Psychology 101 chapter 4 consciousness

There are four key steps in inducing hypnosis (Druckman & Bjork, 1994):

1. The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is being said. 2. The person is told to relax and feel tired. 3. The hypnotist tells the person to "let go" and accept suggestions easily. 4. The person is told to use vivid imagination.

R (R&K REM)

90% of dreams actually take place in this sleep. R.E.M. dreams tend to be more vivid, more detailed, longer, and more bizarre than the dreams of NREM sleep

Barbiturates (major tranquilizers)

A category of depressant drugs that reduce anxiety and produce sleepiness.

Narcolepsy

A disorder affecting one in every 2000 persons, is a kind of sleep seizure. The person may slip suddenly into REM sleep during the day. Another symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness that results in the person falling asleep throughout the day at inappropriate times and in inappropriate places.

continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP)

A method of ventilation used primarily in the treatment of critically ill patients with respiratory distress; can prevent the need for endotracheal intubation.

Seratonin

A neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal; linked to depression and treated by Prozac. (Blocks reuptake of seratonin, activating more seratonin in neural pathways, therefore elevating mood.)

Hallucinogens

Actually causes the brain to alter its interpretation of sensations and can produce sensory distortions very similar to synesthesia, in which sensations cross over each other-colors have sound, sounds have smells, and so on. False sensory perceptions, called hallucinations, are often experienced, especially with the more power for hallucinogens.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Alcohol indirectly stimulates the release of a neurotransmitter called

Narcotics

Are a type of depressant that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating the nervous system's natural receptor sites for endorphins, the neurotransmitters that naturally deaden pain sensations.

infants brain nears it's adult size

As the_______________________, by age 5 or six, the proportion of REM sleep has also decreased to a more adult like ratio of REM to non-REM. For infants, to sleep is per chance to grow synapses.

psychoactive drugs

Chemical substances that affect the nervous system and result in altered consciousness (alter thinking, perception, memory, or combination of each).

suprachiasmatic nucleus

Controls body temperature

N3: Delta Waves Roll In

Deepest state of sleep (slow-wave). If a weekend this person may be very confused and disoriented at first

Alcohol

Depressant

Circadian rhythm disorders

Disturbances of the sleep end wake cycle such as jet lag and shift work

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Hallucinogens

Drugs that alter moods, thoughts, and sense perceptions including vision, hearing, smell, and touch

dopamine, mesolimbic pathway

Drugs that can lead to dependence cause the release of________________ in a part of the brain called the _____________________, a neural track that begins in the midbrain area (just above the pons) and connects to limbic system structures, including the Amygdala and the hippocampus, and continues to the middle of the prefrontal cortex.

theta waves

Even slower and larger brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep

Hypersomnia

Excessive daytime sleepiness

night terrors

Extreme fear, agitation, screaming while asleep

There are many forms of altered states of consciousness.

For example, daydreaming, being hypnotized, or achieving a meditative state are usually considered to be altered states.

latent

Freud would no doubt find more meaning in Chad's dream about climbing out of the bathtub, than is at first evident. He believed that the true meaning of a dream was hidden, or_______________, and only expressed in symbols.

activation-synthesis hypothesis

Hobson and colleagues have reworked the _______________________________ to reflect concerns about dream meaning, calling it the activation-information-mode model, or AIM

How does hypnosis affect consciousness?

Hypnosis is a state of consciousness in which a person is espe- cially susceptible to suggestion. • The hypnotist will tell the person to relax and feel tired, to focus on what is being said, to let go of inhibitions and accept suggestions, and to use vivid imagination. Hypnosis cannot give increased strength, reliably enhance memory, or regress people to an earlier age or an earlier life, but it can produce amnesia, reduce pain, and alter sensory impressions. Hilgard believed that a person under hypnosis is in a state of dissociation, in which one part of consciousness is hypnotized and susceptible to suggestion, while another part is aware of everything that occurs. • Other theorists believe that the hypnotized subject is merely playing a social role-that of the hypnotized person. This is called the social-cognitive theory hypnosis.

N1: Light Sleep

If people are awakened at this point, they will probably not believe that they were actually asleep May experience: Hypnagogic images: hallucinations or vivid visual events Hypnic jerk: knees, legs, or whole body jerks

activation-information-mode model

In this newer version, information that is accessed during waking hours can have an influence on the synthesis of dreams. In other words, when the brain is "making up" a dream to explain its own activation, it uses meaningful bits and pieces of the person's experiences from the previous day or the last few days rather than just random items from memory.

activation-synthesis hypothesis

In this theory, called the_________________________, a dream is merely another kind of thinking that occurs when people sleep. It is less realistic because it comes not from the outside world of reality but from within people's memories and experiences of the past.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

REM sleep

Is a relatively psychologically active type of sleep when most of a persons dreaming takes place, or as non-REM sleep spans from lighter stages to a much deeper, more restful kind of sleep

brain plasticity

Is enhanced by sleep. As discussed earlier ________________ is enhanced by sleep,and there is evidence that most bodily growth and repair occur during the deepest stages of sleep, when enzymes responsible for these functions are secreted in higher amounts

LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)

Is synthesized from a grain fungus called ergot. Ergot fungus commonly grows on rye grain but can be found on other grains as well. LSD is one of the most potent or powerful hallucinogens. It takes only a very tiny drop of LSD to achieve a high

Opium

It's made from the opium poppy, has pain - relieving and euphoria inducing properties that I've been known for at least 2000 years. Highly addictive, it mimics the effects of endorphins, the nervous system's natural painkillers. The nervous system slows or stops it's production of endorphins. When the drug wears off there is no protection against any kind of pain causing the severe symptoms of withdrawal as associated with these drugs.

light sleep (stage N1 sleep)

Marked by small, irregular brain waves and some alpha waves

methadone, buprenorphine, naltrexone

Maybe used to control withdrawal symptoms and help treat opiate addiction's.

The average amount of sleep needed

Most adults is about 7 to 9 hours With in each 24 hour.

Insomnia

Most people think that this is the inability to sleep. Although that is the literal meaning of the term, in reality it is the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep.

Differences between night terrors and nightmares

Nightmares are usually vividly remembered immediately upon waking. A person who has had a nightmare, I'm like a person experiencing a night terror, well actually be able to awaken and immediately talk about the bad dream. Perhaps the most telling difference is that nightmares occur during REM sleep rather than deep non-- REM sleep, which is the domain of night terrors, which means that people don't move around in a nightmare as they do in a night-terror experience

sleepwalking or somnambulism

Occurs in about 20% of the population and is at least partially due to heredity.

There are two views of why hypnosis works:

One emphasizes the role of dissociation, or a splitting of conscious awareness, whereas the other involves a kind of social role-playing.

biological rhythms,

One reason for this fact is that sleep is one of the human body's ________________ natural cycles of activity that the body must go through.

REM (rapid eye movement) sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Somnambulism (sleepwalking)

Sitting, walking, or performing complex behavior while asleep

circadian rhythm

Sleep is a ______________, lasting 24 hours, and as a product of the activity of the hypothalamus, the hormone melatonin, their neurotransmitter serotonin, and body temperature.

Why do people need to sleep, and how does sleep work?

Sleep is a circadian rhythm, lasting 24 hours, and is a product of the activity of the hypothalamus, the hormone melatonin, the neurotransmitter serotonin, and body temperature. • Adaptive theory states that sleep evolved as a way to conserve energy and keep animals safe from predators that hunt at night. • Restorative theory states that sleep provides the body with an opportunity to restore chemicals that have been depleted dur- ing the day as well as the growth and repair of cell tissue. • The average amount of sleep needed by most adults is about 7 to 9 hours within each 24-hour period.

increased alertness

Sometimes being in an altered state may mean being in a state of __________________ as when under the influence of a stimulant.

R (R&K REM)

Stage where body moves from N3 down to N2 stage and then into a stage where body temperature increases, rapid eye movement happens, brain waves resemble beta waves. "Paradoxical Sleep"

Adaptive theory states

That sleep involved as a way to conserve energy and keep animals safe from predators that hunt at night

Restorative theory states

That sleep provides the body with an opportunity to restore chemicals that have been depleted during the day as well as the growth and repair of cell tissue

frontal lobes

The _____________________, which people normally use in daytime thinking, are more or less shut down during dreaming, which may also account for the unrealistic and often bizarre nature of dreams

hypnosis, hypnotized, hypnotic

The real key to________________ seems to be a heightened state of suggestibility.* People can be hypnotized when active and alert, but only if they are willing to be hypnotized. Only 80 percent of all people can be_________________, and only 40 percent are good________________ subjects.

circadian rhythm.

The sleep-wake cycle is a

brain

The sleep-wake cycle is ultimately controlled by the___________, specifically by an area within the hypothalamus, tiny section of the brain that in- fluences the glandular system.

disassociation and social cognitive theory

The two theories of the effects of Hipnosis are

manifest content

The___________________ of a dream is the actual dream itself.

social-cognitive theory of hypnosis

The_______________________ assumes that people who are hypnotized are not in an altered state but are merely playing the role expected of them in the situation.

Hobson and McCarley

There are dream experts who suggest that dreams may have more meaning than ____________________________ originally theorized. A survey questioning subjects about their dream content, for example, concluded that much of the content of dreams is meaning- ful, consistent over time, and fits in with past or present emotional concerns rather than being bizarre, meaningless, and random.

There are two basic types of hallucinogens

Those that are created in a laboratory and those that are from natural sources

enuresis

Urinating while asleep in bed

PET scan, pons, cortex

Using brain-imaging techniques such as a _______________ researchers have found evidence that dreams are products of activity in the _____________. This lower area inhibits the neurotransmitters that would allow movement of the voluntary muscles while sending random signals to the areas of the ____________________ that interpret vision, hearing, and so on

REM behavior disorder who it affects

Usually seen in men over age 60, it can happen in younger men and in women.

How can the workings of our consciousness explain "supernatural" visitations?

Vivid, realistic hallucinations that occur in N1 (NREM Stage 1) sleep are called hypnogogic hallucinations and are often misin- terpreted as ghosts or other supernatural visitations. • Similar hallucinations that occur when awakening from REM sleep are called hypnopompic hallucinations.

Morphine

Was created by dissolving opium in an acid and then neutralizing the acid with ammonia. Morphine was thought to be a wonder drug, although it's addictive qualities soon became a major concern to positions and their patients. Morphine is still used today to control severe pain but in carefully controlled doses and for very short periods of time

Heroin

Was first hailed as the new wonder drug —a derivative of morphine that did not have many of the disagreeable side effects of morphine. The theory was that heroin was a pure form of the drug, and that the impurities and morphine were the substances creating the harmful side effects. It did not take long, however, for doctors and others to realize that heroin was even more powerfully addictive than morphine or opium. Although usage as a medicine ceased, it is still used by many people.

pons, cortex

When signals from the_________ bombard*** the cortex during waking consciousness, the association areas of the cortex interpret those signals as seeing, hearing, and so on. But when people are asleep, the signals from the brain stem are random and not necessarily attached to actual external stimuli, but the brain must somehow interpret these random signals. It synthesizes, puts together, an explanation of the_______________ is activation for memories and other stored information.

Cognitive - behavioral interventions

Work to change the way people think about the stresses in their lives and react to those stressors, working toward more effective coping without resorting to drugs.

Children

_________________ tend to have more nightmares than adults do because they spend more of their sleep in the REM state, as they age, they have fewer nightmares because they have less opportunity to have them. But some people still suffer from nightmares as adults.

Girls and women

_____________________________ tend to dream about people they know, personal appearance con- cerns, and issues related to family and home.

Boys and men

_____________________________ tend to have more male char- acters in their dreams, which are also typically in outdoor or unfamiliar settings and may involve weapons, tools, cars, and roads. Men also report more sexual dreams, usually with unknown and attractive partners

restless leg syndrome (RLS)

a condition in which patients are unable to lie still and report experiencing unpleasant creeping, crawling, or tingling sensations in the legs

Marijuana

a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive

Caffeine

a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that responds to light-sensitive retinal proteins; causes pineal gland to increase or decrease production of melatonin, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

REM behavior disorder (RBD)

a rare disorder in which the mechanism that blocks the movement of the voluntary muscles fails, allowing the person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing (10 secs or more) during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

contingency management therapy

a therapeutic approach used in the treatment of drug addiction that works to reduce the use of drugs through a highly structured reinforcement and punishment program

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Alcohol depresses a persons:

ability to follow their natural inhibitions (the don'ts in behavior).

night terrors (sleep terrors)

abrupt awakening with panic and intense emotional arousal That typically happen to children and also likely to disappear as the child grows older

sleep deprivation

any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability

REM sleep in Early infancy differs from adult REM sleep in several ways:

baby spend nearly 50% of their sleep in REM as compared to adults 20%, the brainwave patterns on EEG recordings are not exactly the same in infant R.E.M. when compared to adult REM recording's, and infants can and do move around quite a bit during REM sleep

Nightmares

bad dreams occurring during REM sleep

Microsleeps

brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds

Rophypnol

causes profound, prolonged sedation and short term memory loss; also known as the date rape drug, roofies, Mexican Valium, or the "forget (me) pill."

physical dependence

condition occurring when a person's body becomes unable to function normally without a particular drug

MDMA (Ecstasy or X)

designer drugs that can have both stimulant and hallucinatory effects

hypnogogic hallucinations

dream-like auditory or visual experiences while dozing or falling asleep

Depressants

drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system

Benzodiazepines (minor tranquilizers)

drugs that lower anxiety and reduce stress; Valiam, Xanax, etc.

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing sped-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Hypnopompic hallucinations

hallucinations that occur when awakening from sleep; seen in narcolepsy

waking consciousness

in which their thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear and organized, and they feel alert.

REM rebound

increased amounts of REM sleep after being deprived of REM sleep on earlier nights

Electroencephalograph

instrument used to record the electrical impulses of the brain As a person passes through the various stages of sleep and to determine what type of sleep the person has entered

Reasons for insomnia

is both psychological and physiological. Some of the psychological causes her worrying, trying to hard to sleep, or having anxiety. Some of the physiological causes are too much caffeine, indigestion, or aches and pain

Consciousness

is your awareness of everything that is going on around you and inside your own head at any given moment, which you use to organize your behavior including your thoughts, sensations, and feelings.

NREM dreams are

less frequent than REM, not holistic and are fairly routine

Cataplexy (narcolepsy)

loss of muscle tone while awake

sleepwalking or somnambulism

occurring during deep sleep, an episode of moving around or walking around in one's sleep

altered state of consciousness

occurs when there is a shift in the quality or pattern of your mental activity.

nocturnal leg cramps

painful cramps in calf or foot muscles during sleep

melatonin (pineal gland)

regulates sleep/wake cycles

beta waves

smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity (awake)

sleep paralysis

state of being unable to move just after falling asleep or right before waking up

PCP (phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine)

synthesized drug now used as an animal tranquilizer that can cause stimulant, depressant, narcotic, or hallucinogenic effects. Users may even physically harm themselves unintentionally because PCP causes them to feel no warning signal of pain

negative reinforcement

the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

drug tolerance

the tendency for larger doses of a drug to be required over time to achieve the same effect

The adaptive theory of sleep

theory of sleep proposing that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when predators are most active

The restorative theory of sleep

theory of sleep proposing that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage

N2: Sleep Spindles

this is the first signs of sleeping which include body temperature dropping, heart rate slowing, and shallow irregular breathing with brief burst of activity that only last a second or two. If people are a weekend during the stage, they will be aware of having been asleep

What is the difference between a physical dependence and a psychological dependence on a drug?

• Caffeine is the most commonly used stimulant, found in coffee, tea, chocolate, and many sodas. • Barbiturates, also known as major tranquilizers, have a sedative effect and are used as sleeping pills. • The minor tranquilizers are benzodiazepines such as Valium or Xanax. • Alcohol is the most commonly used and abused depressant. • Alcohol can interact with other depressants. • Excessive use of alcohol can lead to alcoholism, health prob- lems, loss of control, and death. • Narcotics are pain-relieving drugs of the depressant class that are derived from the opium poppy. Opium is the earliest form of this drug and is highly addic- tive because it directly stimulates receptor sites for endorphins. This causes natural production of endorphins to decrease. Morphine is a more refined version of opium but is highly addictive. • Heroin was believed to be a purer form of morphine and, there- fore, less addictive but in fact is even more powerfully addictive. Methadone has the ability to control the symptoms of heroin or morphine withdrawal without the euphoria, or "high," >> of heroin or morphine.

What does it mean to be conscious, and are there differ- ent levels of consciousness?

• Consciousness is a person's awareness of everything that is going on at any given moment. Most waking hours are spent in waking consciousness. • Altered states of consciousness are shifts in the quality or pat- tern of mental activity.

What is the difference between a physical dependence and a psychological dependence on a drug?

• Drugs that are physically addictive cause the user's body to crave the drug. When deprived of the drug, the user will go through physical withdrawal. Drug tolerance occurs as the user's body becomes conditioned to the level of the drug. After a time, the user must take more and more of the drug to get the same effect. In psychological dependence, the user believes that he or she needs the drug to function well and maintain a sense of well- being. Any drug can produce psychological dependence.

Why do people dream, and what do they dream about?

• Manifest content of a dream is the actual dream and its events. Latent content of a dream is the symbolic content, according to Freud. Without outside sensory information to explain the activation of the brain cells in the cortex by the pons area, the association areas of the cortex synthesize a story, or dream, to explain that activation in the activation-synthesis hypothesis. • A revision of activation-synthesis theory, the activation-in formation-mode model (AIM), states that information ex perienced during waking hours can influence the synthesis of dreams.

What are the different stages of sleep, including the stage of dreaming and its importance?

• N1 (NREM Stage 1) sleep is light sleep. • N2 (NREM Stage 2) sleep is indicated by the presence of sleep spindles, bursts of activity on the EEG. • N3 (NREM Stages 3 and 4) is highlighted by the first appear- ance of delta waves, the slowest and largest waves, and the body is at its lowest level of functioning. • REM sleep occurs four or five times a night, replacing N1 after a full cycle through N1-N3 and then ascending back to lighter stages of sleep.

How do sleep disorders interfere with normal sleep?

• Sleepwalking and sleeptalking occur in N3 sleep. Night terrors are attacks of extreme fear that the victim be Voluntary muscles are paralyzed during REM sleep. while sound asleep. Nightmares are bad or unpleasant dreams that occur durine REM sleep. • REM behavior disorder is a rare condition in which sleep pa- ralysis fails and the person moves violently while dreaming, of- ten acting out the elements of the dream. • Insomnia is an inability to get to sleep, asleep, enough sleep. Sleep apnea occurs when a person stops breathing for 10 sec- onds or more. Narcolepsy is a genetic disorder in which the person suddenly and without warning collapses into REM sleep.

How do stimulants and depressants affect consciousness and what are the dangers associated with taking them, par- ticularly alcohol?

• Stimulants are drugs that increase the activity of the nervous sys- tem, particularly the sympathetic division and the central ner- vous system. Amphetamines synthetic drugs such as Benzedrine or Dex- edrine. They help people stay awake and reduce appetite but are highly physically addictive. Cocaine is highly addictive and can cause convulsions and death in some first-time users. Nicotine is a mild stimulant and is very physically addictive.