Psych Test 3
When Vanessa noticed that she was wearing mismatched socks, she overestimated the extent to which others would also notice. Her reaction BEST illustrates:
The Spotlight Effect
Culture
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next; it includes customs and beliefs that enable us to communicate with each other and agreed-upon rules to avoid confrontation
central route persuasion
Uses reasoned argument, directed at analytical audience, response tends to be long-lasting
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
Validity
What are the ways in which individuals and environments interact
- Different people choose different environments. - People's personalities shape how they interpret and react to events. - People's personalities help create situations to which they react.
important factors in enduring relationships
- Equity: Both giving and receiving, sharing responsibilities, with a sense of partnership - Self-disclosure: Sharing self in conversation increases intimacy - Positive support: Offering sympathy, concern, laughs, hugs; for happy couples in enduring relationships, positive interactions outnumber negative interactions by at least 5 to 1
Causes of social loafing
- Feeling less accountable - Feeling individual contribution doesn't matter and is dispensable - Slacking off (free riding) when there is lack of identification with the group
conditions necessary to promote growth
- Genuineness: - Acceptance: - Empathy:
How do individuals from individualist and collectivist cultures differ in their attributions?
- Individuals from individualist cultures (Westerners) more often attribute behavior to personal traits. - Individuals from collectivist cultures (East Asian, for example) more often attribute behavior to situational factors.
Which ideas of Freud's were accepted by contemporary psychodynamic theorists?
- Mental life is largely unconscious. - People struggle with inner conflicts. - Childhood shapes personality and attachment.
How can attitudes follow behavior?
- Not only will people stand up for what they believe (attitude), they also will more strongly believe in what they have stood up for
the foot-in-the-door phenomenon
- People agreeing to a small request will be more likely to agree later to a larger one - Principle works for negative and positive behavior
What factors enhanced obedience in Milgram's experiments?
- Person giving orders was nearby - Person giving orders was perceived to be a legitimate authority figure - The authority figure was supported by a prestigious institution - Victim was depersonalized or at a distance - There were no role models for defiance
Which of Freud's ideas were accepted by his followers?
- Personality structures (id, ego, superego) - Importance of the unconscious - Childhood roots of personality - Dynamics of anxiety and defense mechanisms
Which of Freud's ideas were rejected by his followers?
- Placed more emphasis on the conscious mind - Doubted that sex and aggression were primary motivations and emphasized more positive motives
Components of reward theory of attractiveness
- Proximity - takes less time to receive benefits of friendship - Attractiveness - conveys impression of other desirable traits and by association, we may be perceived as more attractive - Similarity - validates our own beliefs and attitudes - Reciprocal liking - we like to be liked!
Norms
- rules for accepted and expected behavior - each cultural group evolves its own norms - when cultures collide, their differing norms can confuse or even anger
bystander effect
- the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present because when more people share responsibility for helping, there is a diffusion of responsibility.
Identification
A process in which children cope with their threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent. Through this process, their superego gains strength that incorporates their parents' values. Leads children to develop gender identity.
How does cooperative contact reduces conflict?
A shared predicament or superordinate goal can have a unifying effect. Experiments with teens in 11 countries confirm that cooperative learning can maintain or enhance student achievement.
· What are social traps?
A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior; decisions produce short-term benefits but hurt society in the long run
passionate love
A state of intense absorption in someone that includes intense physiological arousal, psychological interest, and care for the needs of another
Repression
Banishes anxiety-arousing wishes and feelings from consciousness; it is the foundation for all other defense mechanisms and is sometimes incomplete, manifesting as symbols in dreams or slips of the tongue
A principal is looking for advice on how to improve his relationships with the teachers in his school. Carl Rogers might suggest which of the following?
Be genuine with them and show them unconditional positive regard.
Discrimination
Behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group.
Who contributed to person-centered theory?
Carl Rogers
Trait theories of personality
Characteristic patterns of behaviour or conscious motives. Assumed that most traits exist in all people to a certain degree and that we can measure the degree to which a trait exists in a person Thousands of words to describe traits.
How can we limit belief perseverance?
Consider the opposite, comprehensively imagine and ponder the other side of an issue to help reduce biases
Type of thinking used on aptitude tests
Convergent
trailblazing smarts: ability to adapt to novel situations and generate novel ideas
Creative Intelligence (Sternberg)
What is today's perspective of the unconscious mind?
Current perspectives view the unconscious as information processing that occurs without awareness, automatic processing: Schemas guide our perceptions, Priming affects our choices, Right hemisphere makes choices the left hemisphere doesn't verbalize, Conditioned responses, learned skills and procedures, guide our actions without conscious recall, Emotions get activated before conscious analyses, Stereotypes influence our reactions
Type of thinking used on creativity tests
Divergent
Although Natalie receives slightly greater rewards from her marriage than her husband, both are satisfied with the relationship because they each benefit in proportion to what they put into it. This BEST illustrates the significance of:
Equity
What does modern research suggest about repression?
If it occurs, is a rare mental response to terrible trauma. The stress some severely abused children experience, might disrupt memory by damaging the hippocampus, which is important for processing conscious memories. The far more common reality is that high stress and associated stress hormones enhance memory. Many trauma victims have conscious memories of horrific events.
ways of observing implicit ethnic prejudice
Implicit racial associations, unconscious patronization, or race-influenced perceptions
A newborn infant crying out for satisfaction is a good example of Freud's concept of the _____.
Id
Why we don't always use algorithms to solve problems
Limited cognitive resources; Time constraints; Missing information; Not motivated; Individual differences
two-factor theory of emotion
Love consists of Physical Arousal and Cognitive Appraisal (A label for the arousal). We can confuse the specific cause of our arousal, and we may mistake fear or anxiety for "love," causing the setting to increase physiological arousal often fuel feelings of passion
street smarts: skill at handling everyday tasks
Practical Intelligence (Sternberg)
_____ is an unjustifiable, usually negative, attitude toward a group and its members.
Prejudice
the foundation for all other defense mechanisms
Repression
Do traits reflect differing brain structure?
Size of different brain regions correlates with several Big Five traits; brain connections also influence traits
Sometimes we need to allow the unconscious mind to do some work by following our effortless, immediate, automatic feelings or thoughts (in contrast to explicit, conscious reasoning).
Smart Use of Intuition
ability to understand and navigate groups & group situations
Social intelligence
· Do these traits predict our actual behavior?
Yes, though situations also matter
How did humanistic psychologists view personality?
a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth, they studied healthy people rather than people with mental health problems, and study people through their own self-reported experiences and feelings
free association (psychoanalysis)
a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, the therapist interprets any potential unconscious wishes hidden in the client's hesitations, slips of the tongue, and dreams
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items
self-serving bias
a tendency to perceive oneself favorably, people accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes than for failure; people see themselves as better than average
Freudian slip
a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion
estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.
availability heuristic
Normative social influence
behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval or avoid disapproval
Genuiness
being honest, direct, not using a facade
Nasser feels that he has reached his full potential as a college student. He has a 4.0 GPA, is involved in many campus activities, and has just been accepted into graduate school. According to Maslow, Nasser has achieved _____.
self-actualization
Some humanistic psychologists ask clients to describe themselves both as they would ideally like to be and as they actually are. The goal is to evaluate their _____.
self-concept
Marla just told her father that she is a lesbian. Her father asks her to leave his house and never return. Marla has experienced:
sexual orientation prejudice
Superordinate Goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation
Oedipus complex/Electra complex
situation occurring in the phallic stage in which a child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent and jealousy of the same-sex parent
Attribution to factors external to an actor, such as the task, other people, or luck
situational attribution
group polarization effect
strengthening an opinion because of group discussion; shifts view to a more extreme position
Danita just received an income tax refund of $1500. Rather than using this money for some much-needed car repairs, she decides to take a cruise to the Bahamas. Danita has a weak:
superego
defense mechanisms
the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by indirectly and unconsciously distorting reality
Considering a person's physical features, which is the best predictor of overall physical attractiveness?
the face
Ego
the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality.
Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. When we shed self-awareness and self-restraint, whether in a mob, at a rock concert, or at a ballgame, we become more responsive to the group experience, whether bad or good.
Group think
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives
Leon Festinger
cognitive dissonance theory
A predisposition to verify rather than challenge our preconceptions, causing us to tend to search for information that confirms a personal bias rather than refutes it.
confirmation bias
Big Five Personality Factors
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion
Comparing members of different age groups at the same time
cross-sectional study
Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
crystallized intelligence
· How can we encourage cooperation?
develop agreed-upon regulations for the common good and encourage better communication between groups to promote awareness of responsibilities
How are · test items on some personality inventories are empirically derived?
developed by testing a pool of items and selecting those that discriminate between groups
While driving to work, Moniba's car started smoking and broke down on a road with a lot of traffic. Her cell phone's battery died so she could not call for help. She was unsuccessful in getting someone to stop to help for more than two hours until a police officer offered assistance. Moniba's difficulty in getting someone to help is an example of:
diffusion of responsibility.
Internal factors, the person's stable, enduring traits, personality, ability, emotions
dispositional attribution
Latency
dormant sexual feelings
A specific aspect of social intelligence; it is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use feelings
emotional intelligence
Alice works as a school counselor for an inner-city school. She is very popular with the kids. They believe that they can share anything with her and that she will listen and take the time to understand what is going on with them. Carl Rogers would argue that Alice would score high on a scale of:
empathy
Eli is an extravert. There is some evidence that people like Eli seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is relatively low. For example, extraverts:
exhibit less activity in a frontal lobe area involved in behavior inhibition.
Social-cognitive theories
explore interaction between traits and social context
When Josephine was hired as an advertising executive, she was told that she got the job because of the charisma she displayed to clients. According to "Thinking Critically About the Stigma of Introversion," what trait does Josephine possess that is thought to be a basic requirement to be successful in this field?
extraversion
· Have levels of these traits changed over time?
extraversion and conscientiousness have increased
A researcher is attempting to develop a new personality test. As part of the process, he needs to identify clusters of related items. For this he will need to apply _____.
factor analysis
Ability to reason quickly and abstractly, as when solving unfamiliar logic problems; it decreases with age beginning in the 20s gradually until age 75 and then more rapidly after age 85
fluid intelligence
When the temperature rises in the summer, the rates of violent crimes increase. This is BEST explained in terms of the:
frustration-aggression principle
Shortly after learning he did not make it onto his high school football team, Alex vandalized the team's locker room and broke several of the school's windows. His behavior is BEST explained in terms of:
frustration-aggression principle.
Ingroups
groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity - "us" - people with whom we share a common identity; social definition of who we are includes who we are not.
Diffusion of responsibility is MOST likely to influence:
helping behavior.
____ is giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
individualism
Informational social influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions as new information; conforming because we want to be accurate and believe others know something we do not.
Not strategy-based, but rather a sudden flash of inspiration.
insight problem solving strategy
Comparing the same participants multiple times over a period of time
longitudinal studies
Janie is amazed how Jim can recognize and identify people who are of different Asian ethnic groups, because she really struggles with this type of identification. One can assume from this example that Jim has
more experience interacting with Asian people.
mirror-image perceptions
mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive
Vincent was a famous rock musician during the 1980s. Even though he has not had a hit in more than 25 years, he constantly brags about his past musical hits and wants people to recognize him for his past accomplishments. His psychologist thinks Vincent is excessively self-absorbed and thus believes he displays a high level of:
narcissism
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth that correlates with: less conformity; greater persistence at difficult tasks; less shyness, anxiety, and loneliness; success; happiness
self-efficacy
our sense of competence and effectiveness (Giving praise in the absence of good performance may actually be harmful).
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)
Jacob and Makayla have been dating for about three months. They are MOST likely experiencing what kind of love?
passionate love
What is the best predictor of future behavior?
past behavior in similar situations
projective tests
personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind - lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to).
Starke Hathaway is to _____ as Alfred Binet is to _____.
personality measurement; intelligence measurement
Clarissa and Julio are in the same English class and have been assigned to sit next to each other. What will affect their first impression of each other?
physical attractiveness
Anal
pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
Phallic
pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
Ariel's history of romantic relationships influences her attitudes toward romantic relationships, which affects how she responds to her current boyfriend. This is an example of:
reciprocal determinism
Brenda's past experiences in college classes influence her attitude toward academic achievement, which then influences how she prepares for her current classes. This is an example of:
reciprocal determinism
-Develop your expertise -Allow time for incubation, setting aside problems for a while to let unconscious connections form ("sleep on it") -Allow the mind to roam freely, without distractions -Improve mental flexibility by experiencing other cultures and ways of thinking
Ways to boost creativity
What can be done to decrease group think?
Welcome various opinions, especially in diverse groups, invite experts' critiques of developing plans, assign people to identify possible problems
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes because it includes a lie scale to assess if people are faking and is translated into 100+ languages.
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots that seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Superego
the part of personality that, according to Freud, focuses on ideal behavior, strives for perfection, acts as the moral conscience. It represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment, it begins developing at age 4 or 5, as children begin to judge actions and feel pride or guilt.
social facilitation effect
the phenomenon that describes how people tend to perform simple well-learned tasks better when other people are present. For more difficult tasks, people tend to perform more poorly in the presence of others.
The mere exposure effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them
What principle does the id operate on?
the pleasure principle (do what feels good immediately)
minority influence
the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities
self-actualization
the process by which people achieve their full potential
reward theory of attraction
the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events
peripheral route persuasion
uses cues (e. g., celebrity endorsement, music), directed at less involved audience, response tends to be short-lived
-Extent to which a test yields consistent results
Reliability
outgroup
"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup
Kitty Genovese
(New York, 1964) sad exemplar of the bystander effect - she was assaulted at 3 AM, and multiple people came to their windows and witnessed some portion of the attack, but no one called police until it was too late. She was murdered outside her apartment; prompted investigation of the bystander effect due to diffusion of responsibility.
Genital
(puberty on) maturation of sexual interests
Id
(uninhibited self - I wanna do it now!) - unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives
How does the view of the unconscious differ between Freud and contemporary psychologists?
- According to Freud, the unconscious was a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories - According to contemporary psychologists, the unconscious is information processing of which we are unaware
In what way does physical attractiveness affect first impressions?
- Attractive people are seen as healthier, happier, more sensitive, more successful, more socially skilled (but not more compassionate) (BUT people's attractiveness is NOT related to their self-esteem and happiness) - tend to be more successful in their job and earn more money - Predicts frequency of dating and popularity - Is influenced by cultural ideals and personal feelings
What is the person-situation controversy?
- Behavior is influenced by the interaction of our disposition and our environment. - Trait scores are positively correlated with trait scores seven years later even though interests and relationships may change; traits also become more stable with age. - In general, personality traits are stable, however, the consistency of specific behaviors from one particular situation to another is not predictable. People behave differently in different situations, and personality test scores do not necessarily predict ----- behavior in any one particular situation, but average behavior is predictable. At any moment, the immediate situation powerfully influences a person's behavior
Which ideas of Freud's were rejected by contemporary psychodynamic theorists?
- Sex is not considered the central basis of personality. - The Id and Ego are not discussed. - Patients are not classified as having anal, oral, or phallic fixations.
Sherif (1966) Realistic conflict theory
- Sherif conducted a three-phase study investigating superordinate goals on cooperation between two groups of 10 boys who did not know each other and camped out in separate areas at a state park. The 3 phases included: Creating in-groups (Each group separately engaged in activities, developed own leader, and social identity), Instilling intergroup competition (Week long tournament of 10 athletic events with points for each (group with most points got prize)), and Encouraging intergroup cooperation (Introduced superordinate goals (e.g. failure of water supply, truck break down))
Why does prejudice arise?
- Social roots (including Social inequalities and divisions); Emotional roots (including scapegoat theory); Cognitive roots; Categories; Vivid memories
What factors increase the likelihood that we will help others?
- The person appears to deserve help; The person is in some way similar to us; The person is a woman; We have just observed someone else being helpful; We are not in a hurry; We are in a small town or rural area; We are feeling guilty; We are focused on others and not preoccupied; We are in a good mood; Happy people are helpful (this is one of the most consistent findings in psychology); helpful people are happy!
What conditions enhance conformity?
- They are made to feel incompetent or insecure - The group has at least three people - Everyone else agrees - They admire the group's status and attractiveness - They have not already committed to another response - They know they are being observed - Their culture encourages respect for social standards
cognitive dissonance theory
- We feel discomfort when our thoughts or attitudes and actions are inconsistent; when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we are motivated to reduce the tension - we can reduce dissonance by bringing our attitudes into line with our actions. - This feeling is GREATEST when we VOLUNTEER to do something that conflicts with an attitude, rather than when we are required to do so.
How do we tend to differ in attributions when explaining our own behavior (positive or negative), explaining the behavior of other people we know well, and explaining the behavior of strangers?
- When we explain our own behavior, we are sensitive to the situation: Positive behavior = we tend to attribute to personal traits / Negative behavior = we tend to attribute to the situation - When we explain the behavior of other people we know well (or people we have seen in different situations), we also tend to be sensitive to the power of the situation - When we explain the behavior of strangers, we are more likely to commit the fundamental attribution error.
Under what circumstances are attitudes likely to affect behavior?
- external influences are minimal - the attitude is stable - the attitude is specific to the behavior the attitude is easily recalled
Trait
A characteristic pattern of behavior or way of feeling and acting
· What can an individual do to influence the majority?
A committed person or small minority with consistently expressed views may sway the majority, but the Individual must firmly hold position and not waver (Non-violent fasts and appeals by Gandhi led to the independence of India from the British)
prejudice
A negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority.
Asking people to "be as objective and unbiased as possible" does not help reduce this tendency
A problem associated with belief perseverance
How heritable are the big five traits?
About 40% for each dimension (Many genes have small effects that combine to influence traits)
· How can we reduce overconfidence?
Accept feedback and seek the opinions of others.
Assess what a person has learned
Achievement tests
What factors affect our attributions?
Actor-observer distinction (i.e., whose behavior we are explaining?)
Conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
How does Role Playing affect attitudes?
At first, behaviors in a new role may feel phony, as though you are acting, but eventually these new ways of acting become a part of you (Fake it 'till you make it).
compasionate love
Affection people feel for those with whom their lives are deeply connected but do not necessarily experience passion or arousal in their presence
The neo-Freudian psychologist _____ said, "The individual feels at home in life and feels his existence to be worthwhile just so far as he is useful to others."
Alfred Adler (1870-1937)
A step-by-step, methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees a solution to a problem that is very time consuming and exhausts all possibilities before arriving at a solution.
Algorithm problem solving strategy
altruism
An unselfish concern for the welfare of others; helping others without thoughts of personal gain
school smarts: traditional academic problem solving. This is what is assessed by IQ tests.
Analytical Intelligence (Sternberg)
Predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.
Aptitude tests
How do trait theorists see personality?
As a stable and enduring pattern of behavior, describing differences rather than trying to explain them and personality in terms of fundamental traits
What should we do to avoid confirmation bias?
Attempt to falsify the rule
the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's stable, enduring traits
Attribution theory
Implicit Ethnic Prejudice
Automatic attitudes not in our conscious awareness
Automatic mimicry
Behavior is contagious and helps people empathize (feel what others feel). The more we mimic, the greater our empathy, and the more people tend to like us; helps to explain mood linkage (experiencing similar moods as those around us). Suggestibility and mimicry may sometimes have negative consequences (suicides increase following a suicide) b/c suggestibility and mimicry are subtle forms of conformity.
The tendency to cling to beliefs and ignore evidence that shows these are wrong; we tend to interpret evidence in a manner that is consistent with our existing beliefs
Belief Perseverance
the components of prejudice
Beliefs (stereotypes); Emotions (hostility, envy, fear); Predisposition to act (to discriminate)
1. What ancestral history has prepared us for 2. What we cannot control 3. What is immediate 4. What is most readily available in memory
Factors contributing to our fear of unlikely events?
How well do these traits apply to various cultures?
Features of personality traits are common to all human groups"
What does the matchstick problem and the 9-dot problem represent?
Fixation (functional fixedness)
An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective that impedes problem solving, such as a mental set - tendency to approach a problem in one particular way.
Fixation/Functional Fixedness
Humanistic theories of personality
Focus on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfillment
Father of attribution theory
Fritz Heider (1958)
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)
Eight: Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Musical, Spatial, Intrapersonal (Self), Interpersonal (Others), Naturalist
Garner's Original Intelligences
Ninth: Existential, the ability to ponder deep questions about life.
Garner's newly proposed intelligence
Conformity rates in individualist cultures
Generally lower than in collectivist cultures
Rachel is a manager at a large department store. She is popular with her staff. Many of her employees like her because she is honest, frank, and open without any facade. Carl Rogers would argue that Rachel would score highly on:
Genuineness
Initiating one or more small conciliatory acts that open the door to a reciprocal response is a central feature of ____.
Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction (GRIT)
a simpler mental short-cut that allows us to solve problems more quickly but doesn't guarantee a correct solution (error-prone).
Heuristic Problem Solving Strategy
What are the consequences of our attributions?
How we explain someone's behavior affects how we react to it - have real consequences
When asked to describe herself and her goals, Donna focuses on her personality traits. She goes on to list her hopes for personal achievements and the importance of being independent. One could say that Donna is a(n) _____.
Individualist
The neo-Freudian psychologist _____ countered Sigmund Freud's assumptions that women have weak superegos and suffer from penis envy.
Karen Horney (1885-1952)
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) is a(n) _____ test.
Objective
difference between prejudice and discrimination
One is an attitude; the other is an action.
How do convergent and divergent thinking differ?
One narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution while the other expands the number of possible problem solutions.
What are Freud's psychosexual stages?
Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital
Ashe's Conformity Studies
Participants seated at end of row of 5 confederates and asked to indicate which of 3 lines is same length as standard line. On some trials, confederates respond incorrectly, and participants gave incorrect answers on 37% of these trials. Found that about 1/3 of people conformed with other group members, even though they did not agree with the group's decision; later investigations have not always found as much conformity as Ashe found, but it is nevertheless a significant phenomenon.
A questionnaire on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors and is used to assess selected personality traits is known as a(n):
Personality Inventory
How stable are the big five traits?
Personality develops and changes through late childhood and adolescence and show a maturity principle (We become more conscientious and agreeable and less neurotic); overall, they are quite stable, especially after age 40.
Oral
Pleasure centers on the mouth - sucking, biting, chewing
Lucinda has gotten several tickets for running red lights, speeding, and not wearing her seat belt. When asked by the judge at her most recent court appearance why she continued to break the law, Maria stated that she was certain others did the same, including the judge. According to Freud, which defense mechanism is Lucinda employing?
Projection
What factors increase the likelihood that we will befriend or fall in love with someone?
Proximity (most powerful predictor of friendship); Physical Attractiveness; Similarity
1.Intelligence facilitates more education, better jobs, and a healthier environment. 2.Intelligence encourages healthy lifestyles. 3.Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses could influence both intelligence and health. A "well-wired body" as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, may foster both intelligence and longer life
Reasons why intelligent people tend to live healthier and longer
Albert Bandura's social-cognitive perspective highlights the importance of:
Reciprocal Determinism
Carlos regularly donates blood because he once received a life-saving transfusion when he was in a car accident. Carlos' helping behavior is BEST explained by the _____ norm.
Reciprocity
Studies imply that people exhibit heightened levels of prejudice when they are economically frustrated. This offers support for _____ theory.
Scapegoat
The uniform procedures used in the administration and scoring of a test.
Standardization
Triarchic theory suggests three of them
Sternberg's multiple intelligences
Milgram's obedience studies
Teachers: Research participants were assigned the role of "teacher" and were asked to subject "learners" to escalating levels of shock for every question they missed. The learners were actually confederates who reacted each time they were supposed to be shocked. More than 60% complied fully (other studies have shown even higher obedience rates)
The hormone that circulates in the bloodstream to influence the neural systems that control aggression is:
Testosterone
3 ways: Compare scores on two halves of the test (split-half reliability), Compare scores on alternative forms of the test (alternative form reliability) •Compare scores on the same test taken on two occasions (test-retest reliability)
Tests for consistency
Demetrius comes home with three As and two Bs, to which his mother replies, "Is that the best you could do?" Her attitude is the opposite of Rogers' concept of _____.
Unconditional Positive Regard
o Perceiving - recognizing them in faces, music, and stories o Understanding - predicting them and how they may change and blend o Managing - knowing how to express them in varied situations o Using - utilizing them to enable adaptive or creative thinking
The components of emotional intelligence
Individual Resistance
one person can choose not to conform and can also have an effect on others
Slave owners perceived slaves as innately lazy, ignorant, and irresponsible—traits that justified their enslavement. This is an example of
The just-world phenomenon
Reciprocity
The norm or expectation that others will treat us the same way we treat them; applies primarily to interactions with equals
Social Responsibility
The norm or expectation that we should help those who need our help; applies primarily to interactions with those we see as weaker.
explanation for social facilitation
The presence of others arouses people, and this arousal strengthens our most likely response: it improves performance on easy tasks and decreases performance on difficult tasks
social loafing
The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort toward attaining a common goal than when tested individually.
Chameleon effect (Chartrand & Bargh, 1999)
The tendency to mimic others' postures, gestures, expressions, and speech inflections
How does overconfidence affect our judgment?
The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgment; across various tasks, people overestimate their performance.
How can framing affect our decisions?
The way we present an issue sways our decisions and judgments and can be a powerful took of persuasion
Psychodynamic (psychoanalytic) theories of personality
These theories are based on Freud's psychoanalytic theory and believe that human behavior is a dynamic interaction between unconscious and conscious minds and associated motives and conflicts.
What is the MOST plausible explanation for why women are more likely to have cosmetic surgery?
They are aware that physical attractiveness influences first impressions.
Explicit Ethnic Prejudice
This is an overt attitude; openly, plainly, or readily believed.
How is contact is Most effective in decreasing conflict?
When free of competition and between parties of equal status; across a quarter-million people studied in 38 nations, friendly contact with ethnic minorities, older people, and people with disabilities has usually led to less prejudice but may not be enough if groups re-segregate themselves
When are people most likely to help other people?
When they notice an incident, interpret it as an emergency, and assume responsibility for helping
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
Fixation
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
manifest content
according to Freud, the storyline that people remember about their dreams, which Freud considered to be "censored"
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream; the unconscious wishes that the dream serves to express
Self-transcendence
according to Maslow, the striving for identity, meaning, and purpose beyond the self
Unconditional positive regard
an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
What can availability lead to?
an exaggerated fear
Personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
What are the two personality dimensions suggested by the Eysenck's?
o Extraversion-introversion o Emotional stability-instability
Which two defense mechanisms are supported by research?
o Reaction formation - Trading unacceptable impulses for their opposite o Projection - Attributing our own threatening impulses to others; Today called the false consensus effect, it's the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our attitudes, is akin to projection
Congruence
o self-actualization occurs when a person's "ideal self" (i.e., who they would like to be) corresponds with their actual behavior (self-image)
factor analysis
o statistical procedure used to identify clusters of behavior that tend to occur together.
Empathy
o tuning into the feelings of others, showing your efforts to understand, listening well
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
o we are motivated by a hierarchy of needs and work our way up the hierarchy; once one layer of needs of met, we move to the next. After basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved, we are motivated to fulfill our full potential (Self-Actualization) o Physiological Needs - Safety Needs - Belonging Needs - Esteem Needs - Self-Actualization
Acceptance
offering unconditional positive regard, acknowledging feelings without passing judgment
What principle does the ego operate on?
the reality principle (delay gratification until appropriate)
Carlos is applying for a new job. The company has asked for copies of his college transcripts, a list of personal references, and letters of recommendations from past employers. He also has to complete a face-to-face interview. Which of these is the BEST indicator of his potential performance at this new job?
the recommendations from his past employers
ingroup bias
the tendency to favor our own group
social exchange theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs: Rewards may be internal or external including; increasing the probability that someone will help us in return in the future; relieving the personal distress of the bystander; gaining social approval and increased self-worth; Costs (time, potential injury vs. esteem loss)
Trying various possible solutions, and if that fails, trying others
trial-and-error problem solving
Schachter and Singer's theory
two-factor theory of emotion
Dark side of high self-esteem
when criticized, people with high self-esteem are more likely to react aggressively