Psychological Development Ch. 6/7/8 Quiz
What is metacognition and theory of mind, and what does research suggest about false beliefs?
-"thinking about thought" -Coherent set of ideas about mental activities -Toddlers implicitly understand that people's actions can be guided by false beliefs Explicit false belief understanding strengthens between 4-6
What does research suggest about the association between media violence and aggression?
-60 percent of TV programs contain violent scenes, often portraying repeated aggressive acts that go unpunished. -TV violence increases the likelihood of hostile thoughts and emotions and of verbally, physically, and relationally aggressive behavior -Playing violent video and computer games have similar effects -Young people of all ages are susceptible, but preschool and young school-age children are especially likely to imitate TV violence because they believe that much TV fiction is real
What is a secure base, and how and when is social referencing used by infants?
-A secure base is a point from which to explore, venturing into the environment and then returning for emotional support. Use a familiar caregiver. -Infants use a secure base once wariness and fear develop. -Infants encounter strangers and are met with two tendencies: approach and avoidance. The infant's behavior is a balance of the two. -Social referencing is the act of an infant actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation. Caregivers expression influences whether a 1-year-old will be wary of strangers, play with an unfamiliar toy, or cross to the deep side of the visual cliff. -Allows them to compare their own and others' assessments of events. -Use to evaluate safety and security
What are the features of the four parenting styles (child-rearing styles) identified by Baumrind and others, what makes the authoritative style effective, and what feature contributes to adjustment problems?
-Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, and Uninvolved -Authoritative is the most effective because these parents are warm, responsive, attentive, and sensitive to the child. This type of parenting is related to competence
How would a classroom emphasizing Piaget's findings differ from a classroom emphasizing Vygotsky's findings?
-Both emphasize active participation -Vygotskian classroom g.oes beyond independent discovery to promote assisted discovery. Teachers guide children's learning, tailoring their interventions to each child's zone of proximal development
When do children typically become picky eaters, and what has Lam's (2015) research suggested about how parents can get their child to accept new healthy foods?
-Children become picky eaters with the transition to early childhood -Lam suggests repeated, unpressured exposure to new foods promotes acceptance.
How does infant child care affect security of attachment and later development in children?
-Compared to securely attached infants, avoidant babies tend to receive overstimulating, intrusive care. -Resistant infants often experience inconsistent care. -Highly inadequate caregiving is a powerful predictor of disruptions in attachment.
What factors affect attachment security, and what does research suggest about each one?
-Early availability of a consistent caregiver, quality of caregiving, the baby's characteristics, and family context -Early availability of a consistent caregiver: fully normal emotional development depends on establishing a close tie with a caregiver early in life. -Quality of caregiving: Security depends on attentive caregiving, not necessarily on contingent interaction -Infant characteristics: prenatal health and caregivng are invovled -Family context: Family affects the child
What three types of temperament styles did Thomas and Church describe, and about what percentage of children showed each of those styles?
-Easy child: Quickly establishes regular routines in infancy, generally cheerful, adapts easily to new experiences. 40% of children -Difficult child: irregular in daily routines, slow to accept new experiences, tends to react negatively and intensely. 10% of children -Slow-to-warm-up child: inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, negative in mood, adjusts slowly to new experiences. 15% of children. -35% of children didn't fit in any of these categories, but instead showed blends of temperamental categories
What are the three underlying components in Rothbart's definition of temperament?
-Emotion -Attention -Action
Fine Motor Skills: 3-4 Years Old
-Fastens and unfastens large buttons -Serves self food without assistance -Uses scissors -Copies vertical line and circle -Draws first picture of person, using tadpole image
What is the developmental sequence of cognitive play categories?
-Functional Play: Simple, repetitive motor movements with or without objects, especially common during the first 2 years -Constructive Play: Creating or constructing something, especially common between 3-6 years -Make-Believe Play: Acting out everyday or imaginary roles, especially common between 2-6 years
When do gender identity, androgyny, and gender constancy emerge, and how is gender identity related to self esteem?
-Gender Identity: middle childhood -Androgyny: middle childhood -Gender Constancy: over the preschool years -Gender identity and self esteem are both related to the way we see ourselves
What emotions are typically considered to be the self-conscious emotions, when do they emerge, and how does culture influence the expression of such emotions?
-Guilt, shame, embarrassment, pride, and envy -Emerge between 18-24 months -Children mimic what self-conscious emotions are acceptable to show in their culture, and when to show these emotions.
What is the ethological theory of attachment, and what are the four phases of attachment in this model?
-Recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, is the most widely accepted view. -Preattachment phase (birth to 6 weeks) -"Attachment-in-the-making" phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months) -"Clear-cut" attachment phase (6-8 months to 18 months-2years) -Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months to 2 years and on)
What is meant by the terms sensitive caregiving and interactional synchrony?
-Sensitive caregiving: responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully. -Interactional synchrony: seperates the experiences of secure from insecure babies. It is best described as a sensitivity tuned "emotional dance" in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion.
When do each of the following emerge, and how do they contribute to adaptability in infant development: the social smile, laughter, anger, stranger anxiety?
-Social Smile emerges 6-10 weeks, parent's communication evokes a broad grin. Parallel development of infant perceptual capacities. -Laughter emerges around 3-4 months, and reflects faster processing of information than smiling does. Happens first with very active stimuli, and then more subtle stimuli, as with smiling. -Anger increases in frequency and intensity from 4-6 months into the 2nd year. The older the infant, the wider the range of situations the children reacts to with anger. As a child becomes capable of intentional behavior they want to control their own actions and the effects that they produce. -Stranger anxiety emerges from the second half of the first year and into the second year. It is the fear of unfamiliar adults, and is the most common expression of fear.
What does research suggest about the stability of temperament, and after what age are long-term predictions more reliable?
-Stability of temperament is low in infancy and toddlerhood and only moderate from the preschool years on. -Long-term predictions from early temperament is best achieved after age 3.
What is fast mapping?
A process of connecting new words with their underlying concepts after only a brief encounter
What is overregularization?
A type of error in which preschoolers sometimes overextend the rules to words that are exceptions
What is prosocial or altruistic behavior?
Actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self
What is inductive discipline, and how effective is it?
An adult helps make the child aware of feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others. Effective as early as age 2, if generally warm parents provide explanations to match the child's capacity to understand while firmly insisting that the child listen and comply
According to Piaget, what is the most important/obvious change occurring in children as they move from the sensorimotor to the preoperational stage (and what are the years of the preoperational stage)?
An extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity
When do toddlers become capable of obeying directives of the adults in their lives?
Between 12 and 18 months
How much increase is there in brain weight during the ages from 2 to 6?
Brain increases from about 70 percent to 90 percent of adult weight
What is the leading cause of fatalities in children who live in industrialized countries, what are the most frequent sources of injury, and are there gender differences in injuries?
-Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of fatalities in children in industrialized countries -Auto and traffic accidents, suffocation, drowning, and poisoning are the most common injuries resulting in childhood death -Motor vehicle collisions are by far the most frequent source of injury -Boys are nearly twice as likely as girls to be injured and their injuries are more severe, because of their higher activity level and greater impulsivity and risk taking
What are the side effects of punishment?
Chronic sense of being personally threatened, children avoid punitive parent, use of physical punishment can transfer into next generation. Depression, aggression, antisocial behavior, poor academic performance
What are the limitations of preoperational thought, how did Piaget demonstrate these limitations, and what examples can be given of these limitations?
Egocentrism: Failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own -Used three-mountains problem -Ex: Sammy thought someone must have turned on the thunder Conservation: idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes -had identical objects, children thought were the same. Changed outward appearance but not size of objects, children thought were different -Ex: Priti and Sammy had identical boxes of raisins, but when Priti spread hers across the table Sammy thought she had more Lack of Hierarchical Classification: organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences -class inclusion problem -children cannot move red and blue flowers to the class flowers to the parts (red and blue) and back again
When does explicit self-awareness emerge?
Emerges during the second year
How does episodic memory differ from semantic memory, and what happens with scripts as we age?
Episodic: Memory for everyday experiences Semantic: Information removed from the context in which it was first learned that has become part of your general knowledge base Scripts are general descriptions of what occurs and when it occurs in a particular situation. With age, scripts become more elaborate
What does the goodness of fit model predict about temperament and child rearing?
Explains how temperament and environment can together produce favorable outcomes. Involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning.
What tends to be true of the self-esteem of preschool children?
It is related to whether the child's parent encourages or criticizes the child
In what parts of the brain are language skills and spatial skills found?
Language skills are in the left hemisphere, spatial skills are in the right hemisphere
What strategies can parents use to regulate screen media use, and what strategies can help parents and children control aggression?
Limit TV viewing and computer tablet use, avoid using screen media as a reward, when possible watch TV and view online content with children helping them understand what they see, link TV and online content to everyday learning experiences, model good media practices
Why is recognition memory typically superior to recall memory in early childhood, and what is needed for recall memory to improve?
They are not skilled at using memory strategies, or deliberate mental activities that improve our chances of remembering. Preschoolers do not yet rehearse, or repeat items over and over to remember, nor do they organize.
What are time out and withdrawal of privileges, and what increases the effectiveness of mild punishment?
Time out: involves removing children form immediate setting until they are ready to act appropriately Withdrawal of Privileges: Remove privileges, such as watching favorite TV program Consistency, a warm parent-child relationship, and explanations increase effectiveness of mild punishment
What is attachment?
Strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress
What is effortful control?
The capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response
What is included in the self concept of preschool age children?
The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is
Are there cultural differences in attachment?
Yes. German infants show considerably more avoidant attachment than American babies do, but German parents value independence and encourage their infants to be nonclingy. A study of the infants of the Dogon people of Mali, Africa, revealed that none showed avoidant attachment to their mothers. Japanese infants rarely shoe avoidant attachment, rather, many are resistantly attached.
What is temperament?
Stable differences in reactivity and self-regulation. Reactivity refers to the quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity. Self-Regulation refers to the strategies that modify reactivity.
About how much do children grow during the years of early childhood, and are there gender differences?
-Rapid growth in first 2 years tapers off. -Children add 2-3 inches and 5 pounds each year, on average. -Boys continue to be slightly taller than girls.
What are the neurobiological correlates of shyness and sociability, which brain structure mediates them, and how do parenting practices affect the behavior of shy children?
-Heart rate, cortisol, pupil dilation, blood pressure, and skin surface temperature -Heart rate of shy children is higher and speeds up further in response to unfamiliar events -Shy children have higher saliva concentrations of the stress hormone cortisol - Shy children have greater pupil dilation, rise in blood pressure, and cooling of the fingertips when faced with novelty. -Warm and supportive parenting reduces shy infants and preschoolers intense physiological reactivity to novelty -Cold intrusive parenting heightens anxiety -Overprotection of infants and toddlers who dislike novelty makes it hard for the child to overcome the urge to retreat
Gross Motor Skills: 5-6 Years Old
-Increases running speed to 12 feet per second -Gallops more smoothly; engages in true skipping -Displays mature throwing and catching pattern -Rides bicycle with training wheels
What are the components of executive functioning according to information processing theory, and what has research found about each component?
-Inhibition, Flexible Shifting, Working Memory, Planning, and Parenting and Development -Inhibition: With age preschoolers steadily gain the ability to inhibit impulses and keep their mind on a competing goal. They can resist the "pull" of their attention -Flexible Shifting: Children's ability to flexibly shift their focus of attention, depending on what is important at the moment. Improves greatly in preschool years, with gains continuing into middle childhood -Working Memory: Gains enable preschoolers to hold in mind and manipulate more information at once. Contributes to control of attention. With age, this ability becomes increasingly important to problem solving -Planning: Thinking out a sequence of acts ahead of time and performing them accordingly to reach a goal. Older preschoolers can follow a plan as long as it isn't too difficult. Young preschoolers have difficulty -Parenting and Development: Parental sensitivity and scaffolding foster preschoolers' executive function skills
What happens to emotional self-regulation?
-Language and the preschooler's growing understanding of the causes and consequences of emotion contribute - By 3-4 children verbalize a variety of strategies for alleviating negative emotion that they tailor to specific situations
What is the Strange Situation procedure, how did infants and toddlers respond to it when they exhibited the four patterns of attachment?
-Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore in an unfamiliar playroom. When parent leaves the room, and unfamiliar adult should be less comforting than the parent. -Takes the baby through 8 short episodes in which brief seperations form and reunions with the parent occur. 1. Researcher introduces parent and baby to playroom and then leaves. 2. Parent is seated while baby plays with toys. 3. Stranger enters, is seated, and talks to parent. 4. Parent leaves room. Stranger responds to baby and offers to comfort if baby is upset. 5. Parent returns, greet baby, and offers to comfort if necessary. Stranger leaves room. 6. Parent leaves room. 7. Stranger enters room and offers comfort. 8. Parent returns, greets baby, offers comfort if necessary, and tries to reinterest baby in toys. -Secure Attachment: infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated, may or may not cry. When parent returns they convey clear pleasure. -Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. Not distressed when parent leaves responds to stranger in the same way. During reunion, avoid or are slow to greet parent. -Insecure-resistant Attachment: Before seperation infants seek closeness to parent. When parent leave, they are often distressed and on her return combine clinginess with angry resistive behavior. -Disorganized/disoriented attachment: Greatest insecurity. At reunion, infants confused and contradictory.
What are the different types of play described by Parten?
-Nonsocial Activity: unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play -Parallel Play: A child plays near other children with similar materials but doesn't try to influence their behavior -Associative Play: Children engage in seperate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another's behavior -Cooperative Play: More advanced type of interaction, children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme
How did Piaget test out the ability of children to "conserve"?
-Number: Presented two rows of pennies equally spaced apart with the same number of pennies per row. Asked if there were the same number of pennies per row. Then changed the rows so one row was spaced out and one was pushed closer together and asked same question. -Mass: Made two balls of clay the same size and shape, asked if they were the same size. Then made one ball flat and left the other the same and asked again if they had the same amount of clay. -Liquid: Got two cups that were exactly the same and put the same amount of water in each. Asked if each had the same amount of water. Poured on cup into a bowl and again asked if each had the same amount of water -Weight: Put two identical balls of clay on opposite sides of a scale and asked if they weighed the same. Took them off scale, flattened one ball, and asked if they still weighed the same
What are the different kinds of aggression? Are there gender differences?
-Physical Aggression: harms others through physical injury-pushing, hitting, kicking, or punching others, or destroying another's property -Verbal Aggression: harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing -Relational Aggression: damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation -Girls have a reputation for being both verbally and relationally more aggressive than boys, but the sex difference is small -Boys are more physically aggressive
What features are typically associated with the maltreatment of children, what consequences accompany maltreatment, and what is needed to prevent such maltreatment?
-Physical abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and emotional abuse -Impairs the development of emotional self-regulation, empathy and sympathy, self-concept, social skills, and academic motivation -Provide social supports to families, early intervention, Healthy Families America
How did Piaget and Vygotsky differ with regard to the use of language as a source of cognitive development?
-Piaget had egocentric speech, reflecting that children have difficulty taking the perspectives of others. Said their talk is often self talk. -Vygotsky disagreed and said children had private speech that is self-directed, and they use it to walk themselves through the steps of challenging tasks
Fine Motor Skills: 2-3 Years Old
-Puts on and removes simple items of clothing -Zips and unzips large zippers -Uses spoon effectively
What strategies are part of positive parenting, and why are they effective?
-Use transgressions as opportunities to teach: motivates child to make amends and behave prosocially -Reduce opportunities for misbehavior: children that learn to occupy themselves constructively when options are limited -Provide reasons for rules: when children appreciate that rules are rational they are more likely to strive to follow the rules -Arrange for children to participate in family routines and duties: children develop a sense of responsible participation and acquire practical skills -When children are obstinate, try compromising and problem solving: help child think of ways to avoid problem in the future -Encourage mature behavior: fosters pride and satisfaction in succeeding
Fine Motor Skills: 4-5 Years Old
-Uses fork effectively -Cuts with scissors following line -Copies triangle, cross, and some letters
Fine Motor Skills: 5-6 Years Old
-Uses knife to cut soft food -Ties shoes -Draws person with 6 parts -Copies some numbers and simple words
Gross Motor Skills: 4-5 Years Old
-Walks down stairs, alternating feet -Runs more smoothly -Gallops and skips with one foot -Throws ball with increased body rotation and transfer of weight from one foot to the other; catches ball with hands -Rides tricycle rapidly, steers smoothly
Gross Motor Skills 2-3 Years Old
-Walks more rhythmically; hurried walk changes to run -Jumps, hops, throws, and catches with rigid upper body -Pushes riding toy with feet; little steering
Gross Motor Skills: 3-4 Years Old
-Walks up stairs, alternating feet, and down stairs leading with one foot -Jumps and hops, flexing upper body -Throws and catches with slight involvement of upper body; still catches by trapping ball against chest -Pedals and steers tricycle
Are there gender differences in motor skills?
-Yes -Boys are ahead of girls in skills that emphasize force and power -Girls have an edge in fine motor skills and in certain gross-motor skills that require a combination of good balance and foot movement
With regard to information processing's focus on memory, what is the difference between implicit memory and explicit memory, and in which one are the greatest changes seen in the preschool years?
Implicit: Memory changes of the first 2 years, take place without conscious awareness Explicit: conscious memory which undergoes the greatest change throughout development
What is the developmental path of aggression from infancy through the preschool years? Are there gender differences?
In late infancy, children display aggression from time to time, and as opportunities to interact with siblings and peers increase, aggressive outbursts increase. Physical aggression rises sharply ages 1-3, and then diminishes as verbal aggression replaces it
What are the characteristics of developmentally appropriate programs for preschool children?
Physical Setting: indoors is clean, divided into richly equipped activity areas, outdoors is fenced and has toys Group Size: no greater than 18-20 children with 2 teachers Teacher-Child Ration: teacher responsible for no more than 8-10 children. In family child-care homes, no more than 6 children per caregiver Daily Activities: children select their own activities and learn through experience Interaction between adults and children: teachers move among groups and individuals interacting Teacher Qualifications: college-level specialized preparation Relationships With Parents: parents encouraged to observe and participate Licensing and Accreditation
What are pragmatics?
Practical, social side of language children must learn to engage in effective and appropriate communication
What does research suggest about gender-stereotyped beliefs and behavior during infancy and the preschool years, and are there any gender differences in the degree to which children are gender typed?
Preschoolers associate toys, clothing, tools, household items, games, occupations, colors (pink and blue), and behaviors with one sex or the other
What did Vygotsky find about private speech, the zone of proximal development, and scaffolding?
Private Speech: Self-directed, children use more of it when tasks are appropriately challenging, after they make errors, or when they are confused about how to proceed. Zone of Proximal Development: Learning takes place within a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of others. Scaffolding: Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance.