Psych 315 Master Quizlet

Neuroscience of learning: role of cerebral cortex (evolutionary difference)

Neurons make connections in brain. Importance is not size, but complexity #cerebral cortex. Complexity ^ w/folds. *Cerebral Cortex*- higher processing; 4 lobes; different from other parts of brain

Not supporting Rescorla-Wagner and classical conditioning

can't detect latent inhibition. If there is a CS with no US, no interaction at Purkinje. Purkinje keeps firing, no firing of interpositus = no learning. But learning in latent inhibition exists, but not if only looking at this areas

Factors influencing classical conditioning: Latent inhibition *draw figure

CS experienced first without US. Later pairing makes it a poor CS inhibited form learning assoc btwn CR and UR. Learning is inhibited; takes longer to develop new behavior compared to control who gets Tone CS --> Shock vs Tone CS no US then Tone CS--> Shock

Papez circuit to the Limbic system: major components with a focus on the amygdala

proposed circuit of hypothalamus, anterior thalamus, cingulate gyrus, and hippocampus as source of emotion in brain. Maclean called this the *Papez Circuit*- added amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, and basal ganglia + limbic system

Role of configural nodes creating 2nd layer pattern

represent combination of stimuli; only activated if gets tone + light 2x inhibition (-2) which cancels out +1 of other nodes

what would greatest degree of generalization look like? Discrimination?

respond to everything= horizontal line vs respond to exactly 1 stimulus

Matching law of choice behavior

response rates to *concurrent schedules* often correspond to the rate of reinforcement for each schedule --> animals can detect probabilities

Changeover Delay

responses can't have immediate effect following switches key; prevent rapid back and forth switching--> no reward/reinforce right after switch I.e. 10 second COD, animal changed over every 8 seconds = no reinforcer -make more aware of consequence of switching = make a choice

CS and Drug Tolerance

the more compensatory responses, more able to withstand effects of drug. Overdose more likely to take place occurs when use same amount of drug but diff circumstances I.e. room. Wouldn't have overdosed if in usual pattern bc body would've intiated compensatory reisponses

Cortical Remapping & Weinberger

turning curve for one neuron prior to pairing tone w/shock most sensitive for 900 Hz. Then see same neuron after pairing 2500 Hz with shock shifts tone to the right. Possible for other neurons to have shifted toward 2500 and some that are already sensitized to 2500= increase rate of response

Opponent-Process theory

valence focused; 2 systems: one for positive experience and one on negative. I.e. Rollercoaster is fun: initial negative state of falling but don't get hurt --> positive experience. The greater the initial negative that gets negated may result in positive experience -unlike dual process theory where there is a single overall valence factor -habituation occurs faster to first component experienced: rollercoasters are less fun bc habituation to initial negative part--> more daring coasters

Models to explain negative patterning: why single-layer network with discrete-component cannot represent

can't represent A+B as negative A alone and B alone was positive. In distributed model, 2 stimuli=2 diff tones that when combined, shows stronger response. Need more detail. Negative patterning cannot be represented.

STM vs LTM

capacity: 7+-2 vs able to hold every single event across lifetime Duration: if can't recall, it is gone (30 seconds) unless continually keep it active) vs lifetime Mechanism of forgetting: different vs if forgot, doesn't mean don't have memory Availability-accessibility: if can't actively think of it, memory is lost vs with right cue, able to remember Retrieval: serial/exhaustive vs guided/parallel

Thompson et al. discovered that eyeblink conditioning in rabbits depends on

cerebellum: separates CS and US pathways and converge in Purkinje cell

Associative bias

certain stimuli that goes through particular pathway more likely to be conditioned; depends on pathway that sensory stimuli routed through and recordings from cells in interpositus

Hebbian Learning and Synaptic Plasticity #support

change at synapse level; plasticity of the brain refers to ability for change, which occurs when have activity I.e. one neuron more sensitive to another, makes it easier to fire (sensitization)

Behavior that is both punished and reinforced

child acts up and the punishment also involves receiving attention as a reinforcer

Atkinson-Shiffrin Modal Model

each mode is separate aspect of memory. *Working memory*- what you are actively processing aka STM; sensory memory- before any kind of processing has taken place, prior to conscious awareness -STM 7 +/-2 but increase with chunking (5-9)

Discriminative Stimulus

environmental cue that tells you what behavior to do; informs what contingency is in effect I.e. rats learn machine not release food unless it is running-- the sound becomes the SD -strong SD elicit response I.e. habit slip -demonstrates that conditioning in 3 parts

MTL connected to:

frontal cortex, basal forebrain, diencephalon

Endogenous Opioid

group of naturally occurring neurotransmitter-like substance that has same effect as opiate drugs (heroin, morphine); signal hedonic value of reinforcers in brain and produce euphoria #liking

Coolidge effect

habituation in coupling btwn male and females; males exhibit renewed seuxal interest if introduced to new receptive sexual partners, even after cessation of sex with prior but sitll available sexual partners. prez takes tour of farm. Rooster and hen. Rooster copulates 12xday with 12 diff hens

Dishabituation

initially a surprising discovery, experimenter showed alternative stimuli to prove habituation, return to habituated stimuli. Return to original levels. -Proof that in initial series of exposure to stimuli, must have been habituation vs fatigue

Explicit emotional memory

instructed fear requires explicit emotional memory. Requires hippocampus and amygdala. Amygdala oatients fail to show emotional component, don't react when told shock is coming. *Amygdala modulates hippocampus during consolidation.* Damage to hippocampus don't have episodic memory of tone paired w/shock but measure skin conductance, body knows #implicit. Damage to amygdala know association is there, but no response in skin conductance. *Hippocampus drives memory but amygdala drives fear*

Theory of Decay and Thorndike

over time memory can decay--> *Law of Exercise*: use it or lose it; memory associations decay as lack of exercise. Memory performance should be determined by length of retention interval

Discriminative Training

reduces behavioral generalization gradients and narrows neuron receptive fields.

LTM: role of hippocampus and parahippocampal cortex

Hippocampus = episodic; parahippocampal cortex involved w/episodic and semantic memories.

Acquisition vs Extinction

*Acquisition*- rate at which you gain new behavior/conditioned response *Extinction*- reduction in conditioned responses; If present CS without US repeatedly, CR response diminishes and return to baseline *out of sync out of link*

Associative Bias & Garcia Koelling paradigm to demonstrated conditioned taste aversion

*Associative bias*- some things more likely to be associative than others I.e. *conditioned taste aversion* taste doesn't relate to shock --> poisoning. The more CS unrelated, the less association. Koelling: shock vs sick. Implication that biological factors matter, the US cannot be the US

Central executive and executive control: role of central executive, why measures of cognitive control may be seen as measures of intelligence, why tests of cognitive control may be done after head injuries: the n-back test as a measure of working memory span, the Wisconsin card sorting task as a measure of task switching and inhibition (preventing proactive interference)

*Central executive*- manipulation of remembered info -*N-back tasks*- the larger the N, the more that needs to be kept active in working memory. Central executive keeps track of assigning info to other stores and retrieving them, so n-back as measure of executive control: part of injury test to measure working memory and executive control -*Task Switching*- switching btwn tasks requires cognitive control (inhibition is strong measure). *Wisconsin Card Sorting Task*- earn rule governing sorting of cards, then rule is changed, requiring update of memory and behavior. -greater working memory = higher IQ bc better able to retain info

Decay and Interference theories of forgetting

*Decay*- loss of a memory trace due to passage of time. Similar/overlapping info can interfere w/memory, producing storage and retrieval errors

Define encoding, consolidation, reconsolidation

*Encoding*- initial storage into memory *Consolidation*- maintaining the stored memory #storage *Retrieval*- re-activating the memory for further processing

Neurological evidence of disocciation and STM vs LTM

*KC*= closed head injury due to motorcycle accident had severe retrograde and anterograde amnesia but only affected episodic remember. Can remember how to do job, but not how he learned *HM*: anterograde amnesia w/intact semantic memory (dissociation when looking at memory currently) but for the past he has both episodic and semantic (no dissociation). HM and anterograde amnesia evidence for memory depending on specific and localized structures (MTL). Intact working memory system and remember life before surgery. Without MTL, can't transfer working to LTM= impaired *consolidation process*

Metacognition and Metamemory

*Metamemory*- overall index system of memory; table of contents. lmpw;edge. awaremess. cpmtpr; pf pme s pwm ,e,pru *Metacognition*- knowing about knowing; knowledge/awareness of your own cognitive processes, how they function, when it's likely to falter

Neurons and Neural Communication: parts of neuron, presynaptic vs post synaptic

*Neuron*- basic building blocks of brains; 3 parts: dendrites, cell body, axon; synapse & receptors= lock & key *Synapse*- empty space where chemical communication btwn axon and dendrite (synpatic cleft). When neuron fires, release neurotransmitters which move randomly through space -*Presynaptic*- axon loaded with neurotransmitters --> *postsynaptic*- dendrite w/receptors to detect transmitter

Peak Shift: what it is and how to explain it

*Peak shift*- natural result of interaction; through additive property of waves, result in natural shift away from extinction stimulus/ S-delta. Discriminative and delta stimuli generate distribution of excitation and inhibition

Peak shift and Hanson's original study

*Peak shift*- training animal on one stimulus value with extinction on another I.e. 500 reward 560 nothing -Hanson control used Sd 500nm and no light to signal extinction. Experimental used as Sd nm and either S delta 555, 560. 570. 590. If make a mistake in Sd, which direction brings you closer to S-delta? move to whichever direction bring closer to reward--> make decision on previous info and move twards rewad/Sd and don't want bad to happen/move away from S delta

Effect of processing fluency on overconfidence in memory

*Processing fluency*- ease with which something comes to mind. Confidence not strongly correlated w/memory accuracy. Emotion leads to confident, but not accurate memories Reconstructive- when retrieve info, build up something each time vs Reproductive- verbatim detail.

Drug in treating PTSD and role of reconsolidation

*Propanolol* blocks epinephrine. Even when memory is vivid, doesn't mean it is accurate. Possible to manipulate *reconsolidation* process for benefits with PTSD

Single vs double dissocation, what is the difference and how to demonstrate, tasks that show this with STM vs LTM

*Single dissociation*- if "a" affect A but not B--> difference btwn A and B *Double dissociation*- if in addition, "b" affects B but not A. 2 variables have opposite effects on 2 diff phenomenons Evidence that B and A are functionally different. 1. *Serial Position effect* person recalls first and last items in a series, middle is worst 2. *Primacy Effect*- remember 1st words due to LTM bc by end of list, not in STM --> diff in slow vs fast presentation changes how long you have to rehearse but recency is same/no impact on last few items 3. *Recency Effect*- remember last words bc could be in STM --> add 30 second delay where person not performing info. Performance worse in recency effecvt --> dissociation bc didn't erase primacy effect

Subsequent forgetting paradigm and what it reveals about MTL activity during encoding, relationship between MTL activation and depth of processing, what areas of MTL activate with false memories and which do not

*Subsequent forgetting paradigm*- participants scanned while learning list of words. Experiment manipulates which words to remember or forget --> compare brain activity; where brain activity required to remember, greater activity in MTL. Less activity when told to forget -effective consolidation at hippocampal area -deeper processing involved more MTL , better encoding. *Picture superiority effect*- better at remembering images than words -*False memory*- hippocampus is activated by lure of word, but parahippocampal only activated by words seen (distinguish btwn false memories)

Wanting vs Liking in Brain: VTA and dopamine in driving wanting system; hedonic value vs motivational value

*Ventral Tegmental Area* in brainstem; center for dopamine modulation; powerful reinforcement -I.e. rats agitated/driven to perform -how positive something can be vs how much we work we will do to get something

Biological evidence for operant conditioning: role of *basal ganglia* and *dorsal striatum* in S R learning and evidence with lesions in rats

*basal ganglia* set of subcortical structures that link sensory and motor cortices. Within basal ganglia, the *dorsal striatum* important in Sd-R learning -lesions in rats to R-O learning without discriminative stimulus--> can learn press bar gives food, but can't adapt to changing Sd (environmental cues, doesn't understand how contingencies have changed and keep doing same thing)

Descartes and dualism and rationalism

*dualism*- the mind off limits; I think therefore I am; mind and body exist independently --> can only study the body I.e. reflex arc in connection from sensory stimulus to motor response *rationalism*- reason as source of knowledge; philosophical and meaning of life through the right thinking. Connected to nativism bc think through things.

Role of nucleus basalis in basal forebrain in driving plasticity and changes in receptive fields through projection of Ach

*nucleus basalis* in *basal forebrain* projects to *acetylcholine*, which is implicated in plasticity. -Evidence: damage to this area results in anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories). -Area activated by projections from amygdala --> role of reinforce/punisher in learning drives activity in amygdala and nucleus basalis which release ACh and drives plasticity

Plasticity and Receptive Fields & spatial learning--> place cells

*receptive field*- the external stimuli that causes the cell to fire. If some neurons get activated more than others, circuits are strengthened; can be altered due to experience/stimulus exposure *Place cells*-receptive field for particular location/familiar place. Certain collection of cells light up and link over to single place cell I.e. radial arm maze; deja vu

Which area of the brain is directly involved in the type of conditioned learning predicted by the Mackintosh model and what is the experimental evidence to support the claim?

- hippocampus; determines how sensory cues are processed before used by cerebellum - evidence: inability to develop latent inhibition supports this

Brain Substrates Summary

-Although animals can learn to respond to auditory stimuli without the primary auditory cortex, an intact A1 is essential for normal auditory learning and generalization. -Without A1, animals can learn to respond to the presence of a tone but cannot respond precisely to a specific tone. -Cortical plasticity is driven by the correlations between stimuli and salient events, with the nucleus basalis mediating between the amygdala and the cortex. -The hippocampal region plays a key role in forms of learning that depend on stimulus generalization, including the classical-conditioning paradigms of sensory preconditioning and latent inhibition. -Modeling suggests that one role of the hippocampal region is to bring about compression or differentiation of stimulus representations as appropriate

Rescorla-Wagner and Blocking vs Latent inhibition explained by weights

-Blocking: With blocking you have one stimulus that gets associated with a us. It is the first occurrence of the us that causes a predictive error (recorla-wagner model). When you add a new stimulus you already have a prediction, so there is no new prediction and no error, so no learning takes place a this the first cs "blocks" the second. -Latent Inhibition: With latent inhibition you are first exposed to cs with no us, have no predictions, and nothing occurs. So accordding to rescorla-wagner there is no predictive error and thus no learning. But there is learning because it is harder to learn the association when we add in a us. This is where we turn to the Macintosh model.

Understand Goldman-Rakic's study, separation of cue, delay, and response neurons; why delay neurons activity is planning related and not action related (and relation between delay neuron and expectancy neuron in orbitofrontal cortex)

-Diff delay neurons encode diff memory locations' could represent visuospatial information I.e. delay neuron only fires when bottom center remembered. Can confirm it is planing related and not actin by varying task to move eyes to opposite location of target -Response neuron changes as change response, but delay neuron stays the same. Can do diff responses but depends on where signal goes from delay to response I.e. inhibition- delay neuron sends signal to another cue -degree of neural firing tied to expected outcome: firing of neurons in *orbitofrontal cortex* tied to outcomes

Eldridge study looking at activation of hippocampus for successful vs unsuccessful retrieval, and Montaldi study looking at activation during retrieval

-Edlridge: learn word list, after delay present new and old words, perform familiarity judgement on old words (remember/know). -Montaldi: show pictures of scenes, 2 days later test on memory for these scenes. Hippocampus activated only for recollected. MTL w/familiarity

Kandell's work with Aplysia: gill withdrawal reflex and how habituation occurs at neural level

-Evidence for LTP; Gill withdrawal reflex: touch the tail, siphon, gill. Gill contracts within the mantle. Time to relaxation is measured= habituation. Gentle touch to siphon produces gill withdrawal. Progressively shorter withdrawal durations. Recovers quickly but with many sessions, becomes long-lasting. -Repeated touch depleted sensory neuron of transmitter = *synaptic depression* -reduced excitatory signals to motor neurons + homosynaptic as result of continuous stimulation. Fewer receptors= less likely neurotransmitter will bind

British Empiricists: Hobbes and Locke, Darwin's Influence

-Hobbes: removed dualism limit. Experience in mind of desire work in similar way as reflexes. Began Empiricism and Associationism -Locke: temporal contiguity and repetition as factors in strength of association. Mind is a blank slate -Darwin: assumes natural variation and some more advantageous than others. Effect of traits matter and strengthens Hobbes' ideas and seed for behaviorists to say effects of behaviors matter

Remember vs know judgements

-Remember= episodic Know= familiarity/semantic -Ranganath: see word on screen in red (animacy judgement) or green (size judgement). Later have memory test w/old and new words. Rate old words by familiarity and what color they were (episodic detail). Correctly remembered words involved activation of hippocampus & posterior parahippocampal #episodic; correctly recognized as familiar/know involved activation of anterior parahippocampal gyrus and entorhinal cortex but not hippocampus #semantic

Positive vs negative rewards, positive vs negative punishment

-Rewards and punishments: outcomes that influence behavior tend to be either positive/negative in valence -Positive= something existing/increase -negative = take something away; decrease draw chart -reinforcers and punishers can be positive or negative

Brain Substrates summary part 2

-Semantic memories seem to be stored in the cortex; specific kinds of semantic information are stored in the cortical areas devoted to processing that kind of information. -Some research suggests specific categories of semantic information are stored in specific groups or networks of neurons. -Hippocampal region is important for new episodic memory formation; patients with bilateral hippocampal-region damage show anterograde and retrograde amnesia. -In healthy humans, functional neuroimaging shows that the hippocampal region is especially active during encoding of information that will be successfully remembered later. -Some research demonstrates that the hippocampus is required for new episodic memory formation but other areas of the medial temporal lobes are sufficient to store new semantic memories; other research shows believe that the hippocampus is necessary for both episodic and semantic memory formation. -Standard consolidation theory states that older memories are stored in the cortex and eventually become independent of the hippocampus, multiple trace theory argues that episodic memories always require both the cortex and hippocampus. -The frontal cortex is important for determining which new memories are stored or forgotten, as well as for metamemory and remembering the source of information. -Other brain areas involved in episodic and semantic memory include the basal forebrain and the diencephalon. -All areas involved in encoding of episodic and semantic memory are interconnected. More study needed to explain the precise nature of communication between structures.

Skinner vs Chomsky and Cognitive Revolution

-Skinner: modified Watson's work; proponent of behaviorism and made distinction btwn operant and respondent behaviors. Cannot know internal processing and only observe input/output. Proposed *scientific system to explain all behaviors.* Learning explained through language. -Chomsky: believed language not important in started cognitive revolution

Behaviorism: Pavlov influence Watson (S-R links) to Skinner (purport to explain all behaviors)

-Watson: pioneer of behaviorism; influenced by Pavlov and took extreme mechanistic view of all behaviors as stimulus-response (billiard-like) # reflex *S-R links to explain all behaviors (worked w/rat and automatic motor habits)

Punishment/disliking system with *separate* registration of negative outcome in insular cortex and decision making process in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex

-aversive outcomes aren't physically painful I.e. negative contrast where both could've activated liking system but 1 activated more strongly -Insular Cortex- conscious awareness of bodies/emotional states #register negative event; activate with painful stimuli and negative emotional states -dACC- makes us change behavior based on outcome; detects unexpected event and suggests appropriate response; activates in response to negative outcomes

Which area of the brain is directly involved in the type of conditioned learning predicted by the Rescorla-Wagner model and what is the experimental evidence to support the claim?

-cerebellum - Thompson et, al. discovered that eyeblink conditioning in rabbits depends on US modulation in the cerebellum. This is further supported by examining mammalian conditioning of motor reflexes, where the interpositus and purkinje in the cerebellar cortex interact. -During conditioning, the interaction of tone/light turns inhibits the firing of the Purkinje cell, which turns on the interpositus and allows it to fire. This leads to excitation and the rabbit reacts by closing its eyes. -When no CR (eyeblink) occurs, there is no activity in the interpositus. The lack of substantial interpositus activity in US-alone trial despite a strong eyeblink UR confirms that the cerebellum is responsible for conditioned eyeblink CRs only and not for unconditioned eyeblink URs. -Damage to the purkinje cell provides evidence that lesions in the cerebellar cortex lead to poorly timed CRs. For instance, mice with degeneration of Purkinje cells are slow to learn the eyeblink conditioning. This supports error correction learning under the Rescorla-Wagner model because with experience, the CR inhibits the US signal (error = 0). If the US is as predicted, there is no change, and error is driven by the US. Inhibition of the purkinje is inaccurate if US timing changes or is longer than expected

Why connected to motivation (projection to VTA)

-neurons in VTA (release dopamine) have opioid receptors. Binding of opioid releases dopamine. Activation of like (^ opioid receptor activation) leads to "want" (more dopamine release) -addiction = want (incentive salience hypothesis) outpaces like --> all addictive drugs drive dopamine activity in motivation areas (VTA) --> "I need to do this" outpace like I.e. gambling -treatment: person needs to do something that causes activity that drive system of wanting/liking and drive VTA pathway through other means

Orbitofrontal cortex and role in R O learning; evidence in outcome prediction from neural recording

-part of prefrontal cortex involved in learning to predict outcomes of behavior; select response based on predicted outcome as a specific outcome. Receives input from sensory modalities and visceral sensation to confirm predicted accuracy - evidence: neural recording during delay btwn behavior and outcome reveals expectation; cell activity not tied to specific outcome. individual cell firing pattern switch if conditions of reinforcement switch. Cell that fired intensely to expectation of something positive generates minimal rate of response bc recognition that conditions of reinforcement have changed -extreme rates = high reinforce/punish; can change based on contingency vs locked to particular stimuli

Hernstein and *Matching Law*

-rate of response matches rate of reinforcement -Hernstein looked at pigeons concurrent schedules of positive reinforcement. Reported pigeon match relative rates of responding (DV)to the relative rates of reinforcement (IV) -linear relationship if matching rule upheld where Ba/(Ba+Bb)= Ra/(Ra+Rb)

2 key Procedure and Concurrent schedules of reinforcement

-simultaneous presentation of 2+ schedules of reinforcement on each option I.e. Pigeon can peck for food on right or left lighted keys w/separate schedules of reinforcement -assumes choice is function of rates of reinforcement provided by available options; esp when one schedule is more reinforcing

Cowan's theory of working memory as active portion of LTM can explain ability to return to recently activated memory as a function of time

-supported working memory as active LTM (but not necessarily executive) with levels of activation. Recently attended information is neural firing. Reorienting of attn moves the area of maximum firing. Explains ability to re-access recently activated memories efficiently, over time, degree of activity reduces over time so that if it's just been 30 seconds, still prime whereas longer wait to return, more dormant. If not strongly established circuit, then done/didn't do LTP

Forms of Classical conditioning and paradigms

1*Appetitive*-based on natural desires I.e. quail sex exposure to a female (US) innately produces arousal (UR) no learning. CS= tone/light, initially neutral. After pairing the CS w/US, the CS comes to produce approach (CR) positive 2. *Aversive*- based on what an organism wants to avoid #sensitization and negative stimuli I.e. flies exposure to shock (US) innately produces escape behavior (UR). CS= odor, initially neutral. After CS paired w/US, CS produces avoidance (CR) -CS-->CR reflex helps avoid noxious US -Eyeblink conditioning: puff of air to eye (US) naturally produces eyeblink (UR). CS can be tone/light eventually produces gradual eye close (CR). Measure speed and strength of blink. CR (early eye blink) prepares for coming US (air puff)

Types of Metamemory

1. *Ease of learning*- in advance of acquisition; predictions about what info and strategies will be easiest to learn 2. *Judgements of learning*- occur during/after acquisition; predictions about future test performance on currently recallable items 3. *Feeling of knowing*- occur after acquisition; judgements about currently unrecallably items: whether they are known/will be remembered on a later test; can focus on semantic (general knowledge) and episodic (target pairs) with need to measure both magnitude and accuracy -Tip of the Tongue: wait, don't tell me. Diff from FOK bc definitive knowledge of presence of the item in memory rather than just a level of confidence.

4 schedules of reinforcement #is the behavior always driving it forward? -Ratio- behavior drives schedule forward *draw schedule

1. *Fixed Ratio*- every X Rs produces 1 outcome I.e. for every 2 times press bad, I get food pellet; steady responding + *post-reinforcement pause*- break from responding after each reward 2. *Variable Ratio*- every X Rs produce 1 outcome, but X changes with each reinforcer I.e. avg amt of time press the bar ~15, but not always; every 5th response reinforced Constant & high rate of responding I.e. gambling, video games 3. *Fixed Interval*- after Y seconds, 1 R produces 1 outcome; do a behavior, after certain length of time, receive a reward; time btwn doesn't matter I.e. waiting for food to finish in microwave, Skinner after every 10 minutes, next lever press gets food 4. *Variable Interval*- after Y seconds, 1 R produces 1 O, but Y changes after each O I.e. checking email

Minformation Affect, Source of Misattribution, Misinformation Effect

1. *Misinformation Effect*- person's recall of espidoci memories less accurate bc of post-event information. Show people video and material includes stop sign. Hear a narrative about event and mention yield sign. Asked if saw stop or yield sign 2. *Source of Misattribution*- inability to distinguish whether the original event or some later event was the source of the info I.e. Did i read that in a book or see it in a movie 3. *Misinformation Acceptance*- when people accept additional info as part of an earlier acceptance without actually remembering that info I.e. did I remember the car was speeding bc it was or bc police suggested it

Proactive vs Retroactive interference and how to test *draw diagram

1. *Proactive Interference*: old information interferes with new information I.e. using old phone number even though you moved 2. *Retroactive interference: new info interferes with old info I.e. difficulty remembering old number after finally learned new one

2 kinds of judgement

1. *Retrospective judgements*- judgement about what was previously 2. *Prospective judgements*- predictions about information available in or to be retrieved from memory; judgement about future responding "I know this well. I can stop studying for the exam"

Theories of Classical Conditioning

1. *Stimulus-stimulus association*: the CS associates w/US itself, essentially becoming the US. Would expect responses of CR to be same as UR 2. *Stimulus-response associations*: CS associates w/UR and then would also elicit a CR that matches the UR

Target retrievability and Cue Familiarity Hypotheses

1. *Target Retrievability*- basis for rating is ability to retrieve some information about the target item 2. *Cue Familiarity*- basis for rating is familiarity of cue I.e. jeopardy 3. *Interactive*- cue familiarity occurs earlier in process and target retrievability later

Aristotle and Associationism (3 principles)

1. Contiguity- temporal and/or spatial 2. Frequency- relates to contiguity 3. Similarity

4 lobes in Cerebral Cortex

1. Frontal lobe- planning and performing complex actions 2. Parietal Lobe- touch, feeling, sense of space 3. Occipital lobe- vision 4. Temporal Lobe- hearing and remembering

Retrieval: more cues, better recall

1. Recognition test: MC most potential info 2. Cued recall: question + prompt fill in the blank 3. Free recall: question alone. Memory of highest level of strength

Incentive Salience Hypothesis and SNc

1. dopamine motivates learners to work for reinforcement; any outcome that releases dopamine along with pathway will lead to repeated behavior "I have to do this" 2. substantia nigra pars compacta- part of basal ganglia that contains dopamine-producing neurons that project to the striatum

What factors influence strength and speed of habituation

1. novelty of stimulus 2. frequency 3. time between exposure (more time btwn exposures, slower development of habituation. Less time, habituation *rate of learning occurs faster in early presentations then levels off

Heterosynaptic vs homosynaptic

2 pathways= sensitization & generality 1 pathway= habituation *habituation is specific but sensitization transfers*

Concurrent Interval Schedules vs. Ratio

2+ interval schedules; if only pressed 1 key, missing out bc behavior focused on getting max reward --> respond to shorter FI but occasionally longer FI -unlike concurrent ratio schedule, CIS generate distribution of responses btwn response options; greatest level of choice bc take away predictability. Uncertainty and reason to go back and forth -eventually reach steady-state performance

How does timing matter?

Activity causes priming by modifying sensory neuron proteins. If US too late, no cooperation occurs and fail to learn.

Conditioned Compensatory Response and Homeostasis

Body strives for homeostasis. Part of CR activated by automatic process I.e. heroin causes body temperature to rise (UR). CS= needle, particular room paraphernalia (container for drug. CR= lower body temperature in anticipation

Stimulus Substitution Theory: Support for it and problems it has explaining

CS forms a connection in the brain w/US activation area. After conditioning, activating the CS will activate the US area of the brain. SO CR will resemble UR bc it is activation along same pathway. Stimulus (CS) is substituting for the US #direct connection Support: Jenkins and Moore trained 2 groups of pigeons: water group CS (light) --> US (water) move towards lit key with drinking motion. Close beak, open eye. vs grain group CS (light)--> US (grain) try to "eat" the lit key. Open beak, closed eyes. Diff pigeons had diff reactions to the light. Problem: only need to find 1 example of UR being diff from CR to cause problems for the theory. If direct connection, response should always look like CR I.e pair tone with shock and rats freeze= opposite of jumping in response to shock itself. Indicates preparing for shock, but also recognition tone is something diff

Timing and Trace vs Delay Conditioning and Effectiveness

CS-US timing: CS needs to have predictive value for conditioning to occur. Won't work if it happens after US. *Trace conditioning*- an interstimulus interval (ISI) btwn CS and US. If too fast, then CR decreases bc CR as same time as CS (tone already getting shock) but half-second before allows to prepare. Close pairing is best for strongest association *Delay Conditioning*- CS is continually present until US occurs. Delay beats trace w/same time/ISI; stronger conditioning in delay. Having CS present the whole time until US increases strength of association. *with delay CS continually present. with trace, there is a time gap btwn presentation of CS with US*

Evidence of Phonological Loop

Conrad: mistakes in word list recall. 2 words that sound similar but look diff, highly likely to make mistake. Translate visual info into auditory form found mistakes occur more with phonological similarity I.e. Q and O diff but T and C similar -*Irrelevant Speech Effect*- mumbling in hall still occupies space in phonological loop, but if see other images, doesn't interfere in same way. Concurrent articulation effect- make sounds yourself -*Word length effect*: longer words=more sound it takes up and fewer words you can remember even if they are familiar to you.

Drive Reduction Theory vs Premack's Principle

DRT: organisms have innate drives to obtain primary reinforcers; learning is driven by biological need to reduce those drives Premack's Principle: opportunity to perform a highly frequent behavior can reinforce a less frequent behavior I.e. watching tv used as reinforcer for homework; focus on behavior *see chart; some desirable behaviors are not for primary reinforcers

Generalization and _____________ is to ______________ as to what habituation and _____________ is to _______________

Discrimination; operant; sensitization; classical

Dysexecutive syndrome and how it shows lack of executive control #damage to prefrontal cortex

Disrupted ability to think/plan--> rule by reflexive/automatic impulses. I.e. unable to follow list in grocery store. Difficult to prevent proactive interference and inhibition; damage to *frontal cortex* and inability to plan (*prefrontal*) = biological substrates of central executive

Father of Memory Define Learning, Memory, Behavior

Ebbinghaus; *Learning*- changes in behavior as a result of experience interacting with the world. *Memory*- record of our past experiences, which are acquired through learning. *Behavior*- everything an organism does, including thinking and feeling

Episodic vs Semantic Memory

Episodic: personally experience events; mental time travel that revisits past experiences; self-knowing Semantic: facts, knowledge about the world; knowledge without mental time travel; knowing

Basic Methodology of an FOK study: name or hum that tune

Experiment 1 with instrumental melodies and titles --> melody is more effective cue. FOK higher for titles (give you melody and provide rating of title. Inflated confidence). Experiment 2 with song melodies and titles--> title more effective cue. FOK higher for melodies (give FOK for melody and think you know when given title). -Chua dissociation btwn recognition (memory) and FOK judgements (metamemory). More activation in *medial prefrontal cortex in FOK* vs recognition. Thought to be involved in organizing internally motivated behaviors

Eyewitness testimony: Loftus study and what was found in experiment 1 and 2

Experiment 1: asked how fast cars were going when hit each other using diff words. Speed estimates depended on how question was phrased Experiment 2: leading questions add nonexistent details to memory --> question posed diff I.e. did you see any broken glass? Even though no broken glass, leading questions doubled report of broken glass

What is necessary for encoding, not exposure, & LOP aids in encoding (and experiment)

Exposure not enough; simple repetition is not effective--> Craik and Tulving the more deeply you process info, better it is encoded. LOP: 1. Pronounce- low level 2. Images: high level Imaged words remember better than later. Asked if word is upper/lower case, rhyme, fit the end of a sentence. Deeper level processing= better retention *Rote memorization*- remember something over and over vs understanding why/explanation

Amygdala and learning: need for amygdala activity for fear conditioning (can still take place with damaged hippocampus but functional amygdala)

Fear conditioning requires the amygdala. Rats who have had amygdala removed don't develop fear conditioning. Dissociation btwn amygdala and hippocampal damage. -During classical conditioning, people w/amygdala damage don't have conditioned response. Hippocampal patients unable to do explicit but demonstrate implicit (skin conductance response)--> learning has taken place

Aplysia: aversive stimuli and sensitization

Gentle touch to siphon produces gill withdrawal. *Aversive* shock to tail #damaging. Next touch is much longer withdrawal duration. Activates *interneurons* by very intense stimuli, connects to other pathways that join @ sensory neuron and lead to gill withdrawal reflex. *Interneurons* fires @ axons. Neurotransmitter serotonin *modulates* sensory neurons to release *more* neurotransmitters on next activation. Receptors are added and generalizes

Milner and HM

HM could form some types of lasting info I.e. skills without conscious awareness--> suggest implicit process may be diff from explicit 1. *Declarative/explicit LTM*- something you can talk about 2. *Nondeclarative* explicit/implicit LTM -inability to consolidate episodic memories but did consolidate semantic --> could draw house diagram without conscious awareness of learning the house

Habituation and glutamate release vs Sensitization & interneurons & serotonin release

Habituation reduces glutamate release (fewer vesicles). With sensitization, interneurons release serotonin, which result in increase glutamate

Patterns of Learning across species

Habituation, dishabituation, spontaneous recovery, stimulus specificity, short term vs long term, spaced vs massed in terms of retention & learning speed → applied to animals Not the same exact result across all species, but the same pattern. Supports evolutionary perspective- basic abilities to habituate was pre-existing before humans

Frontal cortex in memory and MTL

High level planning; organization and coordination of memories. Selects info to encode Evidence: frontal lobe damage; stroke causes problem for source memory. Damage increases *source monitoring errors*-unsure where you heard something, disrupts metamemory judgements, EOL, JOL, FOK -During learning, Frontal lobe predict increased MTL activity/hippocampus. Can release inhibitory neurons to turn off MTL/hippocampus= *directed forgetting* -Frontal cortex can manage MTL and consolidation, guide basal forebrain; *overall organization and planning*

Compound Conditioning and Overshadowing

If 2 CS presented simultaneously, compound conditioning occurs. If want to be effective, both things need to have some predictive value. If present one first then the other, may have overshadowing.

Perceptual Learning

If continuously exposed to stimulus, you will come to perceive stimuli differently over time I.e. wine tasters -result is measured not in changed response to stimuli, but improved ability to recognize

Generalization and discrimination: why it demonstrates memory

If past experience transfers to new situation = generalization If new is seen as unrelated= discrimination I.e. car expert

Where in the cortex is sensory stimuli registered, what is a receptive field and generalization gradient

Initial cortical processing of sensory info occurs in areas dedicated to each sense adjacent w/overlapping receptive fields --> some place that fires maximally and as move away, less action. Range can change w/experience= learning

Connectionist Models and William James; distributed representation

James: habits built by inborn reflexes through learning; memory built through networks of associations I.e. memories of dinner event and dance assoc by linkage Theories of ideas as links in mind= *connectionist models* --> *distributed representation* memory for some event distributed in multiple areas of brain (distributed representation). Semantic networks elaborates by saying representation distributed and linked to other concepts based on similarity to diff elements

Extinction as learning

LTD involved in extinction, but new association formed btwn CS and no-US. Potential for spontaneous recovery demonstrates reactivation of original association

Generalization and Hippocampal Region

Learn about relationship btwn sensory cues. Hippocampus damage disrupts performance: sensory preconditioning task, acquired-equivalence tasks, latent inhibition

Liking as separate, but connected system due to opioid receptor activation

Liking due to activation of *opioid receptors*; activation of these receptors increases pleasurableness of food. Endogenous opioids released in response to primary reinforcers -liking (opioid) and wanting (dopamine) not in isolation: some neurons with opioid receptors project to "wanting" system

Role of DLPFC vs MPFC: understand how study of musical improvisation demonstrates roles of these areas of the PFC

Limb and Braun examined neural activity during musical improvisation. Deactivation of lateral prefrontal cortex and deactivation in limbic region--> not playing from memory/actively encoded. Focal activation in MPFC need asome activity to guide and you and increase activation in sensorimotor areas. -MPFC: internally motivated behaviors; expressing one's self -DLPFC: goal-directed behavior; carrying out and requiing specific sequencing I.e. problem solving, focused attn

Multiple Trace theory: what is it, what can best explain it

MTL helps organize distributed semantic facts into specific episodic memories. Episodic memories never independent of MTL. Semantic may occur indpt of MTL -can't form episodic without semantic, which provides general framework. -Explains cases of severe retrograde amnesia (to childhood). Suggests spared memories after MTL damage are going to be semantic -can't explain HM

Know difference between magnitude and accuracy in terms of measuring FOKs, how accuracy is calculated and graphed, what overconfidence would look like vs underconfidence

Magnitude of ratings (arbitrary scale) & accuracy. If thought low number, but high, that is inaccuracy. More accuracy = better index system is weakening. Lower accuracy= problems w/index system. Magnitude affected by delay btwn study and rating. Accuracy relates to confidence.

PFC proportions; major divisions of PFT

Mammals with better working memory function have proportionately larger Divisions: orbital, medial, lateral (dorso= memory-specific vs ventro)

Hippocampus and sensory pre-conditioning (paradigm and what happens with hippocampal damage) *draw diagram

Phase 1: 2 stimuli (tone & light) paired together. Phase 2: one of the two stimuli becomes a CS (tone--> airpuff) Phase 3: another stimulus that is presented (light) should evoke CR (generalization) -Animals exposed to stimuli separately don't generalize. Hippocampal rabbits fail

Hippocampus and Acquired-equivalence (paradigm and what happens with hippocampal damage) *draw diagram

Phase 1: Learn A1--> X1--> Food; A2 --> X1 --> Food. B1--Y1--> Food; B2--> Y2--> Food Phase 2: one of two stimuli becomes a CS. Train A1 --> Food and B1--> no food Phase 3: Expect A2--> response but B2--> no food -hippocampal damage can result in learning Phase 1 and 2, but not 3

Latent inhibition (paradigm and what happens with hippocampal damage) *draw diagram

Phase 1: pre-expose to CS alone (i.e. tone) Phase 2: now pair CS with US (tone--puff) Prexposure to CS should result in latent inhibition (slow acquisition of CR compared with animals that are not pre-exposed. Damage to hippocampus unable to do this

Emotion and Memory: see how emotional responses are directly tied to the types of studies we have looked at (classical conditioning, operant conditioning)

Positive/negative emotional impacts hold important information and connection btwn cognitive control and executive function

Factors influencing classical conditioning: blocking and Kamin's experiment *draw figure

Prior training to one cue blocks later learning of second cue. -2 groups of rats; control group had compound conditioning light and tone w/electric shock. Later see CR w/light or tone alone (but slightly less strength). Experimental group first have light paired with shock, then compound light and tone. Later see no response to tone alone, but do to light. Experimental evidence for blocking. -Proof that conditioning involves tracking relevant information, not simple connections like habituation

Punishment vs Reinforcement, negative contrast

Punishment: any outcome that decreases the behavior in future Reinforcement: consequence of behavior that leads to increased likelihood of behavior ofcurring again Negative Contrast: organism respond less strongly to a less preferred reinforcer that is provided in place of an expected preferred reinforcer than it would have if less-preferred reinforcer had been provided all along I.e. infants suck nipple with plain vs sweet water

Where do the CR and UR interact in classical conditioning?

Purkinje and interpositus; normally the purkinje cell fires randomly, keeping interpositus inhibited. After conditioning, CS has effect on Purkinje and inhibits Purkinje cell, which disables inhibition and turns on interpositus. *Inhibition of inhibition to get to excitation*

Where do CS and US pathways converge?

Purkinje cell

why the original experiment with electrical brain stimulation of rats behavior was more wanting than liking

Rats highly motivated to press the bar (if allowed to, would press until died and ignore food placed near them) but behavior didn't indicate they liked pressing the bar. Instead, acted more like it was a "need" to press the bar rather than a "like"

Role of diencephalon and MTL (mammillary bodies and mediodorsal nucleus of thalamus), Korsakoff's disease: what causes it and what is the result

Regulates MTL and frontal cortex. *Korsakoff's disease*- assoc w/alcoholism bc nutritrional deficiency (Vitamin B/Thiamine). Act like have MTL damage, but damage to diencephalon. Look behaviorally similar to HM

Negative Patterning and task to demonstrate it

Response to individual cues are rewarded, but when cues presented together (the pattern), the responses must be withheld: A, B, A+B= diff from either A or B -tone --> airpuff--> light but light + tone --> no airpuff. -I.e. eat with mom in kitchen. dad in kitchen. Mom and dad in dining room -difficult to learn bc suppress generalization

Kluver-Bucy syndrome: what is it and how to identify (behaviorally)

SM demonstrated link btwn fear processing and amygdala. Couldn't experience/represent fear, but could identify other emotions. Kluver and Bucy showed monkeys with damage to amygdala had psychic blindness/*Kluver-Bucy syndrome* lack of fear tendency to approach objects that normally elicit fear response

Baddely working memory model

STM= *working memory(- collects sensory input, activates relevant LTM and transforms info to suit current needs. 3 components: 1. *Phonological Loop*- auditor/verbal information; *default code* anything not directly tied to visual/abstract form in loop bc no specific propositional store 2. Visuospatial Sketchpad- visual and spatial information 3. Central Executive- coordinates all activities of working memory and brings new info into working memory from sensory and LTM

Cortical processing and episodic and semantic memory: difference between sensory cortex and association cortex, evidence for semantic memories being stored in a distributed fashion, what was the "Steve Carell" cell

Semantic memories stored in distributed fashion through cerebral cortex 1. *Sensory cortex*- 1st cortical processing center for a sense 2. *Association cortex*- links across senses Neurons respond to specific semantic categories I.e. neuron fires to pictures of Steve Carell but not to photos of other celebrities. Diff groups of neurons w/complex receptive field in cortex -*Semantic memories stored across many specialized processing centers in cortex; not localized to one area*

Mammalian Conditioning of motor reflexes: separate CS and US pathways

The Split: 1. to granule cells in cerebellar cortex and interpositus nucleus within cerebellum 2. interpositus nucleus and purkinje neurons in cerebellar cortex

McGeoch's 3 factor theory of forgetting: what are the factors, what is response competition and when is it more likely to occur

Thought retrieval failure occurs bc retrieved the wrong memory (interference) *Response competition*- more than 1 item in memory as potential response 1. Interference 2. Altered context- information itself (nominal) or everything around it (functional) 3. Set- mind-set Relationships to LOP: if way you think about something matched when exposed to stimulus first saw= conducive to recall. Incongruencies create interference -related to encoding specificity principle and TAP)

Classical conditioning not as simple as pairing CS with US

Timing: CS must precede the US, but not by too long of a delay Blocking: CS must provide new information about the US Latent Inhibition: CS must be attended to Associative Bias: CS must meet innate expectations for possible pairing with US

Thompson and A1 Lesion

Trained cats to respond to particular tone. Lesion to A1 in one group of cats results in same response to all tones. *flat generalization gradient = no discrimination*. Proof that A1 cells respond differently to diff tones, creating generalization gradient

US modulation vs CS modulation

US Modulation: assumes learning due to US. CS doesn't change, only its relation to US CS Modulation: assumes learning due to change in way CS is processsed

Why does *variable ratio lead to higher response* than variable interval?

VR more responses= more reinforcers (must play to win); drive schedule forward VI more responses don't mean more reinforcers (only need to check in) & time varies more

Neuron determines whether it initiates ________ potential which based on the binding of ______________

action; neurotransmitters, which are released when a neuron fires and influences other neurons. They are information shared to other neurons and can modulate likelihood of action potentials. Diff neurons have diff neurotransmitters

Law of Exercise

actions which have been repeated are likely to be repeated again I.e. student always studies 5 days before test to get an A -could have conflict where law of exercise pushes against desired effect

Law of Effect

actions which result in a desired effect are likely to be repeated I.e. baby cries whenever it wants attention

Role of hippocampus in learning about the relationships between stimuli (Gluck and Meyers theory of role of hippocampus)role of hippocampus in learning about the relationships between stimuli (Gluck and Meyers theory of role of hippocampus)

acts as *information highway* and processes whether info is helpful or redundant Evidence: fMRI more activity in hippocampus in early stages of learning and less after learning has taken place

Support for Rescorla-Wagner and classical conditioning

additional inhibitory area in CR pathway out of interpositus. Will inhibit US signal. Impacts error correction learning bc with experience, CR inhibits US signal. Inaccurate if US timing changes or if US lasts longer. But if US is as predicted, no change -- activity in inferior olive as the error. Error driven by US *activation of interpositus blocks US, only when US expected. Inhibit for amt of time think need to close eyes*

Wagner SOP model

addresses relationship btwn US and CS (both matter) Assumes A1 immediate, physiological response I.e. jump to electric shock --> A2 secondary processing, longer lasting. I is inactivity state/no longer being influenced. All are memory states. *CR will always look like A2 version of US* -modulation by strength and similarity of A1 and A2 in both CS and US. CS without US can only elicit memory of US, which is link from I to A2.

Skinner and Free Operant Paradigm vs. Discrete Trials Paradigm

animal can initiate start of trial on own, which takes burden off of experimenter and shows strength of behavior vs experimenter defines beginning and end points I.e. cat in box

Problems with Thorndike's puzzle box. Define Behavioral Unit

animals may use diff motor acts for same result (law of exercise influence) I.e. rat in maze that is later flooded. Solution: R is a *behavioral unit*- class of behaviors that produce an effect; all possible motor responses that result in right response

Classical Conditioning: US, UR, CS, US and how Pavlov demonstrated

association of separate entities -prior to conditioning, *US* elicits a *UR* (natural, unlearned). Pair the US with a neutral stimulus *CS* (artificial, unnatural). *Present the CS before the US* and repeat process to create a *CR* -Pavlov studied digestion where DV= saliva production & bell

how do you make punishment effective

behavior cannot be concurrently reinforced; weak if org knows under what circumstances a particular behavior will/not be punished. if punishment starts out weak then gradually stronger, less of an effect I.e. shock

LTP vs LTD

co-activated neurons may develop new contacts; more receptors @ synapse on dendrite vs opposite where contacts taken apart or destroyed

Skinner box

conditioning chamber in which reinforcement/punishment delivered automatically whenever animal makes particular response (pressing lever) -results: charting behaviors demonstrate acquisition and extinction (caused by something you did

MTL in memory; difference btwn HM and EP, why radial arm maze animal model of episodic memory

consolidation depends on MTL -Evidence: lesions of MTL produce anterograde amnesia, inability to consolidate declarative memories -HM unable to form episodic memories, but over time, semantic memories did develop. Can directly copy a figure, but not if delay (failure to consolidate) vs EP unable to do either. Damage more widespread. Can't copy figure after delay -Implications: supports MTL recall info inepisodic and semantic. If actively answer questions, requires more activity bc attempt to acces info in LTM -radial arm maze remember which arm went into for treat

S R O relationship

context (S), response (R), produces outcome (O). Likelihood of behavior dependent on outcome, can be positive or negative; association strengthened when R followed by desirable outcome O

Operant conditioning as 3 part association

context/SD, behavioral response, outcome

Habituation

decreasing response to a presented stimulus; lose awareness of something often experienced #habit Evidence: *acoustic startle reflex*- change volume of sound or *orienting response* child cease to respond to some stimuli that initially responded to. Early strong response declining to weak (asymptote- stable point after training). #weak=less negative stimulus

Role of Basal forebrain and MTL, release of GABA (inhibitory) vs acetylcholine, result of stroke with basal forebrain damage, confabulation

determine what the hippocampus stores & regulates MTL. -releases GABA (inhibitory/redude activity) vs ACh (excitatory/inhibitory based on receptors; works in opposition of GABA to restrengthen connections of memory/reconsolidation) -strokes can damage basal forebrain resulting in anterograde/retrograde amnesia --> improper though process and damage to encoding/recall limited info. *Confabulation*- confuse free association with reality; not able to recall elements of source, but fill in gaps

Diff btwn dishabituation and spontaneous recovery

dishabituation switches stimuli vs spontaneous recovery introduces a time delay, not necessarily that another stimuli took attention

Standard Conslidation Theory: what is it, what it can best explain

during learning, MTL relays info to cortex. Overtime, cortex gets memory and doesn't need MTL -timing leads to connection: simultaneity of firing. Through repeated exposure, form cirtcuits -explains why brain disruption damages recent memories but not older memories -explains HMs ability to have intact older episodic memory (childhood) -Loss greatest for time period close to injury. Have more memories further away from damage

Models of generalization and discrimination: discrete-component representation

each individual stimulus represented by its own node/component; not supported by what actually happens bc extreme discrimination and fails to show smooth generalization gradient Problem: each stimuluis represented individually so can't represent relationships btwn them bc learning on individual stimulus basis

continuous vs partial reinforcement schedules

every instance of the response is followed by the consequence vs only some responses are reinforced

Proof of separate pathways

expect cells to fire milliseconds before CR initiated, not before UR. Damage to interpositus leads to impairments in CR learning --> conditioning never happened.

Effects of plasticity

experience shapes receptive fields. Habituation contracts cortical space devoted to stimulus. Sensitization/fear expands

Choice behavior

experimental study of choice and preference in understanding/shaping behavior

Dual process Theory

explains both habituation and sensitization as aspects of the same system w/2 diff parts -Habituation due to pathway that gets weakened with repetition. State system is dormant -Sensitization due to pathway that has high threshold, but when activated increases activity across system. State system responsible for sensitization and can modify other system. -strong noxious stimuli will activate both systems (sensory neurons and state system) and get increase in responsiveness. Moderate stimuli may activate both, but with minimal state level habituation component may drive activity

Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve

exponential forgetting curve: larger amt of information forgotten early, very slow loss later. Initial storage is fragile but becomes stronger over time

Fixed vs. variable; interval vs. ratio

fixed= set/unchanging; variable = not set or precise interval = length of time vs. ratio = behavior drives forward

If behavior deviates from matching law, in what direction will that deviation occur?

higher response rate to the shorter interval option

Nativist vs Empiricist

humans are shaped by their biological inheritance; fixed at birth and born #Plato, Descartes & nature vs humans shaped by their experience; endless possibilities with the right experiences. Scientific approach #Aristotle, James, Locke & nurture

Thorndike's Cat Puzzle Box

hungry cat placed in box with food outside. Pull string to open box --> random actions lead to successful pull string. Record behaviors and time cat spends in box where over time, cat quickly pulls the string.

What is the purkinje cell evidence for

learning changes activity of firing cells

MT vs SCT

if hippocampus less necessary for episodic (SCT) should see less activity with recall of older vs new memories. If MT, should see similar activity regardless of whether it's older or newer memories. Semantic is more SC (lose episodic and become semantic and episodic more SC. Reduction in hippocampal activity more with semantic memories. Support for both

Models of generalization and discrimination: Distributed Representation

individual stimulus represented by overlapping set of nodes -- multiple stimulus element. each node shared by more than 1 color --> more share elements = more similar. Can generalize from past experience to novel stimuli

Short term vs long term habituation

influence what makes information stay in memory -test by presenting stimulus again after a delay, vary length of delay. Must be more than minutes to be *long-term*. If presenting stimulus every few seconds, then continually confirming *short-term* habituation w/no assurance that it's long term #massed vs spaced

Rescorla Wagner Model and Error-Correction learning

it is surprise that drives conditioning/something unexpected happening. Blocking occurs bc 2nd CS offers no surprise (compared to 1st CS)--> *Error Correction Learning*- learning from mistakes 1. *Positive error* I don't expect anything to happen, but something does (first pairing of CS US) #acquisition 2. *Negative error* I expect something to happen but it doesn't (first extinction trial of CS) #extinction 3. No error

Encoding Specificity Principle and support with Divers Experiment

learn 2 list of words Group A on land and Group B underwater. Subjects tested in same context vs diff context --> *Retrieval works best when conditions at test are similar to encoding -depth of processing might mitigate influence of study/test location

Concurrent Variable Interval Schedules (VI VI)

makes FI FI switching pattern less effective. Harder to discover optimal pattern, so org respond to both. Sensitive to rate of reinforcement on each alternative, which is why referred to stdyng choice I.e. key 1 $15 on VI-5 and key 2 $4 VI-10 --> press key 1 but give key 2 shot on regular basis

Sensitization

minimal stimulus presence results in larger response compared to baseline. Change of behavior=indicative of learning -induced by strong negative stimuli -effect of one stimuli transfers to the other #associative threats *habituation is specific but sensitization transfers*

Effects of weighted predictions in terms of learning & how it can explain blocking

model puts weights on stimuli in relation to US, *associative weights* how strong is the association. Weight is there before any learning but can change. If 2nd CS added, only alters expectations if error occurs. Extinction trial would cause error in blocking case. Learning taking place in error correct changes weights of stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery and implication on learning

more likely to get spontaneous recovery in massed presentation --> faster acquisition of habituation bc shown repeatedly. Slower acquisition w/spaced, but less spontaneous recovery bc greater retention for memory of exposure to stimuli so that it's not novel to you.

Critical area of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, evidence with cells that fire in specific delay conditions requiring working memory (Goldman-Rakic experiment with visual stimulus and monkey, similar activity with humans while maintain information in working memory), DLPFC involved in attention and seen to have reduction in activity during meditation, dreaming, hypnosis

neurons of DLPFC fire while memories are being maintained in working memory (delay neurons). Goldman-Rakic: delayed response eye-gaze task. Initial cue look at response. Delay. Response at Cue and look where spot was. Spike in neuron registers cue--> after, cue fires less intensely. During delay, call continues to fire; show active working memory. When gets response see spike - if delay neurons don't maintain activity through delay, errors usually occur. delay-specific activity during working memory tasks; some info that need to hold on to before test. Recordings from primate and humans during working memory task -DLPFC maintain goal-directed behavior. Deactivation of DLPFC in hypnosis, meditation, dreaming

Why *activity-dependent enhancement*? Serotonin modulation strengthens CS pathway

paired training of CS and US that produces increase in glutamate vesicles released from sensory to motor neurons ; responds to even weak level of serotonin. *combination of activity-based priming + serotonin modulation strengthens CS pathways so that future touches cause more robust withdrawals (CR)*

Define Schedule

pattern of behavior contingency

Early approaches were primarily _________

philosophical

Guttman and Kalish study and implications for generalization and perception of subject; similar stimuli can predict similar consequences; generalization gradient

pigeons learned to peck yellow light for food --> *Generalization gradient*-graph showing how physical changes in stimuli correspond to behavior response change. Responding highest for physical similar stimuli, gradually reduced for less similar stimuli -test by after training, show other stimuli during extinction period and graph response rate. Other responses not rewarded (extinction). Peaks=discriminative stimuli -if find Sd has some level of generalization, specifically graph responses over range of stimuli. Generalization near high rates of response; discrimination near low rates of response to other stimuli

Reinforcer: 2 types

positive reinforcement that increases likelihood of behavior occurring again 1. Primary- work immediately, biologically driven I.e. food, sleep; strength varies by species and level of drive --> no value to water if not thirsty 2. Secondary- no immediate drive reduction; paired with primary reinforcer I.e. money

Kandel and Aplysia

possible to condition response that would have resulted in habituation without pairing *draw chart

Spontaneous Recovery

previously habituated response goes reverts to original behavior prehabituation); responding to this stimuli that was previously habituated to with the same robust behavioral response that you did during initial exposure, like it's brand new

Hebbian Learning

proposed system of learning that took networked associationism (James and Aristotle) into physical realm; connections made between particular neurons could be strengthened with repeated activity #theoretical -Strengthened: potentially fewer action potentials needed to make next neuron fire. *Through A firing onto B, there can be a change to Cell B that is more likely to fire. Neurons that fire together wire together*

Prefrontal cortex as seat of executive control: evolutionary argument with evidence as proportion of brain devoted to PFC.

proprtion of PFC vary among mammals. Mammals with better working memory function have larger PFC areas. Similar btwn humans and close primate relatives but note fold difference

Role in motivation with evidence from experiment with dopamine antagonist and rats behavior

rats prefer sugar over plain food. Set up Skinner box where plain food freely available, but have to press a bar for sugar pellets. Rats given dopamine antagonistic blocks dopamine and press bar less. But doesn't mean don't "like" the sugar --> if put sugar in mouth, like same as control

Shaping behavior vs Chaining

reward successive approximation; incrementally build complex R by changing contingencies vs trained to execute complicated sequences of discrete responses #link I.e. dog trained to sniff bombs. Dog more likely to bark false positive if handler thinks package suspicious. Person who rewards stimulus = SD -part of operant conditioning

Mackintosh Model

salience of CS modulation; any stimuli has level of salience and present CS with nothing, over time it loses importance/salience. -Applied to latent inhibition: learned lack of attn to CS that is eventually overcome w/repeated pairings to US

Compare to heterosynaptic vs homosynaptic

sensitization = heterosynaptic; habituation = homosynaptic (1 pathway) --> discrete is homosynaptic bc no influence of 1 path to any other path vs generalization gradient= heterosynaptic

Role of Limbic system and 4 parts

several subcortical structures (below the cortex) rep in Left & Right Hemisphere; assoc. w/emotion 1. Amygdala- emotional regulation 2. Thalamus- sensory relay 3. Hippocampus- memory creation 4. Basal Ganglia- motor planning; rule-based habit learning

Pattern across acquisition

similar across species

Diff between local potentials and action potentials

small amt of electrical change due to neurotransmitters binding to receptors vs actual firing of neuron due to sum of local potentials above threshold

Define Operant Conditioning

specific actions and their effects/how it influences on future action; learn to make responses in order to obtain/avoid certain outcomes

Relating Habituation & Sensitization to Dual-Process Model

state system (interneuron) only activated if intensely fired, modulates to increase the pathway. Only 1 activates state system-- can have neural correlates for stages in theory (interneurons). Homosynaptic = 1 pathway= habituation & specific; heterosynaptic= 2 pathway= sensitization & generality

Stroke and evidence/unwanted habituation

stroke causes loss of sensation without loss of motor control. W/habituate, can ignore and not use desensitized limb. Maladaptive instance of plasticity: lack of sensory input from the limb causes it to lose attention and resources relative to healthy limb--> *Constraint-induced movement therapy*- good limb is restrained, force use of desensitized limb and work against natural habituation process. More use of damaged limb expands cortical representation for limb #plasticity

Long Term Potentiation as physical evidence for Hebb's Theory

strong firing in A influences both A and B-- neurons that fire together wire together. Changes last long term. *potentiation*- potential to fire neural activity is electrical w/greater potential, less charge needed to get an action potential which lowers threshold.

Skinner's view on punishment. Problems with punishment to create operant conditioning

thought punishers lead to generalized suppression vs contingency learning; cease more than just the behavior. Weak punisher leads to habituation. Problems: Circumvention- may learn discriminative stimuli that help avoid punishment I.e. slow down when see cop; generalized behavior disruption i.e. aggression

Skinner's view

thought that operant conditioniong could explan ALL behaviors and best way to teach parents

What determines effectiveness of operant conditioning?

timing from behavior to consequence: closer in time the behavior and consequence, the better the learning. Contingency If SD, then R--> O

Generalization vs Discrimination

to behave similarly in diff situations vs. learn to respond differently to diff stimuli; affects when you do these behaviors *stimulus generalization*- when behaviors elicited in presence of one Sd also elicited by other stimuli

Lashley & Engram & Equipotentiality

trained rats to navigate maze then removed area of cortex. Once he found the lesion that erased memories, he would have located *engram*- physical change in brain that forms basis of memory *Theory of Equipotentiality*- memories are stored globally, by the brain as a whole, rather than in one particular brain area (engram); damage to one area won't completely destroy the memory and surviving areas may be able to compensate for loss

Rescorla and Contingency Experiment

varied presentation rate of CS-US and US by itself. High rate of US alone led to little CR. CS gets little weight bc US not contingent on presence of CS. Perhaps environment of test chamber itself is the thing that gets weights. Has problem explaining latent inhibition -CS alone has weight of 0. If nothing happens, should stay at 0 and no error. -presentation of US alone leads to expectation it is likely to spontaneously occur resulting in positive error correction, so when CS does occur prior to error correction, no new learning of CS-US pairing

Mental scanning tasks and Brooks Experiment

visual stimulus (see then remember and scan clockwise from star inside or outside corner. Point to yes/no vs say yes/no. Evidence of baddely's separate components

How to distinguish habituation from fatigue

what other things might cause similar response not due to learning I.e. fatigue, lack of attention. Change the stimulus to see if similar response I.e. if infant tired, doesn't matter if change stimulus. If behavior that was reduced has gone back p, proves habituation to OG stimulus occurred; reduction in behavior not due to fatigue

How neurons communicate

when *action potential* occurs, neuron fires from all or none process and release neurotransmitter= electrical communication *local potential* is chemical; *Neurotransmitters* attach to receptors on dendrites which cause electrical effects to cell= local potential (excitatory vs inhibitory; ions). If sum of these local potentials above threshold, action potential is triggered *no such thing as stronger firing*

Stroop Test

when asked to name color/say color, but interference when word doesn't match color -OG Study: Experiment 1 task report the WORD. Form #1 word in incongruent color vs Form #2 WORD in black color. Results: not a large diff for reaction time; color information does not affect word report. Experiment 2: report COLOR. Form #1 colo in incongruent word form #2 color of a square (NC name color). Word information does affect color report -measure of central executive's ability to inhibit to prevent proactive interference. Inhibition = directed forgetting in frontal lobe #executive contorl. evidence exists from loss

Long-term depression

when firing out of sync, reduction in activity--> valuable to erase part of memory I.e. learn something inaccurate, move to England and drive on other side of the road *out of sync, lose link*