PSYCH 303 EXAM 1
closed vs open ended questions
Closed (direct): specific information that yields yes or no answers, multiple choice, make categories exhaustive, include "other" with space to be filled in if need be, rating scales Open: more than yes or no answers
present/present bias
a bias in intuition, in which people incorrectly estimate the relationship between an event and its outcome, focusing on times the event and outcome are present, while failing to consider evidence that is absent and harder to notice
association claim
a claim about how two variables, in which the value (level) of one variable is said to vary systematically with the value of another variable
causal claim
a claim arguing that a specific change in one variable is responsible for influencing the value of another variable
frequency claim
a claim that describes a particular rate or degree of a single variable
IRBs
a committee responsible for ensuring that research using human participants is conducted ethically, makes judgements about the acceptability of research protocols, made up of faculty, students, staff, and at least one community member, protocols classified as: exempt (no risk to participants, no need for full board review), minimal risk (a chance of harm, but odds no greater than day to day life), greater than minimal risk, and not research (not under purview of IRB)
cronbach's alpha
a correlation based statistic that measures a scale's internal reliability, also called coefficient alpha
justice
a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it, research should not disproportionately benefit or harm participants from certain segments of society, not a major issue for most psychological studies outside of educational/clinical psych
falsifiability
a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong
respect for persons (autonomy)
people have the right to determine whether or not they wish to participate in research, participants can withdraw from research at any time and without penalty, participants do not have to answer questions they find objectionable
non-experimental methods
research methods which do not involve direct control of any factor, in contrast to experiments; sometimes called descriptive/correlational designs
translational research
research that uses knowledge derived from basic research to develop and test solutions to real world problems
basic research
research whose goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge, without regard for direct application to practical problems
applied research
research whose goal is to find a solution to a particular real-world problem
bias blind spot
tendency for people to think that compared to others, they themselves are less likely to engage in biased reasoning
confirmation bias
tendency to seek out information that should confirm our theory and ignore information that could falsify it, also known as positive test bias
test retest reliability
the consistency in results every time a measure is used
reliability
the consistency of the results of a measure (if you repeat it will you get the same thing?)
measurement error
the degree to which the recorded measure for a participant on some variable differs from the true value of the variable for that participant, may be random (too high and too low cancel each other out), or systematic (biased either too high or too low)
interrater reliability
the degree to which two or more coders or observers give consistent ratings of a set of targets
content validity
the extent to which a measure captures all parts of a defined construct
face validity
the extent to which a measure is subjectively considered a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question
sample
the group of people, animals, or cases used in a study, a subset of the population of interest
simple random sampling
the most basic form of probability sampling, in which the sample is chosen completely at random from the population of interest, each member of the population has an equal chance at being selected
operational definition
the specific way in which a concept of interest is measured or manipulated as a variable in a study
anchoring effects
the tendency to use one stimulus as an "anchor" or reference point in judging a second stimulus, relying too heavily on the first piece of information (anchor) when making decisions
randomization
the use of a random method to assign participants into different experimental groups
empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
theory-data cycle
theory, research question, research design, hypothesis, data
Belmont Report
three basic guidelines for conducting research with human subjects, beneficence (do no harm), autonomy (respect for persons) justice (fairness in selecting participants), these principles continue to guide personal and institutional decisions on research ethics to this day
correlation
to occur or vary together systematically, as in the case of two variables
graphic rating scale
uses a checklist of traits or characteristics to evaluate performance
independent variable
variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter, a predictor variable used to explain variance in the criterion variable
dependent variable
variable in an experiment that is measured, the single outcome or criterion variable the researchers are most interested in understanding or predicting, outcome variable
fraud
wrongful or criminal deception intended to result in financial or personal gain
response sets
yea-saying (acquiescence), nay-saying, fence sitting, tendency for person to respond to questions or statements in such a way that it produces a certain image of the respondent
risk benefit analysis
The process of evaluating the possible problems of completing research compared to the expected advantages.
manipulation vs measurement
In experiments, IVs are manipulated (so that changes in the DV can be explained only by changes in the IV). The DVs are measured. In nonexperiments, both the IV and DV are measured because there is no manipulation
IACUCs
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees, animals are not afforded nearly the same rights as humans, pain and discomfort should be minimized, termination of life should be done as quickly and painlessly as possible
linear relationships
When there is a constant rate of change between two variables.
negative wording
avoid phrasing questions with negatives
internal validity
one of three criteria for establishing a causal claim, a study's ability to rule out alternative explanations for a causal relationship between two variable, also called third-variable criterion
conditions for causality
covariation (correlation), temporal sequence, elimination of confounding variables
third variable problem
in a correlation study, the existence of a plausible alternative explanation for the association between two variables
internal reliability (internal consistency)
in a measure that contains several items, the consistency in a pattern of answers, no matter how a question is phrased
order effects
in a within groups design, a threat to internal validity in which exposure to one condition changes participant responses to a later condition
margin of error
in the context of a percentage estimate, an inferential statistic providing a range of values that has a high probability of containing the true population value
true score
individuals score on a measure if there was no error
anonymity vs confidentiality
-anonymity means that names and other pieces of information that can identify participants are never attached to the data * ex: separate link for entering a survey raffle -confidentiality means that any information or data the participants provides is controlled in such a way that it is not revealed to others -only researcher has access to that data * ex: confidential group evaluations
temporal precedence
A comes first in time, before B
nominal data
A level of measurement where data are in separate categories, like marital status or type of car owned, no particular order to the categories
ratio data
A level of measurement where there is differences between measurement and a true zero point, like height, age, weekly food spending
interval data
A level of measurement where units of equal intervals are used, but there is no true zero, like temperature in fahrenheit or a standardized exam score
Milgram Experiment
A series of psychological experiments which measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience, many people very agitated despite their obedience
Tuskegee Syphilis Study
Research study conducted by a branch of the U.S. government, lasting for roughly 50 years (ending in the 1970s), in which a sample of African American men diagnosed with syphilis were deliberately left untreated, without their knowledge, to learn about the lifetime course of the disease.
semantic differential rating scale
This is another type of rating scale that elicits the respondent's attitudes using positive and negative descriptors such as 'happy-sad' or 'funny-boring'. Responses can then be analysed using the point scale between the two extremes. Ex: please rate OSU students on the following characteristics: good<-->bad
stratified random sampling
a form of probability sampling, a random sampling technique in which the researcher identifies particular demographic categories or strata, and then randomly selects individuals within each category, like if women make up 55% of the population, I select respondents so 55% of them are women
oversampling
a form of probability sampling, a variation of stratified random sampling in which the researcher intentionally overrepresents one or more groups
confounding variables
a general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding, a threat to internal validity
population
a larger group from which a sample is drawn, the group to which a study's conclusions are intended to be applied
experimental control
a level of an independent variable that is intended to represent "no treatment" or a neutral condition
questionnaires
a list of questions to be asked of respondents, personal administration, mail surveys, internet surveys, problems include response rates and missing data, misrepresentation of the respondent, and misunderstanding questions
self report data
a method of measuring a variable in which people answer questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview
likert scale
a numerical scale used to assess attitudes; includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme ex: tying one shoes is too difficult for most students at MSU strongly agree agree neither agree nor disagree disagree strongly disagree
cluster sampling
a probability sampling technique in which clusters of participants within the population of interest are selected at random, followed by data collection from all individuals in each cluster, choosing pre-existing groups at random like choosing whole classrooms or clubs, eliminates need for list of all names
systematic sampling
a probability sampling technique in which the researcher uses a randomly chosen number N, and counts off every Nth member of a population to achieve a sample
multistage sampling
a probability sampling technique involving at least two stages, a random sample of clusters followed by a random sample of people within the selected clusters, randomly choosing groups in successively more restricted strata ex: american nation election studies going from counties --> census tracts --> census blocks --> household --> participant
informed consent
a process, not just a form to be signed, participants must be given enough information about the procedures to determine whether they want to participate, children cannot consent, only parents can, with children consent and assent should be obtained, these forms frequently tell participants that they may be given incomplete or ambiguous information
curvilinear relationship
a relationship between two variables whereby the strength and/or direction of their relationship changes over the range of both variables
conceptual definition
a researcher's defintion of a variable at the theoretical variable, also called construct
census
a set of observations that contains all members of the population of interest
fatiguing respondents
occurs when participants become tired of the survey task and the quality of the data they provide begins to deteriorate, occurs when survey participants attention and motivation drop toward the late sections of a questionnaire
journal to journalism cycle
a source that is meant to reach the general population, they are easy to access and do not require specialized education to read, the general public can learn about what psychologist really do, pick up important tips for living, understand themselves and others more.
hypothesis
a statement of the specific result the researcher expects to observe from a particular study, if the theory is accurate, also called prediction
theory
a statement or set of statements that describes general principles about how variables relate to one another
deception
actively giving false information, like in milgram's studies, bogus pipeline studies, and the dot estimation task, alternatives include role playing, simulation studies, honest experiments, for this to be used, there has to be a case that alternatives aren't feasible
criterion related validity
an empirical form of measurement validity that establishes the extent to which a measure is associated with a behavioral outcome with which it should be associated
convergent validity
an empirical test of the extent to which a self report measure correlated with other measures of a theoretically similar construct
discriminant validity
an empirical test of the extent to which a self report measure does not correlate strongly with measures of theoretically similar constructs
external validity
an indication of how well the results of a study generalize to or represent individuals or contexts besides those in the study itself
withholding information
by giving full information, people's responses may change, like with subliminal priming
methods of administering surveys
can be done via interviews, questionnaires, longitudinal designs change over time, can entice people by making them easy to do, not too long, including a preaddressed envelope, postage, pencil, if appropriate, include little rewards like money or candy, and provide anonymity and confidentiality
interviews
can be face to face, over telephone using CATI, or with focus groups, problems include discomfort if there is sensitive topics discussed, and interviewer bias
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
social desirability bias
giving answers on a survey or other self report measure that make one look better than one really is, aka "faking good"
APA code of ethics
informed consent, freedom from coercion, protection from harm, risk-benefit analysis, deception, debriefing, confidentiality, converges with federal guidelines regarding human participants, include other principles to guide research and professional practice in psychology
debriefing
informing participants afterward about a study's true nature, details, and hypotheses, any deception should be revealed, the purpose and importance of the study should be communicated, and participants should return to the frame of mind with which they entered the study
popular source
intended for a general audience of readers, they are written typically to entertain, inform, or persuade. Popular sources help you answer who, what, when, and where questions and are essential for finding information about current events or issues. Popular sources range from research-oriented [but lacking complete citations to sources] to special interest, agenda-driven publications.
scholarly source
intended for use in support of conducting in-depth research, often containing specialized vocabulary and extensive references to sources. The content has been reviewed by academic peers to ensure the reliability of methods used and the validity of findings. help answer the "So What?" question in academic writing and lay the foundation for discovering connections between variables, issues, or events.
categorical data
level of measurement take category or label values and place an individual into one of several groups
quantitative data
level of measurement that takes numerical values and represent some kind of measurement
ordinal data
level of measurement where categories are ordered, like service quality rating or student letter grades
panel studies
longitudinal study where data are collected from the same individuals at successive time points
double barreled questions
questions that attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete or confusing answers
leading questions
questions that predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way
bullseye analogy
reliability is necessary but not sufficient for a measure to be valid, can't have validity without reliability
plagiarism
representing the ideas or words of others as one's own; a form of research misconduct, can include lifting sections of text, or even paraphrasing without citing previous work, including your own previous work
beneficence
researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to promote their well being, there are risks in psychological research like physical harm, psychological stress, loss of privacy and confidentiality, can be an issue for observational studies in particular, have to protect confidentiality by recording no identifying information, secure data with identifiers, obtain certificate of confidentiality, there are also potential benefits, can gain educational benefits, new skills, or treatment for a psychological or medical condition, material benefits, personal satisfaction, contributions to humanity
peer review cycle
scientific articles are published in peer-reviewed journals - rigorously reviewed by other scientists - anonymous review, so honest assessment - manuscripts can be rejected, accepted, or accepted with minor or major revisions
parsimony
simplest explanation is the best, sun being at the middle of the solar system is simpler than the earth being at the middle
