Psychological Disorders Chapter 15
American Psychological Association
1. There are significant disturbances in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. 2.The disturbances reflect some kind of biological, psychological, or developmental dysfunction. 3. The disturbances lead to significant distress or disability in one's life. 4.The disturbances do not reflect expected or culturally approved responses to certain events. In truth, no single approach to defining a psychological disorder is adequate by itself, nor is there universal agreement on where the boundary is between disordered and not disordered.
marijuana and schizophrenia
A classic investigation of over 45,000 Swedish conscripts who were followed up after 15 years found that those individuals who had reported using marijuana at least once by the time of conscription were more than 2 times as likely to develop schizophrenia during the ensuing 15 years than were those who reported never using marijuana; those who had indicated using marijuana 50 or more times were 6 times as likely to develop schizophrenia
major depressive disorder
A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities.
Prodromal symptoms of schizophrenia
A new approach involves identifying people who show minor symptoms of psychosis, such as unusual thought content, paranoia, odd communication, delusions, problems at school or work, and a decline in social functioning and following these individuals over time to determine which of them develop a psychotic disorder and which factors best predict such a disorder
Events During Pregnancy
A number of environmental factors that could impact normal brain development might be at fault. High rates of obstetric complications in the births of children who later developed schizophrenia have been reported stress and loss can also lead to a schizophrenic offspring
specific phobia
A person diagnosed with a specific phobia (formerly known as simple phobia) experiences excessive, distressing, and persistent fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (such as animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying)
antisocial personality disorder
A personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist. A useful way to conceptualize antisocial personality disorder is boiling the diagnosis down to three major concepts: disinhibition, boldness, and meanness
Why Is the Prevalence Rate of ADHD Increasing?
ADHD may be over-diagnosed by doctors who are too quick to medicate children as a behavior treatment. • There is greater awareness of ADHD now than in the past. Nearly everyone has heard of ADHD, and most parents and teachers are aware of its key symptoms. Thus, parents may be quick to take their children to a doctor if they believe their child possesses these symptoms, or teachers may be more likely now than in the past to notice the symptoms and refer the child for evaluation. • The use of computers, video games, iPhones, and other electronic devices has become pervasive among children in the early 21st century, and these devices could potentially shorten children's attentions spans. Thus, what might seem like inattention to some parents and teachers could simply reflect exposure to too much technology. • ADHD diagnostic criteria have changed over time.
Genes or environment
Although adoption studies have supported the hypothesis that genetic factors contribute to schizophrenia, they have also demonstrated that the disorder most likely arises from a combination of genetic and environmental factors, rather than just genes themselves
Anxiety vs. Fear
Anxiety - Apprehension about future threat Fear - response to an immediate threat
Panic disorder
Anxiety that is not triggered by any identifiable stimulus and last from a few seconds to several hours Some of the physical manifestations of a panic attack are shown. People may also experience sweating, trembling, feelings of faintness, or a fear of losing control, among other symptoms. Its symptoms include accelerated heart rate, sweating, trembling, choking sensations, hot flashes or chills, dizziness or lightheadedness, fears of losing control or going crazy, and fears of dying
risk factors of bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder is considerably less frequent than major depressive disorder. In the United States, 1 out of every 167 people meets the criteria for bipolar disorder each year, and 1 out of 100 meet the criteria within their lifetime Suicide rates are extremely high among those with bipolar disorder: around 36% of individuals with this disorder attempt suicide at least once in their lifetime
clusters of personality disorders
Cluster A disorders include paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, and schizotypal personality disorder. People with these disorders display a personality style that is odd or eccentric. Cluster B disorders include antisocial personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder, and borderline personality disorder. People with these disorders usually are impulsive, overly dramatic, highly emotional, and erratic. Cluster C disorders include avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (which is not the same thing as obsessive-compulsive disorder). People with these disorders often appear to be nervous and fearful.
The DSM-5 lists two general categories of mood disorder
Depressive disorders are a group of disorders in which depression is the main feature. Depression is a heterogeneous mood state—it consists of a broad spectrum of symptoms that range in severity. Depressed people feel sad, discouraged, and hopeless. These individuals lose interest in activities once enjoyed, often experience a decrease in drives such as hunger and sex, and frequently doubt personal worth.
harmful dysfunction
Dysfunction occurs when an internal mechanism breaks down and can no longer perform its normal function. But, the presence of a dysfunction by itself does not determine a disorder. The dysfunction must be harmful in that it leads to negative consequences for the individual or for others, as judged by the standards of the individual's culture.
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
For a person to be diagnosed with PTSD, she be must exposed to, witness, or experience the details of a traumatic experience (e.g., a first responder), one that involves "actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence" include intrusive and distressing memories of the event, flashbacks (states that can last from a few seconds to several days, during which the individual relives the event and behaves as if the event were occurring at that moment
Verbal Transmission
For example, a child whose parents, siblings, friends, and classmates constantly tell her how disgusting and dangerous snakes are may come to acquire a fear of snakes.
ICD vs DSM
ICD is used more for clinical diagnosis where DSM more for research.
Atypical Feelings
If you felt extremely depressed—so much so that you lost interest in activities, had difficulty eating or sleeping, felt utterly worthless, and contemplated suicide—your feelings would be atypical, would deviate from the norm, and could signify the presence of a psychological disorder. Just because something is atypical, however, does not necessarily mean it is disordered.
dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
In general, this research has suggested that an overabundance of dopamine in the limbic system may be responsible for some symptoms, such as hallucinations and delusions, whereas low levels of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex might be responsible primarily for the negative symptoms (avolition, alogia, asociality, and anhedonia)
Example of harmful dysfunction
Janet quits her job because she saw a spider at the restroom. This is HD because==== (a) there is a dysfunction in an internal mechanism (b) the dysfunction has resulted in harmful consequences.
Obsessions vs compulsions
Obsessions: repeated intrusive uncontrollable thoughts/impulses that cause distress Compulsions: repeated physical/mental behaviors that are done in RESPONSE to an obsession
dissociative identity disorder (formerly called multiple personality disorder).
People with dissociative identity disorder exhibit two or more separate personalities or identities, each well-defined and distinct from one another. They also experience memory gaps for the time during which another identity is in charge (e.g., one might find unfamiliar items in her shopping bags or among her possessions), and in some cases may report hearing voices, such as a child's voice or the sound of somebody crying
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5),
Primarily descriptive and avoids suggesting underlying cause for an individual's behavior and problems Disorders reflects turn-of-the-21st century Western cultures Includes 237 disorders Considers the importance of gender and cultural difference in the expression of various symptoms Diagnostic criteria have been loosened (since DSM-IV)
Unusual not abnormal
Red Hair example If we can agree that merely being atypical is an insufficient criterion for a having a psychological disorder, is it reasonable to consider behavior or inner experiences that differ from widely expected cultural values or expectations as disordered? Using this criterion, a woman who walks around a subway platform wearing a heavy winter coat in July while screaming obscenities at strangers may be considered as exhibiting symptoms of a psychological disorder. Her actions and clothes violate socially accepted rules governing appropriate dress and behavior; these characteristics are atypical.
Support for PTSD
Social support is often defined as the comfort, advice, and assistance received from relatives, friends, and neighbors. Social support can help individuals cope during difficult times by allowing them to discuss feelings and experiences and providing a sense of being loved and appreciated
Szasz
Suggested that most of the mental disorders treated by clinicians are not really mental disorders; wrote The Myth of Mental Illness "disease or illness can only affect the body; hence, there can be no mental illness" (p. 267). "Gay was not a disease." mental health problems not illnesses
cultural expectations
Violating cultural expectations is not, in and of itself, a satisfactory means of identifying the presence of a psychological disorder. In other cultures, visions that, for example, pertain to future events may be regarded as normal experiences that are positively valued. Finally, it is important to recognize that cultural norms change over time: what might be considered typical in a society at one time
depersonalization/derealization disorder
a dissociative disorder marked by the presence of persistent and recurrent episodes of depersonalization, derealization, or both might believe their thoughts and feelings are not their own; they may feel robotic as though they lack control over their movements and speech; they may experience a distorted sense of time and, in extreme cases, they may sense an "out-of-body" experience in which they see themselves from the vantage point of another person
catatonic
a form of schizophrenia in which the patient has muscle immobility and does not move
CAUSES OF OCD
a moderate genetic component. In people with OCD, the orbitofrontal cortex becomes especially hyperactive when they are provoked with tasks in which, for example, they are asked to look at a photo of a toilet or of pictures hanging crookedly on a wall The symptoms of OCD have been theorized to be learned responses, acquired and sustained as the result of a combination of two forms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning Specifically, the acquisition of OCD may occur first as the result of classical conditioning, whereby a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus that provokes anxiety or distress. When an individual has acquired this association, subsequent encounters with the neutral stimulus trigger anxiety, including obsessive thoughts; the anxiety and obsessive thoughts (which are now a conditioned response) may persist until she identifies some strategy to relieve it.
body dysmorphic disorder
a perceived flaw in her physical appearance that is either nonexistent or barely noticeable to other people These perceived physical defects cause the person to think she is unattractive, ugly, hideous, or deformed. These preoccupations can focus on any bodily area, but they typically involve the skin, face, or hair leads to behavioral and mental acts, such as constantly looking in the mirror, trying to hide the offending body part, comparisons with others, and, in some extreme cases, cosmetic surgery
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity Some of the signs of inattention include great difficulty with and avoidance of tasks that require sustained attention (such as conversations or reading), failure to follow instructions (often resulting in failure to complete school work and other duties), disorganization (difficulty keeping things in order, poor time management, sloppy and messy work), lack of attention to detail, becoming easily distracted, and forgetfulnes
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events . For example, a child who has been bitten by a dog may come to fear dogs because of her past association with pain. In this case, the dog bite is the UCS and the fear it elicits is the UCR. Because a dog was associated with the bite, any dog may come to serve as a conditioned stimulus,
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal A diagnosis of generalized anxiety disorder requires that the diffuse worrying and apprehension characteristic of this disorder—what Sigmund Freud referred to as free-floating anxiety—is not part of another disorder, occurs more days than not for at least six months, and is accompanied by any three of the following symptoms: restlessness, difficulty concentrating, being easily fatigued, muscle tension, irritability, and sleep difficulties.
International Classification of Diseases (ICD),
an international resource published by WHO Although the ICD is used for clinical purposes, this tool is also used to examine the general health of populations and to monitor the prevalence of diseases and other health problems internationally. The ICD is in its 10th edition however, efforts are now underway to develop a new edition (ICD-11) that, in conjunction with the changes in DSM-5, will help harmonize the two classification systems as much as possible.
SEASONAL PATTERN
applies to situations in which a person experiences the symptoms of major depressive disorder only during a particular time of year (e.g., fall or winter). In everyday language, people often refer to this subtype as the winter blues.
peripartum onset (commonly referred to as postpartum depression)
applies to women who experience major depression during pregnancy or in the four weeks following the birth of their child. These women often feel very anxious and may even have panic attacks. They may feel guilty, agitated, and be weepy.
proper diagnosis
appropriately identifying and labeling a set of defined symptoms—is absolutely crucial. This process enables professionals to use a common language with others in the field and aids in communication about the disorder with the patient, colleagues and the public.
Bipolar and related disorders
are a group of disorders in which mania is the defining feature. Mania is a state of extreme elation and agitation. When people experience mania, they may become extremely talkative, behave recklessly, or attempt to take on many tasks simultaneously. The most recognized of these disorders is bipolar disorder.
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
are a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors.
Delusions
are beliefs that are contrary to reality and are firmly held even in the face of contradictory evidence. Many of us hold beliefs that some would consider odd, but a delusion is easily identified because it is clearly absurd. A person with schizophrenia may believe that his mother is plotting with the FBI to poison his coffee
anxiety disorders
are characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior Anxiety occurs without external justification and begins to affect a person's daily functioning 25-30% of the population most frequent mental disorder
Mood disorders
are characterized by severe disturbances in mood and emotions—most often depression, but also mania and elation (Rothschild, 1999). All of us experience fluctuations in our moods and emotional states, and often these fluctuations are caused by events in our lives.
Negative symptoms
are those that reflect noticeable decreases and absences in certain behaviors, emotions, or drives A person who exhibits diminished emotional expression shows no emotion in his facial expressions, speech, or movements, even when such expressions are normal or expected. Avolition is characterized by a lack of motivation to engage in self-initiated and meaningful activity, including the most basic of tasks, such as bathing and grooming. Alogia refers to reduced speech output; in simple terms, patients do not say much. Another negative symptom is asociality, or social withdrawal and lack of interest in engaging in social interactions with others. A final negative symptom, anhedonia, refers to an inability to experience pleasure. One who exhibits anhedonia expresses little interest in what most people consider to be pleasurable activities, such as hobbies, recreation, or sexual activity.
subtypes of depression
as specifiers—are not specific disorders; rather, they are labels used to indicate specific patterns of symptoms or to specify certain periods of time in which the symptoms may be present seasonal pattern, peripartum onset, persistent depressive disorder
supernatural perspective
attributed psychopathology to forces beyond scientific understanding
Vicarious Learning/Modeling
behaviors are learned by watching the outcomes of others' behaviors or by imagining the outcome of a potential behavior
HOARDING DISORDER
cannot bear to part with personal possessions, regardless of how valueless or useless these possessions are. As a result, these individuals accumulate excessive amounts of usually worthless items that clutter their living areas
Social anxiety disorder (formerly called social phobia)
characterized by extreme and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by others. As with specific phobias, social anxiety disorder is common in the United States; a little over 12% of all Americans experience social anxiety disorder during their lifetime
Wakefield
defined psychological disorder as a harmful dysfunction argued that natural internal mechanisms—that is, psychological processes honed by evolution, such as cognition,perception, and learning—have important functions, such as enabling us to experience the world the way others do and to engage in rational thought, problem solving, and communication.
dissociative fugue
disorder in which one travels away from home and is unable to remember details of his past, including often his identity. Most fugue episodes last only a few hours or days, but some can last longer.
Psychosocial Perspective
emphasizes importance of learning, stress, faulty and self-defeating thinking patterns, and environmental factors
personality disorders
exhibit a personality style that differs markedly from the expectations of their culture, is pervasive and inflexible, begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and causes distress or impairment
th persistent depressive disorder (previously known as dysthymia)
experience depressed moods most of the day nearly every day for at least two years, as well as at least two of the other symptoms of major depressive disorder. People with persistent depressive disorder are chronically sad and melancholy, but do not meet all the criteria for major depression. However, episodes of full-blown major depressive disorder can occur during persistent depressive disorder
OCD
experience thoughts and urges that are intrusive and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the need to engage in repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions). A person with this disorder might, for example, spend hours each day washing his hands or constantly checking and rechecking to make sure that a stove, faucet, or light has been turned off.
Autism Spectrum Disorder
extension of Kanner's work. Children with this disorder show signs of significant disturbances in three main areas: (a) deficits in social interaction, (b) deficits in communication, and (c) repetitive patterns of behavior or interests. These disturbances appear early in life and cause serious impairments in functioning
remember that psychological disorders represent
extremes of inner experience and behavior. It is important to remember that a psychological disorder is not what a person is; it is something that a person has
A number of factors have been identified that predict a greater likelihood that prodromal individuals will develop a psychotic disorder
genetic risk (a family history of psychosis), recent deterioration in functioning, high levels of unusual thought content, high levels of suspicion or paranoia, poor social functioning, and a history of substance abuse (Fusar-Poli et al., 2013). Further research will enable a more accurate prediction of those at greatest risk for developing schizophrenia, and thus to whom early intervention efforts should be directed.
brain and schizophrenia
have enlarged ventricles, the cavities within the brain that contain cerebral spinal fluid display a reduction in gray matter (cell bodies of neurons) in the frontal lobes, and many show less frontal lobe activity when performing cognitive tasks The frontal lobes are important in a variety of complex cognitive functions, such as planning and executing behavior, attention, speech, movement, and problem solving. Hence, abnormalities in this region provide merit in explaining why people with schizophrenia experience deficits in these of areas.
disorganized or abnormal motor behavior
highly unusual behaviors and movements (such as child-like behaviors), repeated and purposeless movements, and displaying odd facial expressions and gestures
diathesis-stress model
integrates biological and psychosocial factors to predict the likelihood of a disorder. This diathesis-stress model suggests that people with an underlying predisposition for a disorder (i.e., a diathesis) are more likely than others to develop a disorder when faced with adverse environmental or psychological events (i.e., stress), such as childhood maltreatment, negative life events, trauma, and so on. A diathesis is not always a biological vulnerability to an illness; some diatheses may be psychological (e.g., a tendency to think about life events in a pessimistic, self- defeating way).
A psychological disorder
is a condition characterized by abnormal thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Schizophrenia
is a devastating psychological disorder that is characterized by major disturbances in thought, perception, emotion, and behavior. About 1% of the population experiences schizophrenia in their lifetime, and usually the disorder is first diagnosed during early adulthood (early to mid-20s).
hallucination
is a perceptual experience that occurs in the absence of external stimulation. Auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) occur in roughly two-thirds of patients with schizophrenia and are by far the most common form of hallucination
MANIC EPISODE
is characterized as a "distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting at least one week," that lasts most of the time each day
borderline personality disorder
is characterized chiefly by instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and mood, as well as marked impulsivity cannot tolerate the thought of being alone and will make frantic efforts (including making suicidal gestures and engaging in self-mutilation) to avoid abandonment or separation (whether real or imagined). Their relationships are intense and unstable; for example, a lover may be idealized early in a relationship, but then later vilified at the slightest sign she appears to no longer show interest.
Major depressive disorder is considered episodic:
its symptoms are typically present at their full magnitude for a certain period of time and then gradually abate. Approximately 50%-60% of people who experience an episode of major depressive disorder will have a second episode at some point in the future; those who have had two episodes have a 70% chance of having a third episode, and those who have had three episodes have a 90% chance of having a fourth episode
results of major depressive disorder
lives a profoundly miserable existence that often results in unavailability for work or education, abandonment of promising careers, and lost wages; occasionally, the condition requires hospitalization. The majority of those with major depressive disorder report having faced some kind of discrimination, and many report that having received such treatment has stopped them from initiating close relationships
safety behaviors
mental or behavioral acts that reduce anxiety in social situations by reducing the chance of negative social outcomes. Safety behaviors include avoiding eye contact, rehearsing sentences before speaking, talking only briefly, and not talking about oneself
neurodevelopmental disorders
neurologically based disorders that are revealed in a clinically significant way during a child's developing years
bipolar disorder
often experiences mood states that vacillate between depression and mania; that is, the person's mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other (in contrast to unipolar, which indicates a persistently sad mood). To be diagnosed with bipolar disorder, a person must have experienced a manic episode at least once in his life; although major depressive episodes are common in bipolar disorder, they are not required for a diagnosis
Diagnostic hyperinflation
on the grounds that its diagnostic criteria have been loosened, For example, DSM-IV specified that the symptoms of major depressive disorder must not be attributable to normal bereavement (loss of a loved one). The DSM-5, however, has removed this bereavement exclusion, essentially meaning that grief and sadness after a loved one's death can constitute major depressive disorder.
Psychotic
or one in which the person's thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point where she is not able to function normally in life. In informal terms, one who suffers from a psychotic disorder (that is, has a psychosis) is disconnected from the world in which most of us live.
types of delusions
paranoid: mother plotting w/fbi grandiose: beliefs that one holds special power, unique knowledge, or is extremely important somatic:which is the belief that something highly abnormal is happening to one's body (e.g., that one's kidneys are being eaten by cockroaches).
hopelessness theory,
postulates that a particular style of negative thinking leads to a sense of hopelessness, which then leads to depression (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989). According to this theory, hopelessness is an expectation that unpleasant outcomes will occur or that desired outcomes will not occur, and there is nothing one can do to prevent such outcomes.
cause of autism
presently unknown --genes and gene mutations have been implicated in autism at least in part, because they contribute to new mutations. These factors include exposure to pollutants, such as plant emissions and mercury, urban versus rural residence, and vitamin D deficiency
Rachman
proposed that phobias can be acquired through three major learning pathways. 1. Classical conditioning 2.vicarious learning or modeling 3. verbal transmission or information
Disorganized thinking
refers to disjointed and incoherent thought processes—usually detected by what a person says. The person might ramble, exhibit loose associations (jump from topic to topic), or talk in a way that is so disorganized and incomprehensible that it seems as though the person is randomly combining words.
People with ADHD
show less dopamine activity in key regions of the brain, especially those associated with motivation and reward (Volkow et al., 2009), which provides support to the theory that dopamine deficits may be a vital factor in the development this disorder family environment does not seem to play much of a role in the development of this disorder
To receive a diagnosis of major depressive disorder, one must experience a total of five symptoms for at least a two-week period; these symptoms must cause significant distress or impair normal functioning, and they must not be caused by substances or a medical condition.
significant weight loss (when not dieting) or weight gain and/or significant decrease or increase in appetite; difficulty falling asleep or sleeping too much; psychomotor agitation (the person is noticeably fidgety and jittery, demonstrated by behaviors like the inability to sit, pacing, hand-wringing, pulling or rubbing of the skin, clothing, or other objects) or psychomotor retardation (the person talks and moves slowly, for example, talking softly, very little, or in a monotone); fatigue or loss of energy; feelings of worthlessness or guilt; difficulty concentrating and indecisiveness; suicidal ideation: thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), thinking about or planning suicide, or making an actual suicide attempt.
Bettelheim
suggested that a mother's ambivalent attitudes and her frozen and rigid emotions toward her child were the main causal factors in childhood autism. In what must certainly stand as one of the more controversial assertions in psychology over the last 50 years, he wrote, "I state my belief that the precipitating factor in infantile autism is the parent's wish that his child should not exist" As you might imagine, Bettelheim did not endear himself to a lot of people with this position; incidentally, no scientific evidence exists supporting his claims.
Cognitive Theories of Depression
take the view that depression is triggered by negative thoughts, interpretations, self-evaluations, and expectations These diathesis-stress models propose that depression is triggered by a "cognitive vulnerability"
Comorbidity
the co-occurrence of two or more disorders in a single individual
Biological Perspective
the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology on behavior. A person's risk of developing schizophrenia increases if a relative has schizophrenia. The closer the genetic relationship, the higher the risk The biological perspective is currently thriving in the study of psychological disorders.
Rumination
the repetitive and passive focus on the fact that one is depressed and dwelling on depressed symptoms, rather that distracting one's self from the symptoms or attempting to address them in an active, problem- solving manner When people ruminate, they have thoughts such as "Why am I so unmotivated? I just can't get going. I'm never going to get my work done feeling this way". Women are more likely than men to ruminate when they are sad or depressed and the tendency to ruminate is associated with increases in depression symptoms heightened risk of major depressive episodes and chronicity of such episodes
Psychopathology
the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (i.e., their causes), and treatment. The term psychopathology can also refer to the manifestation of a psychological disorder. Although consensus can be difficult, it is extremely important for mental health professionals to agree on what kinds of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are truly abnormal in the sense that they genuinely indicate the presence of psychopathology.
Beck
theorized that depression-prone people possess depressive schemas, or mental predispositions to think about most things in a negative way. Depressive schemas contain themes of loss, failure, rejection, worthlessness, and inadequacy, and may develop early in childhood in response to adverse experiences, then remain dormant until they are activated by stressful or negative life events
RISK FACTORS FOR PTSD
trauma experience, greater trauma severity, lack of immediate social support, and more subsequent life stress
dissociative amnesia
unable to recall important personal information, usually following an extremely stressful or traumatic experience such as combat, natural disasters, or being the victim of violence. The memory impairments are not caused by ordinary forgetting