psych 7 wtf
Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
Many psychologists are skeptical of claims that chimpanzees can acquire language because the chimps have not shown the ability to: A.use symbols meaningfully. B.acquire speech. C.acquired even a limited vocabulary. D.use syntax in communicating.
use syntax in communicating.
Normal forgetting happens because ....
we have never encoded information; because the physical trace has decayed; or because we cannot retrieve what we have encoded and stored.
Sensory memory feeds some information into ________ memory for active processing there.
working
Which of the following is not true of babbling? A.It is imitation of adult speech. B.It is the same in all cultures. C.It typically occurs from about age 4 months to one year. D.Babbling increasingly comes to resemble a particular language.
It is imitation of adult speech.
_______ _____ _________ appears to be the neural basis for learning and memory.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
Memories are not stored intact in the brain in single spots.
Many parts of the brain interact as we form and retrieve memories.
Mnemonic devices are least likely to be dependent upon which of the following? Imagery Acronyms Rhymes Chunking Massed rehearsal
Massed rehearsal
Which of the following statements concerning memory is true? Hypnosis, when used as a component of therapy, usually improves the accuracy of memory. One aspect of memory that is usually accurate is the source of the remembered information. Children's memories of abuse are more accurate than other childhood memories. Memories we are more certain of are more likely to be accurate. Memories are often a blend of correct and incorrect information.
Memories are often a blend of correct and incorrect information.
Which of the following is an accurate conclusion based on Hermann Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve research? Most forgetting occurs early on and then levels off We forget more rapidly as time passes Forgetting is relatively constant over time Forgetting is related to many factors, but time is not one of them We are more likely to forget items in the middle of a list than at the beginning or the end
Most forgetting occurs early on and then levels off
Which of the following kinds of information is not likely to be automatically processed? Space information Time information Frequency information New information Rehearsed information
New information
What is the capacity for long-term memory?
Our long-term memory capacity is essentially unlimited.
Which concept best explains why people often underestimate the amount of time it will take to complete a project?
Overconfidence
What do we call the smallest distinctive sound units in language?
Phonemes
Juan returns to his grandparent's house after a 10-year absence. The flood of memories about his childhood visits is best explained by what?
Priming
Caitlin, a fifth grader, is asked to remember her second-grade teacher's name. What measure of retention will Caitlin use to answer this question?
Recall
Working memory is most active during which portion of the information-processing model?
Short-term memory
Which of the following is an example of source amnesia? Iva can't remember the details of a horrifying event because she has repressed them. Mary has entirely forgotten about an incident in grade school until her friend reminds her of the event. Michael can't remember this year's locker combination because he confuses it with last year's combination. Stephen misremembers a dream as something that really happened. Anna, who is trying to lose weight, is unable to remember several of the between-meal snacks she had yesterday.
Stephen misremembers a dream as something that really happened.
Robert Sternberg
Sternberg has proposed that creativity has five components: expertise, imaginative thinking skills; a venturesome personality; intrinsic motivation; and a creative environment that sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas.
Which of the following best identifies the early speech stage in which a child speaks using mostly nouns and verbs?
Telegraphic speech
Which of the following is true regarding the role of the amygdala in memory? The amygdala help process implicit memories. The amygdala support Freud's ideas about memory because they allow us to repress memories of trauma. The amygdala produce long-term potentiation in the brain. The amygdala help make sure we remember events that trigger strong emotional responses. The amygdala are active when the retrieval of a long-term memory is primed.
The amygdala help make sure we remember events that trigger strong emotional responses.
What does the "magical number seven, plus or minus two" refer to?
The capacity of short-term memory
What does Hermann Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve show about the nature of storage decay?
The rate of forgetting decreases as time goes on.
Which of the following is most likely to lead to semantic encoding of a list of words? Thinking about how the words relate to your own life Practicing the words for a single extended period Breaking up the practice into several relatively short sessions Noticing where in a sentence the words appear Focusing on the number of vowels and consonants in the words
Thinking about how the words relate to your own life
Which phrase best describes the concept of phonemes? Units of meaning in a language A form of syntax The basis of grammar Units of sound in a language A form of telegraphic speech
Units of sound in a language
The English language has approximately _______ phonemes.
40
Our short-term memory span is approximately _______ items.
7
Compare the notions of concept and prototype.
A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, and people. A prototype is a mental image or best example of a category.
Which of the following most likely represents a prototype for the concept indicated in parentheses? A whale (mammal) An ostrich (bird) A beanbag chair (chair) An igloo (house) A golden retriever (dog)
A golden retriever (dog)
Which of the following is not one of Robert Sternberg's components of creativity? A venturesome personality Imaginative thinking skills A creative environment A position of ignorance Intrinsic motivation
A position of ignorance
Researchers who believe that some primates possess a rudimentary theory of mind point to evidence that: A. chimpanzees have been observed using mirrors to inspect themselves. B.vervet monkeys have different alarm calls for different predators. C.orangutans in the wild frequently use stones as tools. D.honeybees communicate the direction and distance of a food source by performing an intricate dance.
A. chimpanzees have been observed using mirrors to inspect themselves.
Which of the following utterances is an example of overgeneralization of a grammatical rule? A."We goed to the store." B."Ball pretty." C."The sky is crying." D."We eat 'paghetti."
A."We goed to the store."
Richard Shiffrin
Along with Richard Atkinson created a model to explain our memory process (mentioned above).
Which of the following illustrates the serial position effect? The only name Kensie remembers from the people she met at the party is Spencer because she thought he was particularly good looking. Kimia has trouble remembering information from the book's first unit when she reviews for semester finals. It's easy for Brittney to remember that carbon's atomic number is 6 because her birthday is on December 6. Kyle was not able to remember the names of all of his new co-workers after one week on the job, but he could remember them after two weeks. Alp is unable to remember the middle of a list of vocabulary words as well as he remembers the first or last words on the list.
Alp is unable to remember the middle of a list of vocabulary words as well as he remembers the first or last words on the list.
Which of the following illustrates the constructive nature of memory? A. Janice keeps calling her new boyfriend by her old boyfriend's name. B.After studying all afternoon and then getting drunk in the evening, Don can't remember the material he studied. C.After getting some good news, elated Kareem has a flood of good memories from his younger years. D.Although elderly Mrs. Harvey, who has Alzheimer's disease, has many gaps in her memory, she invents sensible accounts of her activities so that her family will not worry.
Although elderly Mrs. Harvey, who has Alzheimer's disease, has many gaps in her memory, she invents sensible accounts of her activities so that her family will not worry.
Richard Atkinson
Atkinson's most fundamental and far-reaching contribution to cognitive psychology is the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (with Richard M. Shiffrin), one of the most significant advances in the study of human memory. It put a theory of memory on a mathematical basis for the first time. PROPOSED THIS MODEL TO EXPLAIN MEMORY FORMING PROCESS 1. We first record to-be-remembered information as a fleeting sensory memory. 2. From there, we process information into short-term memory, where we encode it through rehearsal. 3. Finally, information moves into long-term memory for later retrieval.
Which of the following terms does not belong with the others? A.misattribution B.blocking C.suggestibility D.bias
B.blocking
Walking through the halls of his high school 10 years after graduation, Tom experienced a flood of old memories. Tom's experience showed the role of: A. state-dependent memory. B.context effects. C.retroactive interference. D.echoic memory.
B.context effects.
After finding her old combination lock, Janice can't remember its combination because she keeps confusing it with the combination of her new lock. She is experiencing: A.proactive interference. B.retroactive interference. C.encoding failure. D.storage failure.
B.retroactive interference.
Your memory of which of the following is an example of implicit memory? What you had for breakfast yesterday The need to spend some time reviewing tomorrow for an upcoming psychology quiz Which way to turn the car key to start the engine That George Washington was the first President How exciting it was to get the best birthday present ever
C. Which way to turn the car key to start the engine
Which of the following is the most accurate description of the capacity of short-term and working memory? Lasts for about 2 days in most circumstances Lasts for less than half a minute unless you rehearse the information Is thought to be unlimited—there is always room for more information Can handle about a half dozen items for each of the tasks you are working on at any time Can handle about a half dozen items total
Can handle about a half dozen items total
Which of the following describes long-term potentiation (LTP)? When attempting to retrieve information, it is easier to recognize than to recall. Constructed memories have the potential to be either accurate or inaccurate. Changes in synapses allow for more efficient transfer of information. Implicit memories are processed by the cerebellum instead of by the hippocampus. Information is transferred from working memory to long-term memory.
Changes in synapses allow for more efficient transfer of information
"Chair," "freedom," and "ball" are all examples of what? Phonemes Heuristics Concepts Telegraphic utterances Prototypes
Concepts
You are more likely to remember psychology information in your psychology classroom than in other environments because of what memory principle? Mood congruence Context effects State-dependency Proactive interference Retroactive interference
Context effects
Which of the following has been argued by critics of ape language research? A. Ape language is merely imitation of the trainer's behavior. B.There is little evidence that apes can equal even a 3-year-old's ability to order words with proper syntax. C.By seeing what they wish to see, trainers attribute greater linguistic ability to apes than actually exists. D.All the above have been argued.
D.All the above have been argued.
Regarding the relationship between thinking and language, which of the following most accurately reflects the position taken in the text? A.Language determines everything about our thinking. B.Language determines the way we think. C.Thinking without language is not possible. D.Thinking affects our language, which then affects our thoughts.
D.Thinking affects our language, which then affects our thoughts.
In a study on context cues, people learned words while on land or when they were underwater. In a later test of recall, those with the best retention had: A. learned the words on land, that is, in the more familiar context. B.learned the words underwater, that is, in the more exotic context. C.learned the words and been tested on them in different contexts. D.learned the words and been tested on them in the same context.
D.learned the words and been tested on them in the same context.
The rules most directly involved in permitting a person to derive meaning from words and sentences are rules of: A.syntax. B.grammar. C.phonemic structure. D.semantics.
D.semantics.
Which of the following demonstrates the representativeness heuristic? Deciding that a new kid in school is a nerd because he looks like a nerd Fearing air travel because of memories of plane crashes Checking in every drawer to find some matches because matches are usually in drawers Having the solution to a word problem pop into your head because you have just successfully solved a similar problem Applying for jobs in several local grocery stores because your best friend just got a job in a grocery store
Deciding that a new kid in school is a nerd because he looks like a nerd
Benjamin Lee Whorf's linguistic determinism hypothesis relates to what aspect of the power of language?
How language influences thinking
Daniel Kahnerman
How our decision making process can go awry-- investigated this. Found that humans use heuristics.
Which of the following best describes Chomsky's view of language development? A. Language is an entirely learned ability. B.Language is an innate ability. C.Humans have a biological predisposition to acquire language. D.There are no cultural influences on the development of language.
Humans have a biological predisposition to acquire language.
flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Recall
a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Recognition
a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Relearning
a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
concept
a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
prototype
a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
algorithm
a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error-prone—use of heuristics.
Echoic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Iconic Memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage. Memories are not permanently stored in the hippocampus. Instead, this structure seems to act as a loading dock where the brain registers and temporarily holds the elements of a remembered episode—its smell, feel, sound, and location. Then, like older files shifted to a basement storeroom, memories migrate for storage elsewhere.
Working Memory
a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
heuristic
a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
insight
a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
mental set
a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
confirmation bias
a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
Which of the following is the best term for mental activities associated with remembering, thinking, and knowing? a. Cognition b. Concepts c. Prototypes d. Convergent thinking e. Divergent thinking
a. Cognition
Which of the following abilities is an example of implicit memory? a. Riding a bicycle while talking to your friend about something that happened in class b. Retrieving from memory the details of an assignment that is due tomorrow c. Vividly recalling significant events like the 9/11 attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C. d. Remembering the details of your last birthday party e. Recognizing names and pictures of your classmates many years after they have graduated
a. Riding a bicycle while talking to your friend about something that happened in class
Jeff is able to ride a bicycle although he hasn't ridden for a few years, thanks to his: a. nondeclarative memory b. episodic memory c. cognitive memory d. semantic memory
a. nondeclarative memory
Short-Term Memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.
One reason an English-speaking adult may have difficulty pronouncing Russian words is that: A.the vocal tracts of English- and Russian-speaking people develop differently in response to the demands of the two languages. B.although English and Russian have very similar morphemes, their phonemic inventories are very different. C.although English and Russian have very similar phonemes, their morphemic inventories are very different. D.after the babbling stage, a child who hears only English stops uttering other phonemes.
after the babbling stage, a child who hears only English stops uttering other phonemes.
Which of the following illustrates a heuristic? Calculating the area of a rectangle by multiplying the length times the width Using news reports of corporate fraud to estimate how much business fraud occurs in American business Looking in each room of your home to find your sleeping cat Following a new recipe to bake a cake for your friend Trying every key on your mom's key ring until you find the one that unlocks the seldom-used storeroom in the basement
Using news reports of corporate fraud to estimate how much business fraud occurs in American business
Wolfgang Kohler
Wolfgang Köhler (1925) demonstrated in an experiment with Sultan, a chimpanzee. Köhler placed a piece of fruit and a long stick outside Sultan's cage. Inside the cage, he placed a short stick, which Sultan grabbed, using it to try to reach the fruit. After several failed attempts, he dropped the stick and seemed to survey the situation. Then suddenly, as if thinking "Aha!" Sultan jumped up and seized the short stick again. This time, he used it to pull in the longer stick—which he then used to reach the fruit. What is more, apes will even exhibit foresight, by storing a tool they can use to retrieve food the next day
Amos Tversky
Worked with Daniel Kahneman to identify representative heuristics and availability heuristics
Which of the following is an example of proactive interference?
You can't recall your new cell phone number because your old number interferes.
The linguistic determinism hypothesis is challenged by the finding that: A.chimps can learn to communicate spontaneously by using sign language. B.people with no word for a certain color can still perceive that color accurately. C.the Eskimo language contains a number of words for snow, whereas English has only one. D.infants' babbling contains many phonemes that do not occur in their own language and that they therefore cannot have heard.
people with no word for a certain color can still perceive that color accurately.
Retrieval problems may result from _____ ______, as prior learning interferes with recall of new information, or from ______ ________, as new learning disrupts recall of old information.
proactive (forward-acting) interference retroactive (backward-acting) interference
When Carlos was promoted, he moved into a new office with a new phone extension. Every time he is asked for his phone number, Carlos first thinks of his old extension, illustrating the effects of: A.proactive interference. B.retroactive interference. C.encoding failure. D.storage failure.
proactive interference.
Which of the following measures of retention is the least sensitive in triggering material?
recall
Information is maintained in short-term memory only briefly unless it is:
rehearsed
Working memory capacity varies, depending on...
age, intelligence level, and other factors.
Cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
intuition
an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
Anterograde amnesia
an inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia
an inability to retrieve information from one's past.
long term potentiation
an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
According to the text, language acquisition is best described as: A.the result of conditioning and reinforcement. B.a biological process of maturation. C.an interaction between biology and experience. D.a mystery of which researchers have no real understanding.
an interaction between biology and experience.
In Sperling's memory experiment, research participants were shown three rows of three letters, followed immediately by a low, medium, or high tone. The participants were able to report:
any one of the three rows of letters.
Infants as young as 6 months old display a remarkable ability to learn statistical aspects of speech. Specifically, research studies have shown that they: A.are quickly able to recognize syllable sequences that appear repeatedly. B.respond to changes in the pitch of a speaker's voice. C.pay less attention to a same-gender voice. D.do all of the above.
are quickly able to recognize syllable sequences that appear repeatedly.
Jenkins and Dallenbach found that memory was better in people who were
asleep during the retention interval, presumably because interference was reduced
In LTP, neurons become more efficient ....... and more connections develop between neurons.
at releasing and sensing the presence of neurotransmitters
Experimenters gave people a list of words to be recalled. When the participants were tested after a delay, the items that were best recalled were those
at the beginning of the list
source amnesia
attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
Implicit (nondeclarative) memories—of skills and classically conditioned associations—happen without our awareness, through ______ processing.
automatic
When 4 year old Josh can recite his alphabet, he is using: a. free recall b. serial recall c. relearning d. structured recall
b. serial recall
Consider this sentence: "Sean was able to get the dog to come out from under the abandoned house by shaking a bag of dog food." In order for you to consciously make sense out of the sentence, the information was processed in your: a. sensory memory b. short term memory c. long term memory d. cerebellum
b. short term memory
The ______ _______ are involved in motor movement and help form procedural memories for skills.
basal ganglia
When Gordon Bower presented words grouped by category or in random order, recall was:
better for the categorized words.
Which of the following is an example of flashbulb memory? a. Barry remembers an especially bright sunrise because he was by the ocean and the sunlight reflected off the water. b. Robert remembers that correlation does not prove a cause-effect relationship because his teacher emphasized this fact over and over again. c. Anna remembers when her father returned from an overseas military deployment because the day was very emotional for her. d. Kris has stronger memories of her second grade teacher than she does of her third grade teacher because her second grade teacher has the same name as her neighbor. e. Anton remembers a moment from his last homecoming dance because a strobe light seemed to freeze the scene in his imagination.
c. Anna remembers when her father returned from an overseas military deployment because the day was very emotional for her.
Which of the following is an example of anterograde amnesia? a. Halle has no memories of the first 10 years of her life. b. William has lost his memory of the 2 weeks before he had surgery to remove a benign brain tumor. c. Louis can remember his past, but has not been able to form new long-term memories since experiencing a brain infection 4 years ago. d. Maddie can't remember the details of when she was mugged downtown 6 months ago. e. Kalund struggles in school because he consistently misremembers what his teachers said in class.
c. Louis can remember his past, but has not been able to form new long-term memories since experiencing a brain infection 4 years ago.
On a visit to his mother's home, Steve's mother introduced him to her new next door neighbor. After chatting with the neighbor for a few minutes, Steve realized that he could not remember the new neighbor's name. The MOST likely explanation for Steve forgetting the neighbor's name is: a. proactive interference b. retrieval failure c. encoding failure d. decay
c. encoding failure
Recall differs from recognition in that recall: a. taps short term memory as well as long term memory b. maximizes retrieval cues c. requires few or no retrieval cues d. is a more sensitive method of measuring memory
c. requires few or no retrieval cues
Information from _______ and from________ is transferred to and processed in short term memory. a. sensory memory; nondeclarative memory b. long term memory; nondeclarative memory c. sensory memory; long term memory d. working memory; recognition memory
c. sensory memory; long term memory
The _______ is important for storing classically conditioned memories.
cerebellum
Which area of the brain is most important in the processing of implicit memories?
cerebellum
The _____ and ____ _____ are parts of the brain network dedicated to implicit memory formation.
cerebellum and basal ganglia
When someone provides his phone number to another person, he usually pauses after the area code and again after the next three numbers. This pattern underscores the importance of which memory principle?
chunking
Effective effortful processing strategies include ...
chunking, mnemonics, hierarchies, and distributed practice sessions.
belief perseverance
clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.
The basic units of cognition are: A.phonemes. B.concepts. C.prototypes. D.morphemes.
concepts.
During a televised political debate, the Republican and Democratic candidates each argued that the results of a recent public opinion poll supported their party's platform regarding sexual harassment. Because both candidates saw the information as supporting their belief, it is clear that both were victims of:
confirmation bias
The _____ _____ ______ model views memories as products of interconnected neural networks.
connectionism information-processing
Which of the following statements most accurately reflects the relationship between emotions and memory? a. Emotion blocks memory, and it is generally true that we are unable to recall highly emotional events. b. Excitement tends to increase the chance that an event will be remembered, but stress decreases the chance that an event will be remembered. c. Stress tends to increase the chance that an event will be remembered, but excitement decreases the chance that an event will be remembered. d. The effect of emotion on memory depends on the interpretation of the event in the frontal lobes. e. Emotion enhances memory because it is important for our survival to remember events that make us emotional.
e. Emotion enhances memory because it is important for our survival to remember events that make us emotional.
The text discusses therapist-guided "recovered" memories. Which of the following statements represents an appropriate conclusion about this issue? a. Therapists who use hypnosis are likely to help their patients retrieve repressed memories. b. Statistics indicate that childhood sexual abuse rarely occurs; therefore, recovered memories of such abuse must be false. c. Memories are only rarely recovered; once you are unable to retrieve a memory you will probably never be able to retrieve it. d. One indicator of whether a recovered memory is true is the patient's emotional response; only true recovered memories are emotionally upsetting. e. Since the brain is not sufficiently mature to store accurate memories of events before the age of 3, memories from the first 3 years of life are not reliable.
e. Since the brain is not sufficiently mature to store accurate memories of events before the age of 3, memories from the first 3 years of life are not reliable.
Explicit (declarative) memories—our conscious memories of facts and experiences—form through _______ processing, which requires....
effortful, conscious effort and attention
Shallow Processing
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words. Shallow processing encodes on a very basic level, such as a word's letters or, at a more intermediate level, a word's sound.
Deep Processing
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention encodes semantically, based on the meaning of the words. The deeper (more meaningful) the processing, the better our retention.
Effortful Processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Testing Effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.
divergent thinking
expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).
Amnesia patients typically experience disruption of
explicit memories
The order in which children acquire an understanding of various morphemes is unpredictable
false
most researchers believe that we can perform statistical analyses of language throughout our lives
false
Mental set and functional fixedness are two types of: A.algorithms. B.heuristics. C.fixation. D.insight.
fixation.
Significantly stressful events can trigger very clear _______ memories.
flashbulb
Many brain regions send information to the ______ ____ for processing.
frontal lobes
The ____ ____ and _________ are parts of the brain network dedicated to explicit memory formation.
frontal lobes and hippocampus
textbook chapters are often organized into _____ in order to facilitate information processing
hierarchies
Amnesia victims typically have experienced damage to the ________ of the brain.
hippocampus
The _________, with the help of surrounding areas of cortex, registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage.
hippocampus
Implicit Memory
implicit memory retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)
repression
in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
According to memory researcher Daniel Schacter, blocking occurs when
information is on the tip of our tongue but we can't get it out
It is easier to recall information that has just been presented when the information:
is heard rather than seen
representative heuristic
judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
Eric Kandel
known for learning and memory studies on sea slugs; eventually mice and other mammals Eric Kandel and James Schwartz (1982) observed synaptic changes during learning in the sending neurons of the California sea slug, Aplysia, a simple animal with a mere 20,000 or so unusually large and accessible nerve cells. Module 26 noted how the sea slug can be classically conditioned (with electric shock) to reflexively withdraw its gills when squirted with water, much as a shell-shocked soldier jumps at the sound of a snapping twig. By observing the slug's neural connections before and after conditioning, Kandel and Schwartz pinpointed changes. When learning occurs, the slug releases more of the neurotransmitter serotonin into certain synapses. Those synapses then become more efficient at transmitting signals.
Evidence of words' subtle influence on thinking best supports the notion of
linguistic determinism.
After suffering damage to the hippocampus, a person would probably: A.lose memory for skills such as bicycle riding. B.be incapable of being classically conditioned. C.lose the ability to store new facts. D.experience all of the above changes.
lose the ability to store new facts.
George Miller
made famous the phrase: "the magical number 7, plus or minus 2" when describing human memory proposed that short-term memory can retain about seven information bits (give or take two)
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Hypnotically "refreshed" memories may prove inaccurate - especially if the hypnotist asks leading questions - because of:
memory construction.
Explicit Memory
memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)
The prefix "pre" in "preview" or the suffix "ed" in "adapted" are examples of
morphemes
convergent thinking
narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
A listener hearing a recording of Japanese, Spanish, and North American children babbling would:
not be able to tell them apart
Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Whorf's linguistic determinism hypothesis states that: A. language is primarily a learned ability. B.language is partially an innate ability. C.the size of a person's vocabulary reflects his or her intelligence. D.our language shapes our thinking.
our language shapes our thinking.
Serial Positioning Effect
our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.
Through ______ ________, the human brain processes many things simultaneously, on dual tracks.
parallel processing
Lashley's studies, in which rats learned a maze and then had various parts of their brains surgically removed, showed that the memory
remained no matter what part of the brain was tampered with
serial recall
reproducing information from memory in the order in which it was learned
Craik and Tulving had research participants process words visually, acoustically, or semantically. In a subsequent recall test, which type of processing resulted in the greatest retention?
semantic
The basketball players could remember the main points of their coach's halftime talk, but not her exact words. This is because they encoded the information
semantically.
The three processing stages in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model are.......
sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
Researchers taught the chimpanzee Washoe and the gorilla Koko to communicate by using: A.various sounds. B.plastic symbols of various shapes and colors C.sign language. D.all of the above.
sign language.
In addition to skills and classically conditioned associations, we automatically process incidental information about _____, ____, and ________.
space, time, and frequency.
Emotional arousal causes an outpouring of _____ ________, which lead to activity in the brain's memory-forming areas.
stress hormones
Depth of processing affects long-term retention. In shallow processing, we encode words based on their ...
structure or appearance.
Studies demonstrate that learning causes permanent neural changes in the _______ of animals' neurons.
synapses
Several studies have indicated that the generic pronoun "he": A. tends for children and adults alike to trigger images of both males and females. B.tends for adults to trigger images of both males and females, but for children to trigger images of males. C.tends for both children and adults to trigger images of males but not females. D.for both children and adults triggers images of females about one-fourth of the time it is used.
tends for both children and adults to trigger images of males but not females.
deja vu
that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. Neurobiological explanation: we have a brain skip like a record skip, your brain skips a beat and experiences the moment again
creativity
the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. the "wakening of associations." Seeing or hearing the word rabbit primes associations with hare, even though we may not recall having seen or heard rabbit
retroactive interference
the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. occurs when new learning disrupts recall of old information. If someone sings new lyrics to the tune of an old song, you may have trouble remembering the original words.
proactive interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. Proactive (forward-acting) interference occurs when prior learning disrupts your recall of new information. Your well-rehearsed Facebook password may interfere with your retrieval of your newly learned copy machine code.
Hermann Ebbinghaus
the first person to study memory scientifically and systematically; used nonsense syllables and recorded how many times he had to study a list to remember it well studied retention curve. Hermann Ebbinghaus showed this more than a century ago, in his learning experiments, using nonsense syllables. He randomly selected a sample of syllables, practiced them, and tested himself. To get a feel for his experiments, rapidly read aloud, eight times over, the following list (from Baddeley, 1982), then look away and try to recall the items: JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX, SUJ, XIR, DAX, LEQ, VUM, PID, KEL, WAV, TUV, ZOF, GEK, HIW. The day after learning such a list, Ebbinghaus could recall few of the syllables. But they weren't entirely forgotten. As FIGURE 32.6 portrays, the more frequently he repeated the list aloud on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn the list on day 2. Additional rehearsal (overlearning) of verbal information increases retention, especially when practice is distributed over time. For students, this means that it is important to continue to rehearse course material even after you know it.
Sensory Memory
the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
infantile amnesia
the inability to remember events from early childhood
To help him remember the order of ingredients in difficult recipes, master chef Giulio often associates them with the route he walks to work each day. Giulio is using which mnemonic technique? A.peg-word system B.acronyms C.the method of loci D.chunking
the method of loci
During basketball practice Jan's head was painfully elbowed. If the trauma to her brain disrupts her memory, we would expect that Jan would be most likely to forget: A.the name of her teammates. B.her telephone number. C.the name of the play during which he was elbowed. D.the details of the events that happened shortly after the incident.
the name of the play during which he was elbowed.
Memory
the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage.
Storage
the process of retaining encoded information over time.
Encoding
the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.
Parallel Processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. As you enter the lunchroom, you simultaneously—in parallel—process information about the people you see, the sounds of voices, and the smell of the food.
Long Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
We more easily remember material that is personally meaningful, this is known as the
the self-reference effect.
Spacing Effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
overconfidence
the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
Mood-Congruent Memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood. when someone is happy, they remember happy memories and when they are sad they remember sad memories
framing
the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Studies of amnesia victim suggest that:
there are two distinct types of memory.
The maximum duration of short term memory is about 30 seconds, unless the information is actively rehearsed.
true
The inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective is called what? Confirmation bias Insight Representativeness Fixation Availability
Fixation
Connectionism information-processing model
Focuses on multitrack, parallel processing Views memories as products of interconnected neural networks
People are more concerned about a medical procedure when told it has a 10 percent death rate than they are when told it has a 90 percent survival rate. Which psychological concept explains this difference in concern?
Framing
What two parts of the brain are most involved in explicit memory?
Frontal lobes and hippocampus
Elizabeth Loftus
Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony In more than 200 experiments, involving more than 20,000 people, Elizabeth Loftus has shown how eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories after a crime or an accident. In one experiment, two groups of people watched a film of a traffic accident and then answered questions about what they had seen (Loftus & Palmer, 1974). Those asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" gave higher speed estimates than those asked, "About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" A week later, when asked whether they recalled seeing any broken glass, people who had heard smashed were more than twice as likely to report seeing glass fragments (FIGURE 33.7 on the next page). In fact, the film showed no broken glass.
Muhammad has been in his school cafeteria hundreds of times. It is a large room, and there are nine free-standing pillars that support the roof. One day, to illustrate the nature of forgetting, Muhammad's teacher asks him how many pillars there are in the cafeteria. Muhammad has difficulty answering the question, but finally replies that he thinks there are six pillars. What memory concept does this example illustrate?
Encoding failure
How is memory measured?
Evidence of memory may be seen in an ability to recall information, recognize it, or relearn it more easily on a later attempt.
According to Noam Chomsky, what is the most essential environmental stimulus necessary for language acquisition?
Exposure to language in early childhood
Which of the following is the best phrase for the narrowing of available problem solutions with the goal of determining the best solution? a. Allowing for incubation b. Divergent thinking c. Developing expertise d. Convergent thinking e. Experiencing other cultures
d. Convergent thinking
Which of the following is an example of the primacy effect? a. Remembering the most important assignment you have to complete for school tomorrow b. Remembering the skills you learned early in life, such as walking c. Remembering the last thing your English teacher talked about in class yesterday, but nothing from earlier in the class period d. Remembering the names of the first two co-workers you met on the first day of your new job e. Remembering that your clocks must be moved ahead one hour when daylight savings time begins in the spring
d. Remembering the names of the first two co-workers you met on the first day of your new job
Which of the following is the name of the physiological change in the brain that allows information to be stored? a. habituation b. conditioning c. memory alteration d. consolidation
d. consolidation
Adam vividly remembers when he had to go to the emergency room for stitches. This is an example of which type of information stored in long term memory? a. nondeclarative b. semantic c. contextual d. episodic
d. episodic
What is the memory that is not an ex act replica of an event, but one that has been pieced together from several highlights and using information that may or may not be accurate? a. hyperamnesia b. schematization c. metamemory d. reconstruction
d. reconstruction
The memory that stores general knowledge and concepts, ideas, and rules about the world is called the: a. episodic memory b. nondeclarative memory c. cognitive memory d. semantic memory
d. semantic memory
Retention is best when we use ....
deep processing
Producing valuable and novel ideas best defines which of the following? a. Prototyping b. Cognition c. Intrinsic motivation d. Venturesome personality e. Creativity
e. Creativity