Psych Exam 2

Binet-Simon IQ Test

"IQ" or "intelligence quotient" is a name given to the score of the Binet-Simon test. Same as IQ test

Depressants:

(e.g., opiates/narcotics and alcohol) suppresses the nervous system, which often results in impaired motor coordination, decreased inhibition, and reduced pain (and euphoria) (slows things down)

Extinction:

- After conditioning, the response to the CS can be eliminated if the CS is presented repeatedly without the US. This effect is called extinction, and the response is said to become "extinguished. - Example: For example, if Pavlov kept ringing the bell but never gave the dog any food afterward, eventually the dog's CR (drooling) would no longer happen when it heard the CS (the bell), because the bell would nolonger be a predictor of food

Conditioned stimulus:

- An initially neutral stimulus (like a bell, light, or tone) that elicits a conditioned response after it has been associated withan unconditioned stimulus. - Example: Neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) = Bell after it rings

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

- Binet calculated IQ by comparing children's mental age to their chronological age - Example, if a 10-year-old (chronological age) girl's score on the IQ test was the same as the average score for a 12 year old (mental age), then her IQ was 120 - Average IQ is 100

Explain specifically how caffeine and alcohol disrupt sleep patterns.

- Caffeine stays in body for 14 hours - So if you take it before bed it disrupts sleep -Even though alcohol is relaxing it still disrupts your brain and is slowing things down and not in sleep - Alcohol blocks rem sleep

Mnemonic devices:

- Definition: A strategy for remembering large amounts of information, usually involving imaging events occurring on a journey or with some other set of memorized cues. - Example: An example of a mnemonic is the rhyme, "i before e except after c, or when sounding 'a' as in 'neighbor' or 'weigh. '" This mnemonic was designed to help a person remember the order of the letters "i" and "e" in different words. Types of mnemonic devices for elementary students include rhymes, acronyms, mini-stories, and associations.

Engrams (or memory traces) :

- Definition: An "engram" refers to the enduring offline physical and/or chemical changes that were elicited by learning and underlie the newly formed memory associations. - Example: Rather, when we remember past events, we reconstruct them with the aid of our memory traces—but also with our current belief of what happened. For example, if you were trying to recall for the police who started a fight at a bar, you may not have a memory trace of who pushed whom first. However, let's say you remember that one of the guys held the door open for you. When thinking back to the start of the fight, this knowledge (of how one guy was friendly to you) may unconsciously influence your memory of what happened in favor of the nice guy. Thus, memory is a construction of what you actually recall and what you believe happened. In a phrase, remembering is reconstructive (we reconstruct our past with the aid of memory traces) not reproductive (a perfect reproduction or recreation of the past).

*Declarative (explicit) memory

- Definition: Explicit memory is declarative memory because we consciously try to recall a specific event or piece of information. Things we intentionally try to recall or remember, such as formulas and dates, are all stored in explicit memory - Example: recalling your memories of events from your life, remembering information you have learned when taking a test, and recollecting upcoming appointments

*Procedural memory

- Definition: Refers to our often unexplainable knowledge of how to do things, muscle memory - Examples: Riding a bike at the age of 50 even though you have not ridden it over 30 years, Playing a well-rehearsed song on the piano while daydreaming

Encoding-specificity principle

- Definition: The hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that information encoded from the cue overlaps or matches information in the engram or memory trace. -Example: For example, take the song on the radio: perhaps you heard it while you were at a terrific party, having a great, philosophical conversation with a friend. Thus, the song became part of that whole complex experience. Years later, even though you haven't thought about that party in ages, when you hear the song on the radio, the whole experience rushes back to you

Semantic memory

- Definition: The more or less permanent store of knowledge that people have. - Example: Semantic memory is the memory of acquired knowledge—memorized facts or information. An example of semantic memory would be remembering the capital of Cuba.

Chunking:

- Definition: The process of grouping information together using our knowledge. - Example of chunking is grouping the everyday items someone needs to have in their pockets before leaving the house. This might include house keys, car keys, cell phone, and a wallet or purse

Misinformation effect:

- Definition: When erroneous information occurring after an event is remembered as having been part of the original event. - Example: if you witnessed a car crash but subsequently heard people describing it from their own perspective, this new information may interfere with or disrupt your own personal recollection of the crash. In fact, you may even come to remember the event happening exactly as the others described it! This misinformation effect Misinformation effect When erroneous information occurring after an event is remembered as having been part of the original event. in eyewitness memory represents a type of retroactive interference that can occur during the retention interval

*Nondeclarative (implicit) memory

- Definition: You access your implicit memory unconsciously without even thinking about it, things you are trying not to remember, anylong term conscious memory - Example: Tying your shoe, riding a bike, brushing your teeth, typing on a computer

Working memory:

- Definition: the ability to hold information in our minds for a brief time and work with it - Example: multiplying 24 x 17 without using paper would rely on working memory, mental math

Episodic memory

- Definition: the ability to remember the episodes of our lives. - - Example: If you were given the task of recalling everything you did 2 days ago, that would be a test of episodic memory, where you parked your car this morning or the dinner you had with a friend last month.

Flashbulb memory

- Definition: to describe this sort of vivid memory of finding out an important piece of news. The name refers to how some memories seem to be captured in the mind like a flash photograph; usually a traumatic event - Example: remembering where you were at 9/11, where you were when challenger space shuttle blew up, remembering the last day of school before covid shut everything down

Describe the three different stages of memory.

- Encoding is defined as the initial learning of information; storage refers to maintaining information over time; retrieval is the ability to access information when you need it - If you meet someone for the first time at a party, you need to encode her name (Lyn Goff) while you associate her name with her face. Then you need to maintain the information over time. If you see her a week later, you need to recognize her face and have it serve as a cue to retrieve her name. Any successful act of remembering requires that all three stages be intact.

Fluid intelligence

- Fluid intelligence is the ability to "think on your feet;" that is, to solve problems - Example: Better in Younger Individuals, Using a complicated subway system in a new city

Unconditioned stimulus:

- In classical conditioning, the stimulus that elicits the response before conditioning occurs -Example: Food

Compare and contrast low awareness and high awareness (or consciousness) states, provide examples of each state, and describe the costs and benefits of each state.

- In lower awareness states, it often does not require a lot of effort on our part, but we also don't have total control of our mental processes and may be more influenced by biases. (hypnotherapy) In contrast, - when we are in higher awareness states, we have more control of our mental processes and are more likely to overcome biases, but these states require more effort (playing a sport) - Basically How much mental effort you are spending

Compare and contrast incidental learning and intentional learning, and describe when one strategy may be more effective than the other.

- Incidental Learning: Any type of learning that happens without the intention to learn Ex: someone who learns historical facts while watching a TV show for entertainment. - Intentional learning: Any type of learning that happens when motivated by intention. Ex: when someone who wants to learn a new language reads a book in that language and looks up new words that they encounter, in order to improve their vocabulary.

Interleaving:

- Interleaving is a process where students mix, or interleave, multiple subjects or topics while they study in order to improve their learning. - let's say you and I play tennis equally well and are preparing for a tournament My coach works exclusively on my forehand one day and only on my backhand the next day. Your coach uses interleaving practice, meaning you work on both forehand and backhand both days, never knowing which type of shot is coming at you. Research shows that you are more likely to improve than I, because your practice requires more mental effort and mimics the real game.

Habituation:

- Occurs when the response to a stimulus decreases with exposure - Example a new sound in your environment, such as a new ringtone, may initially draw your attention or even be distracting. Over time, as you become accustomed to this sound, you pay less attention to it and your response will diminish

Spontaneous recovery:

- Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning. - Example: For example, imagine you strongly associate the smell of chalkboards with the agony of middle school detention. Now imagine that, after years of encountering chalkboards, the smell of them no longer recalls the agony of detention (an example of extinction). However, one day, after entering a new building for the first time, you suddenly catch a whiff of a chalkboard and WHAM!, the agony of detention returns.

List six tips for improving sleep.

- Regular Pattern - Temperature, colder room -If you can't fall asleep walk around, go around to a different room, and try to fall asleep again - Avoiding caffeine - Implementing a wind down routine - Being in the dark increases melatonin

Compare and contrast reinforcement and punishment, and describe how to implement both to effectively alter behavior.

- Reinforcers: Any event or object that follows a behavior and that makes the new behavior MORE likely to occur again - Punishment: Any event or object that, when following a behavior, will make that response or behavior LESS likely to occur again

Describe how sleep may affect memory consolidation and prevent dementia (e.g., Alzheimer's disease).

- Sleep before AND after learning to prepare your brain for learning and consolidate memories, respectively. - Memories are replayed during sleep. - Sleep affects the file transfer mechanism that takes newly-formed memories stored in the hippocampus and sends them to the cortex for long-term memory storage. - The glymphatic system in the brain turns on during sleep (especially NREM stages 3/4) and may be responsible for clearing away beta-amyloid protein

Stereotype threat

- Stereotype threat is the idea that mental access to a particular stereotype can have real-world impact on a member of the stereotyped group - Example: for example, women who were informed that women tend to fare poorly on math exams just before taking a math test actually performed worse relative to a control group who did not hear the stereotype.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

- Wechsler created and normed an IQ test that tapped into many different abilities (both verbal and non-verbal abilities) --- Example: Non verbal= pictures, verbal= tell me what evasive means?

Mindfulness:

- a state of heightened focus on the thoughts passing through one's head, as well as a more controlled evaluation of those thoughts (e.g., do you reject or support the thoughts you're having?) - Ex: Pay attention. It's hard to slow down and notice things in a busy world. Try to take the time to experience your environment with all of your senses — touch, sound, sight, smell and taste.

Consciousness:

- is a term meant to indicate awareness. It includes awareness of the self, of bodily sensations, of thoughts and of the environment, - EX Consciousness is your individual awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environments. Essentially, your consciousness is your awareness of yourself and the world around you.

Metacognition:

- refers to our ability to monitor and control our learning. We must understand what works best for us (e.g., morning vs evening studying). Include a social component to studying, if possible, because we all have gaps in our knowledge. - Studying with others can improve our metacognition by shining a light on the gaps and allowing us to fill them in, Remembering that I study better in the morning.

Emotional intelligence

- the ability to understand, use, and manage your own emotions in positive ways to relieve stress, communicate effectively, empathize with others, overcome challenges and defuse conflict - Example: Being able to move on after making a mistake, being able to say no, being able to share feelings with others

Law of effect:

- when a behavior has a positive (satisfying) effect or consequence, it is likely to be repeated in the future. However, when a behavior has a negative (painful/annoying) consequence, it is less likely to be repeated in the future - Example: If you study and then get a good grade on a test, you will be more likely to study for the next exam.

Neutral stimulus:

-A neutral stimulus is a stimulus that at first elicits no response -Example: a bell before it is rung

Crystallized intelligence

-Crystalized intelligence, on the other hand, is the ability to use language, skills and experience to address problems - Example: Improves with age, Knowledge tests

Unconditioned response:

-In classical conditioning, an innate response that is elicited by a stimulus before (or in the absence of) conditioning. - Example: salivate in the presence of food

Positive reinforcement:

-Reinforce behavior by giving a positive stimulus -Example

Conditioned response:

-The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus after classical conditioning has taken place. -Example: salivate when ringing a bell

Flynn Effect

-When new waves of people are asked to take older tests they tend to outperform the original sample from years ago on which the test was normed. This gain is known as the "Flynn Effect - Example: scientists have noticed that if a group of individuals takes an IQ test developed decades earlier, the new group does better, on average, than the original group (Flynn Effect) - IF me and my grandma took and intelligence test who would score better= me because of Flynn Effect

Operant:

A behavior that is controlled by its consequences.The simplest example is the rat's lever-pressing, which is controlled by the presentation of the reinforcer.

Melatonin:

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.

Describe the different stages of sleep, the features of each stage, the role hormones and the brain may play in sleep.

A typical cycle through all of the stages of sleep (REM + stages 1-4 of NREM) lasts about 90 minutes. Also, the first cycle or two through the sleep stages tend to include more non-REM sleep and the last cycle or two tend to include more REM sleep.

Explain how certain factors, such as motivation, organization, working memory capacity, anxiety, and forgetting can affect one's ability to learn.

Anxiety can both increase and decrease our ability to learn. If we experience an appropriate amount of stress or anxiety, they can increase our ability to learn by motivating us to get up and do something. If extreme, anxiety and stress can paralyze us and short-circuit learning.

Explain the different types of intelligence, as described by Carroll, Gardner, and others

Carroll created a hierarchy of different types, with g (or general intelligence) in the top level. Gardner described 8 (or 9) different types of intelligence. Fluid intelligence tends to be better in youngerindividuals, whereas crystalized intelligence improves with age. Emotional intelligence is another important type of intelligence, andDweck stresses having a growth mindset in regards to how our intelligence evolves throughout our lives - Carols view of intelligence Collection of specific mental abilities Fluid + crystalline intelligence - Gardeners view of intelligence Multiple intelligences, people process formation through different channels logic-math , visual-spatial, music-rhythm

Spearman's 'g'

Charles Spearman, proposed the idea that intelligence was one thing, a "general factor" sometimes known as simply "g." He based this conclusion on the observation that people who perform well in one intellectual area such as verbal ability also tend to perform well in other areas such as logic and reasoning

Describe some of the major contributions the following scientists made to the study of intelligence

Charles Spearman: Intelligence was one thing A general factor (spearman's G) Francis Galton: measurable intelligence Alfred Binet: came up with the first IQ test to identify at-risk students David Wechsler: verbal and non verbal IQ test

Glymphatic system:

Clears away beta-amyloid and activates during sleep

Massed practice:

Cramming studying all in one day

Explain different ways intelligence can be measured.

G, IQ, and Crystallized intelligence

Hallucinogens:

Hallucinogens (e.g., LSD, ecstasy, psilocybin as the name implies, often results in hallucination

Describe some factors that may contribute to intelligence and controversies surrounding intelligence.

Heritability and environment Sexdifferences (stereotype threat) Eugenics and the use of IQ to discriminate (refer to conversation about Galton earlier) Cultural effects Other reasons?

Ghrelin:

Hunger Hormone: more sleep deprivation the more ghrelin is increased

Hypnotherapy:

Hypnosis, state of relaxation to engineer change to quit smoking or lower pain

Compare and contrast classical (Pavlovian) conditioning and operant (instrumental) conditioning.

In a general way, classical conditioning occurs whenever neutral stimuli are associated with psychologically significant events. With food poisoning, for example, although having fish for dinner may not normally be something to be concerned about (i.e., a "neutral stimuli"), if it causes you to get sick, you will now likely associate that neutral stimuli (the fish) with the psychologically significant event of getting sick.- Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior. Example: Parents can use operant conditioning with their children by: offering praise when they do something positive. giving them a piece of candy when they clean their room. letting them play video games after they complete their homework.

*Explain how the primacy effects and recency effects contribute to the serial-position effect.

Items presented at the beginning of a list (primacy effect) and the end of a list (recency effect) are remembered better than items in the middle of a list. Together, the primacy effect and the recency effect make up the serial-position effect. The primacy effect may occur because of less proactive interference, and the recency effect may occur because items are still in working memory

Beta-amyloid protein:

Linked to dementia and increases with lack of sleep

Identify some common classes of drugs that alter consciousness and describe how they alter consciousness

Melatonin= when you are sleepy melatonin is high Serotonin= less sleepy, so when you are sleepy it decreases

Sensitization:

Occurs when the response to a stimulus increases with exposure - Example school children are frequently sensitized to the sound of a ringing bell when they are waiting for the end of the school day

Describe how adapting your studying method to match the format of a test illustrates transfer-appropriate processing.

Practice coming up with exam questions while you are studying. Especially practice coming up with real-world examples for this class. Those are the types of questions I like to ask

Describe some research methods, such as priming and Implicit Association Task (IAT), how they measure consciousness and bias, and what we learn from the studies that implement these methods (or may not learn, depending on how reliable the studies prove to be).

Priming: the activation of certain thoughts or feelings that make them easier to think of and act upon Ex: Priming is using a stimulus like a word, image or action to change someone's behavior Implicit Association Task (IAT) : the implicit association test (IAT) measures our biases, motives, and beliefs that are often out of reach of our consciousness by leveraging how quickly and effortlessly we respond to words or concepts. When we have a strong association between two words or concepts, we respond more quickly and effortlessly. On the other hand, if two words or concepts don't align with our personal beliefs or biases, our responses come more slowly and require more effort.

Compare and contrast proactive interference and retroactive interference.

Proactive Interference - Def: Proactive interference refers to the interference effect of previously learned materials on the acquisition and retrieval of newer materials. - Example: proactive interference in everyday life would be difficult in remembering a friend's new phone number after having previously learned the old number.Retroactive Interference: Retroactive interference - occurs when the learning of new information interferes with the recall of old information from long-term memory. - Example: once you have learned a new mobile number, it is often very difficult to recall your old number.

Negative punishment:

Punish by removing a positive stimulus to decrease behavior -Example

Negative reinforcement:

Reinforce behavior by removing a negative stimulus -Example

Positive punishment:

Reinforce behavior by removing a negative stimulus -Example

*Compare and contrast retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia, describe what occurred to patient HM, and explain what type of amnesia he experienced.

Retrograde amnesia: - Inability to remember events that took place before the disturbance of the brain Anterograde amnesia: - Inability to remember events after a disturbance of the brain Example: People with anterograde amnesia have trouble making new memories after the onset of amnesia. People with retrograde amnesia have trouble accessing memories from before the onset of amnesia.Patient HM:

Leptin:

Satiety Hormone, Increases with sleep

Serial-Position Effect:

Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst

Stimulants:

Stimulants (e.g., nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamine) often result in feelings of euphoria, alertness, and being wired (speeding it up)

Explain when dreams are likely to occur and how they affect our awake hours.

Take place in Rem Creativity is advanced More problem solving Takes emotional edge off of things

Describe the four parts of observational learning, according to Social Learning Theory, and describe the foundational experiments that the theory is based on.

The first is attention—as, quite simply, one must pay attention to what s/he is observing in order to learn. The second part is retention: to learn one must be able to retain the behavior s/he is observing in memory.The third part of observational learning, initiation, acknowledges that the learner must be able to execute (or initiate) the learned behavior. Lastly, the observer must possess the motivation to engage in observational learning. In our vignette, the child must want to learn how to play the game in order to properly engage in observational learning.

Circadian rhythms:

The natural cycle of physical, mental, and behavior changes that the body goes through in a 24-hour cycle. Circadian rhythms are mostly affected by light and darkness and are controlled by a small area in the middle of the brain.

Describe some mnemonic or memory strategies for remembering information

The preamble song that I still know from 8th grade

Describe how sleep may contribute to weight gain by altering hormone levels and food preferences.

You want to eat more sugary things and carbs if you do not get enough sleep, ghrelin

Intelligence

broadly encompasses the ability to learn, remember and use new information, to solve problems and to adapt to novel situations.

Desirable difficulties:

building in difficulty to learning is actually a helpful practice. Engage in more active, difficult activities that require recall (e.g., flashcards, creating your own exam questions, testing self with real-world examples) rather than passive activities (re-reading notes or re-listening to lectures)

Distributed practice:

example spacing out studying over time)

Testing effect:

testing isn't just for assigning a grade. It helps solidify what you've learned