's next?" question, and how does that lead to research?
The more we discover the more we realize we don't know which can lead to more research
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
US Public Health Service research study 600 low-income African-American males in Alabama monitored for 40 years 400 who had already been infected with syphilis Told they were being treated for "bad blood"; free medical examinations but not told about syphilis diagnosis In 1950s proven cure (penicillin) discovered but study continued until 1972 with participants being denied treatment
Milgram Obedience Study
Was conducted to determine why it was that the German soldiers, and to a lesser extent the German populace, went along with the atrocities that occurred during World War II. A common excuse given by soldiers during the Nuremberg Trials was "I was just following orders." He wanted to determine if there was something wrong with the German people, or if this is something that people do because of circumstances Study was explained to the participants as testing the effect of punishment on learningIn reality is was testing obedience
Explain little Albert
Watson and Rayner attempted to show that phobias can develop by the process of Classical Conditioning. They would make a loud sound every time a small boy would try and play with a rat. He then became afraid of rats. Albert B, an 11-month-old boy, was the subject of the study. It was conducted decades before the code of ethics was put in place - They did acknowledge a certain responsibility for their actions, but stated that he was a healthy child, and probably would have learned these things anyway, so at least this way some benefit could be gained - The study suffered from methodological issues, as well as failures to replicate - There is also debate as to just how strong the conditioning was, and how much generalization occurred
When can deception be used?
When The importance of that information must outweigh the risk of not telling the participants. Must be integral to the study
What are floor effects?
When scores are too low so it is impossible to tell the difference between conditions (like if something was too difficult)
What is reliability and how is it related to error?
consistency, every measure has error so try to minimize
What is are some types of non-probability sampling procedures?
convenience - whoevers around purposive - grabbing ppl who u want to analyze snowball - tell a friend to do it, they tell a friend, and so on
What is convergent and discriminant validity?
convergent- 2 measures of same construct align divergent- doesn't align with non-related constructs
What is mundane realism?
degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations
What are the 4 goals of science?
describe, explain, predict, apply
Describe the Strayer and Johnston Cell Phone use study and its results?
distracted driving, even hands free caused more error on the driving simulator Single mode task (simulated driving-like demands) vs dual mode task (simulated demands plus processing verbal input) Compared hands-free vs handheld- both reduced driving ability Audiobooks didn't cause significant impairments text free laws, education campaigns, settings like do not disturb when driving
What is Within-subjects design?
each participant experiences all levels of the IV, repeated measures (can have low internal validity)
What is between subject design?
each participant experiences one level of the IV, they don't experience both (assigned to either control condition or experimental condition) (disadvantage is that it requires more people)
What is cluster sampling?
making groups (called clusters) and then choosing from the groups. grouping is not random but selection of groups can be. ex: residence halls on campus, and then randomly closing to look at Mahoney Pearson
What is an independent variable?
manipulated variables that all must have at least 2 levels (if they don't, they are controls and controls aren't necessary)
What is Desensitizing?
need to make sure there are no lingering psychological trauma and if so correct it
What is availability heuristic?
overestimating frequency of an event (mental shortcut, like when a plane crashes and people are more afraid even tho its rare)
What is an empirical question?
questions that can be answered by observing experiences in the real world
What is Belief Perservation?
still holding onto belief no matter how much contrary proof is provided
What are ceiling effects?
the point at which scores are so high that no difference can be determined between conditions (like if you make a test to easy)