Psych Chapter 7: Principles of Learning
Each desired action must be reinforced to shape an animal's behavior
In what way is reinforcement used in shaping?
Generalization
A behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one
Observational learning
A form of social learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others
Chaining
Reinforcing the connection between different parts of a sequence
Because of what we learn from all the operations we make over the years
According to B.F. Skinner, why do we perform certain behaviors?
Cognitive maps and strategies
According to the cognitive approach, what two techniques do people use to learn or solve problems?
Conditioned stimulus
After learning has taken place, what automatically and involuntarily produces a conditioned response?
Social learning
All learning which occurs in a social situation
Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov's method of conditioning in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus
Continuous reinforcement
Each time a behavior occurs, reinforcement is given
Operant Conditioning
Conditioning that results from one's actions and the consequences they cause
Reinforcement given after desired act is performed following a fixed amount of time
Describe fixed interval.
Reinforcement given after desired act is performed a fixed number of times
Describe fixed ratio.
Reinforcement given after desired act is performed following a variable amount of time
Describe variable interval.
Reinforcement given after desired act is performed a specific but variable number of times
Describe variable ratio.
Schedules of reinforcement
Different methods of reinforcing
A baby calling all men "dada"
Give an example of generalization.
It strengthens our tendency to respond a certain way
How do reinforcements affect behavior?
Classical and operant conditioning basically ignored the individual while Bandura focused on the individual, saying that we are able to analyze events and make decisions before a response is given
How does Albert Bandura's theory of social learning differ from classical and operant conditioning?
It weakens a response by following it with something unpleasant
How does punishment affect behavior?
The higher the reinforcement value, the more likely a person is to behave a certain way
How does reinforcement value affect our behavior?
Cognitive focuses on abstract mental processes and previous knowledge, we can learn things in other ways than conditioning
How does the cognitive approach differ from classical and operant conditioning?
Continuous is given each time a behavior occurs, partial is not
How is continuous reinforcement different that partial reinforcement?
Generalization is when a behavior spreads from one situation to a similar one, discrimination learning is learning how to tell the difference between one event/object and another
How is generalization different that discrimination learning?
Latent learning is not obvious but goes on under the surface, subconsciously
How is latent learning different from the kinds of active learning that are achieved when we are trying to achieve a goal?
Remove, avoid, or delay reinforcement; find new behavior to receive the reinforcement; narrow/avoid stimuli that precede the bad habit; break the chain; monitor the bad habit
What are five methods for distinguishing bad habits?
Variable ratio, fixed ratio, variable interval, fixed interval
What are the four schedules of reinforcement?
Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, social learning, and cognitive approach
What are the four types of learning?
Stimulus generalization, extinction, and spontaneous recovery
What are three variations with classical conditioning?
Unconditioned stimulus
What automatically and involuntarily produces an unconditioned response?
He learned that conditioning of emotions to neutral objects is possible and a conditioned emotion can generalize to other objects with similar characteristics.
What conclusions did Watson draw from the experiments with Little Albert?
The inner person
What did Albert Bandura focus on?
Cognitive maps and strategies
What did E.C. Tolman discover?
To be scared when he saw a white rabbit
What did John B. Watson teach Little Albert?
Associating something pleasant with a feared object can reduce or stop phobias
What did Mary Cover Jones discover?
Aggression by imitation (social learning)
What did the Bobo doll experiment study?
The forgotten response from extinction is recovered without anyone doing anything
What happens when spontaneous recovery occurs?
Reinforcing the connection between the parts of a sequence
What is chaining?
Learning by association; associating two things together
What is conditioning?
No free will
What is one criticism of behavioralism?
Salivation
What is the CR of Pavlov's experiment?
Cry
What is the CR of Watson's experiment?
Salivation
What is the CR of the class's experiment?
Bell
What is the CS of Pavlov's experiment?
Rat
What is the CS of Watson's experiment?
Sean
What is the CS of the class's experiment?
Salivation
What is the UCR of Pavlov's experiment?
Cry
What is the UCR of Watson's experiment?
Salivation
What is the UCR of the class's experiment?
Food
What is the UCS of Pavlov's experiment?
Clap
What is the UCS of Watson's experiment?
Fun Dip
What is the UCS of the class's experiment?
Primary is unlearned and necessary for survival, secondary is anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer
What is the difference between a primary and a secondary reinforcer?
Operant conditioning is voluntary, classical is involuntary
What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?
Positive involves reinforcing by following a response with the addition of something pleasant. Negative involves reinforcing by following a response with the removal of something unpleasant
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
Primary reinforcement
Something necessary for psychological/physical survival that is used as a reward
Reinforcement
Something that follows a response and strengthens the tendency to repeat that response
Negative reinforcement
Strengthening a response by following it with the taking away or avoiding of something unpleasant
Positive reinforcement
Strengthening the tendency to repeat a response by following it with the addition of something pleasant
Reinforcement value
The desirability of a specific reward to an individual
Punishment
The process of weakening a response by following it with unpleasant consequences
Fixed Ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after the desired act is performed a specific number of times
Variable interval schedule
Reinforcement occurs after varying amounts of time if a desired act occurs
Expectancies
A person's beliefs about how well he or she will be able to do something
Spontaneous recovery
A previously extinct response begins to reoccur
Conditioned stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that has been associated with a natural (or unconditioned) stimulus
Response
A reaction to a stimulus
Fixed interval schedule
A reinforcement is received after a fixed amount of time has passed if the desired act occurs
Stimulus generalization
A response spread from one specific stimulus to other stimuli that resemble the original
Conditioned response
A response to a stimulus that is brought about by learning
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that automatically elicits a response
Cognitive apporach
A way of learning based on abstract mental processes and previous knowledge
Unconditioned response
An automatic response to a particular natural stimulus
Shaping
The process of gradually refining a response by successively reinforcing closer approximations of it
Secondary reinforcement
Anything that comes to represent a primary reinforcer, such as money bringing food
Stimulus
Anything that elicits a response
Making unavoidable physical associations
Define classical conditioning.
Relatively permanent change due to experience
Define learning.
Behavior that is learned (or avoided) as a result of its consequence; voluntary
Define operant conditioning.
Successively closer versions of a desired response are reinforced
Define shaping.
A stimulus
In classical conditioning, what causes some kind of reaction or response?
Latent learning
Learning that isn't obvious
Discrimination learning
Learning to tell the difference between one event or object and another; the reverse of generalization
Conditioning
Making an association between two events by repeated exposure
Partial reinforcement
Reinforcement is not given each time an act is performed
Variable ratio schedule
Reinforcement occurs after a desired behavior occurs, but a different number of the desired acts is required each time
Extinction
The gradual loss of an association over time
Bell
What is the neutral stimulus of Pavlov's experiment?
Rat
What is the neutral stimulus of Watson's experiment?
Sean
What is the neutral stimulus of the class's experiment?
Classical conditioning of dog salivation
What study did Pavlov conduct?
Operant conditioning on a rat to press a bar for food
What study did Skinner conduct?
Classical condition of fear response
What study did Watson conduct?
Food put directly into the stomach didn't generate enough gastric juices for digestion; Even though no food was placed in the mouth, the dog salivated just at the sight of food; Sight of the experimenter who feed the dog caused it to salivate even if they were empty-handed
What three strange things helped to alter Pavlov's original research intentions?
To understand how the digestive system works
What were Ivan Pavlov's original research intentions?
Variable and fixed ratio
Which schedules of reinforcement are based on action?
Variable and fixed interval
Which schedules of reinforcement are based on time?
E.C. Tolman
Who was the psychologist for cognitive approach?
B.F. Skinner
Who was the psychologist for operant conditioning?
Albert Bandura
Who was the psychologist for social learning?
Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, Mary Cover Jones
Who were the psychologists for classical conditioning?
