Psychology 1101
Illusions
Errors of perception, memory, or judgement in which subjective experience differs from objective reality. Flashed Light experience
Perceptual Constancy
Even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistant
Galileo Galile
Excommunicated for different beliefs about solar systems. Ancient Greeks - 2 types of doctors. Dogmatist and empiricist
Diagnositc and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorers (DSM)
1952 reised in 1968. Tried to have a common language for talking about disorders but still vague and based on assumptions. Current model DSM-IV-TR:is a classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each reconized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems. Disorders listed in 14.1.1. Three elements that must be present to qualify asa potential mental disorder. Diagnosis include global assessment of functioning. Severre lower numbers functioning higher numbers. Suggest that each category of psychological disorder is likely to habe a common prognosis.. This is usually an oversimplification and rarely useful to focus on a single cause. a disorder is manifested in symptoms that involve distrubances I behavior, thoughts, or emotions the symptoms are associated with significant personal distress or impairment the symptoms stem from an internal dysfunction (biological, psychological, or both)
Five Stages of Sleep:
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th
Area A1
A portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex
Structuralist
Analyze mind by breaking down into basic components
Ventral Stream
Below. Occipital lobe→ lower temporal lobes effects shape & identity WHAT AN OBJECT IS
Ulric Neisser
Cognitive psychology book
4th stage of sleep
Deepest sleep, slow wave sleep
3rd stage of sleep
Deepest sleep, slow wave sleep: Deprivation causes fatigued, feeling tired, hypersensitivity to muscel and bone pain
Freud
Histeria traced back to painful childhood memories that one could not remember. Power of these lost memories due to unconscious mind
Long-term memory
Holds information for hours, days, weeks, or years. No known capacity limits. Francis Magnani painter had dreams about Pontito and painted strikingly realistic images to the real deal. Assoicated with the hippocampal which links together the bits and poieces to form long term memory also trouble making new memories.. * Anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, consolidation, reconsolidation
Rehearsal
Process of keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it. Short term memory is limited in how long it can hold info and also limited in how much info it can hold
Visual Streams (2)
Project from occipital cortex to visual areas in brain
Freud
Proposed that dreams represent wishes and some of those wishes are unacceptable so by your mind having anxiety about thinking of those taboos, they come out in disguised form.
Flourens
Removed parts of brain. They acted different
Purity
Saturation or richness of color → # of distinct wqvelengths
John Watson
Science required replicable, objective measurements of phenomena that were accessible to all observers --> study of behavior
Edgar Rubin (1886-1951):
Silluette Candle vase drawing → reversible figure ground relationship
Edward Titchener
Structuralist that failed when trying to use introspection to measure perception
Wilhelm Wundt
Structuralist that failed when trying to use introspection to measure perception Believed introspection was the best method od research.
Piaget
Studied children's perceptual and cognitive errors. Mass of object clay experiment
Physiology
Study of biological processes especially in human body.
Donald Boradbent
Study result of people trying to pay attention to multiple things at once. Pilots attention capacity.
Encoding Task 3 of them
Survival, moving, and pleasantness
Transience:
Tendency to change. Our conscious lows like a stream
Visual Activity
The ability to see fine detail vision meant to transduce visual imagery into neural signals
Selectivity
The capacity to include some objects but not others. Dichotic Listening: people wearing headphones are present with different messages in each ear. Tuning out or filtering out one ear. Cocktail phenomenon: people tune in one message while they filter out others nearby
Bipolar disorder:
an unstable emotional condition characterized by cycles of abnormal persistent high mood and low mood. Highest rate of heritability. 40-70 for identical twins and 10 for fraternal . Gene is polygenic arising from the interaction of multiple gens. Lithium helps stablellize
Freud
believed basic personality is formed before age 6 during a series of sensitive period or life stages called psychosexual stages
Gottfried Leibniz
believed intelligence was nurture and nature and that its not only experience but also a lot of inherited traits.
Functionalism
The study of the purpose mental processes serve in enabling people to adapt to their environments
Dream consciousness rather than awaking state 5stages
We intensily feel emotion Dream though is illogical Sensation is fully formed and meaningful Dreaming occurs with uncritical acceptance We have difficulty remembering the dream after it has occurred
Amplitude
What we perceive as brightness → how high the peaks are
Variable Interval Schedule
a behavior is reinforced based on an average time that hasexpiredsince last reinforcement. Typically produce strong steady consistant responding. Be/c time less predictable. Ex) radio show giveaway. Produce slow methodical responding b/c reinforcements follow a time scale tha is independent of how many responses occur (no matter how many time rat pushes bar 1 pellot will only come out every 2 min
Successive Aprroximation
a behavior that gets incrementally closer to the overall desired behavior
Grossly Disorganied Behavior
a behavior that is in appropriate for the situation or ineffective in attaining goals, often with specific motor disturbances. Catatonic behavioral
Narcissism
a grandoise view of the self combined with a tendency to seek adiration from and exploit other. Think name letter effect: liking A because it is the first letter of my name.
Timbre
a listeners experience of sound quality or resonance. Corresponds to differences in complexity of sound waves (mix of frequencies)
Catatonic Behavior
a marked decrease in all movement or an increase in muscular rigidity and overreactivity.
Fixation
a person's pleasure seeking drives become stuck or arrested at that psychosexual stage. Resulting from a person being deprived or overindulged at a given stage.
Consciousness
a person's subjective experience of the world and the mind
Behavioral inhibition system
a stop system inhibits behavior in response to stimuli signaling punishment. Emotionally unstable has a highly reactive BIS system, wil be negative, and on the lookout for stop signs
Conditioned Stimulus (CS):
a stimulus that is initially neutral and produces no reliable response in an organism → associating the buzzer or fork with food producing salivation
Agency
ability for self control, planning memory, or thought
Experience
abilty to feel pain pleasure, hunger, consciousness, anger, fear
Night Terrors
abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal. NREM sleep. 2-7 yr old boys most common
Working memory
active maintanence of information in short term storage. Frontal lobe. Manipulating visual and auditory information. If low on working memory you do worse learning new info and doing well in class
Alcohol Myopia
alcohol hampers attention, leading people to respond in simple ways to complex situations. People will go to one extreme or the other. People will do what they have been internally supressing.
Behavioral activation system (BAS
essentially the go system, anticipation of reward. Extrovert has a high BAS and will actively engage in the the environment seeking social reinforcement
Evolutionary Psychology
explains mind and behavior in terms of the adaptive value of abilities that are preserved over time by natural selection.
Retrieval Cues
external information that is associated with stored info and helps bring it to mind. Info is sometimes available in memory even when temporariky inaccessable
Overjustification Effect
external rewards undermine the intrinsic satificationof performing a behavior. Less creativity produced when being paid for it.
Mihaly Csikszentmihhalyi
found that engagement in tasks that exactly match one's abilities creates a mental state of energized focus that he caled flow
Robert Stickgold
found that people learning a difficult perceptual task are kept up al night after they finished practicing the task, their learning of the task is wiped out. Memory wont stick without sleep
Clark and Squire (98)
fount that only aware participants showed trace conditioning whereas aware and unaware participants showed delay conditioning
Short-term memory
holds nonsensory information for more than a few seconds but less than a minute. * Rehearsal, chunking, working memory
Sensory memory
holds sensory information for a few seconds or less. Can remember particular rows but not random numbers
Ventricles
hollow areas filled with cerebrospinal fluid lying deep withi n the core of the brain. Were enlarged brain, brain loss, schizophrenia but not necessarily a cause. MRI scans. Brain loss.
Theory
hypothetical explanation of a natural phenomenon
Titchener
identified the basic elements of consciousness
Jeffrey Gray
introversion vs extroversion come from two traits: behavioral activation system (BAS): essentially the go system, anticipation of reward. Extrovert has a high BAS and will actively engage in the the environment seeking social reinforcement behavioral inhibition system: a stop system inhibits behavior in response to stimuli signaling punishment. Emotionally unstable has a highly reactive BIS system, wil be negative, and on the lookout for stop signs fMRI and EEG show differencces and these two things are individual
Amygdala
involved in responses to threatning or stressful events. Active during dreaming areas in brain for visual perception are not active but visual association is active. Brain prevents moving during dreaming and planning
Ironic Processes of Mental Control
ironic errors occur because the mental process that monitors errors can itself produce them
Social Phobias
irrational fear of being publicly humilated or embarrassed. Higher rates: women, undereducated, low income or both.
The humanistic-existential approach
integrates these insights with a focus on how a personality can become optimal.
Property
intelligence
Sir Frances Galton
intelligence is inherited
Skinner Behavioral Explanation
learn language thorugh reinforcement shaping extinction and other basic principles of operant conditioning. Explains simple account of language development but does not account for the following: parents dont spend that much time on grammer rather more on the validity of the statement children speak more grammatical sentences than they hear, therefore it has to do with them learning rules rather than just immitation like the behavior theory states. The whole concept of overgenralization
Blind Spot
location in visual field that produces no sensation on retina
C fibers
longer lasting dull pain
Data-based approach
look at people's responses on intelligence tests and then to see what kinds of independent clusters these responses form. Star with data and go where leads. Physical coordination, adademic skill, John Carroll, Fluid Intelligence, crystalized intelligence
France
made primary school available to every sopcial class b/c of this they brought in alfred Benet and Theodore Simon to developw tests that would determine which children were behind. These tests included logic problems, word memory, copying pics, distinguishing inedible/edible foods, making rymes, and answering questions. Measured childrens aptitude for learning rather than their educational achievment
Expected utility
make decisions that maximize value
Representativeness heuristic
making a probability judgement by comparing an object or evnt to a prototype of the object or event. EX) choosing the lawyer/engineer based on descriptions and not probability
Levin and Simons (97)
man in movie experiement and college campus exp
Memories, Nuerons, synapses
memories are in the spaces between neurons, the more you connect with a specific neuron the more communication will flow easily between two neurons.
Reconsolidation
memories can again become vulnerable to disruption when they are recalled, thus requiring them to be consolidated again.
Psychophysics
methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observers sensitivity to that stmulus --> bright flashing lights experients
Bipoloar layer
middle layer of retina collect neural signals from rods and cones and transimits them to retina outer layer
Rene Descartes
mind and body are different. Pineal gland study *Brain activity comes before physcial activity
Gall
mind/ body linked but by size not by glands. Phrenology
Absolute threshold
minimum intensity needed to just barely detect stimulus --> simplest quantitative measure in psychophysics. Threshold = boundary. Assesses how sensitive we are to faint stimulus.
Double Depression
moderately depressed mood that persist for at least 2 years andis punctuated by periods of major depression
Perceptual Sensitivity
now effectively the perceptual system, represents sensory events. Driving while talking 4X more likely accident.
Eyes -Muscels change shape
of lense to focus objects at different distances
Psychoanalysis
bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness. Great impact on clinicals. Freud's theories were considered less important as time went on b/c they were untestable and focused on dark past rather than bright future
Theory-based approach
broad survey of human abilities and then looking to see which of these abilities intelligence tests measure or fail to measure. Robert Sternberg, Howard Gardner
Phobic Disorders
characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations. Recognizes its irrationality but cant prevent it.
Psychoactive drugs
chemicals that influence consciouness or behavior by altering the brains chemical message system. Drugs alter the neural connections by preventing bonding of neurotransmitters to sites in the postsynaptic neuron of by inhibing the reuptake
Outer ear
collects sound waves and funnels them toward middle ear: visual, auditory canal, eardrum
Sir Isaac Newton (1670)
color is perception of wavellengths (wl)
Chunking
combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks
Blinding Problem
concerns how features are linked together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free floating or miscombines features
Telegraphic speech
devoid of function morphemes and consist mostly on content words. 24 mo EX) throw ball or more milk
Psychosexual Stages
distinct early life stages through which personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those pleasures.
Intelligence test
do in fact measure intelligence the higher the scores the more likely you get better grades, jobs, higher level education, money, health and longevity. Correlations: score and academic performance: r=.5, score and later occupational status r=.4, score and job performance r=.53, job interview r=.14, education r=.10. 10.1.3
Perception
organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation (brain). Sensation sees light and lines, perception transforms into words/meanings
Texture Gradient
patterned surface grows smaller as recedes
2nd stage of sleep
patterns interrupted by short bursts of activity called sleep spindles and k complexes and sleep becomes difficult to awaken
Experience Sampling Technique
people are asked to report their conscious experiences at a particular time. Consciousness is dominated by immediate environment
Preparedness Theory:
people are instinctively predisposed towards certain fears. Proposed by Martin E P Seligman. Phobias can run in the family greater for identical twins. Abnormalties in NT serotonin and dopamine are more common to have phobias. Those with phobias tend to have high activity in the amygdala-an area of the brain linked with the development of emotional associations. John Watson- conditioned phobias.
Apparent Motion
perception of movement resulting in alternating signals appearing in rapid sucession in different locations
Gordon Allport
personality is a combination of traits. First trait theorist, person can be described in terms of traits. Traits as characterisitcs of the brain that influence the way people respond to their environment.
Psychodynamic Approach
personality is formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness-motives that can produce emotional disorders.
Elaborative Encoding
process of actively relating new info to knowledge that is already in memory. Enhances long term memory. Increased activity in lower left part of the frontal lobe and the inner part of the left temporal lobe. More acivity in these areas, the more people will remember things
Kelly
proposed that different personal constructs are the key to personality differences
Frequency
provides most of the info we need to identify sounds
Ill-defined problem
one that does not have a clear goal or well defined solution path. Ex) study block problem. Problem and solution arent clear
well-defined problem
one with clearly specified goals and clearly defined solution paths. EX) following a clear set or directions.
Hair cells
specialixed auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar mem
MT
specialized for visual perception of motion (stationary)
Relative Intelligence
stable over time. Test given over years show that most of the time the smartest kid at 11 will be the smartest 80 yr old
Functionalism vs Structuralism
structuralism- examined the structures of mental processes. Funct- set out to understand the functions those mental processes serves
Stimulants
substances that excite the central nervous system, heightening arousal and activity levels. Caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, cocain, modafinil, ecstasy.
Behaviorism
suggested to eliminate subjective study of consciousness
Self Relevance
talks about noticing traits in yourself and them sticking to memory more and thinking of them with other people. Simple activity of making judgements about the trait self concept is accompanied by activation of the medial prefrontal cortex-a brain area involved in understanding people. Memory is strengthened when the MPFC is activated during self judgements
Academic careers
teaching and research
Hartshorne and May
tested children on honesty
Albert Bandura
tested the parameters of observational learning. Aggression towards Bobo doll in preschool
Behaviorism:
psychologist should restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior. Ignored mental processes and evolutionary history. Away from behavioralism: mental processes, interest in brain, evolutionary history
Fixed Interval Schedule:
reinforcers are presented at fixed time periods, provided that the appropriate response is made. Ex) do little studying or work until right before an exam and do a bunch
Hepatic Perception
results from our active exploration of the environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands
Encoding Specificity Principle
retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps re-create the specific way in which info was initailly encoded
Meditation
the practice of intentional contemplation. Produces temporarily altered patterns of brain activation. Influences EEG recordings. Loss of self, producing patterns of alpha (slow relaxing) waves.
Cognitive Psychology
scientific study of mental processes including perception, thought, memory, and reasoning. Computers are information processing systems
Dissociative Identity Disorder
the presence within an individual of two or more distinct indentities that at different times take control of the individual's behavior.
Projective Technique
second tool for evaluating personality. Consist of a standard series of ambiguous stimuli designed to elicit unique responses that reveal inner aspects of an individual's personality
Major Depressive Disorder
severely depressed mood that lasts 2 or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness and lack of pleasure, lethargy, and sleep disturbances.
Rules of Parsimony
simplest theory william ockham start simple. Ideas about why or how things work
Newborns
sleep 6-8 times per 24hr totaling 16 hr. sleep through night 9-18mo.
Modular View
some researchers argue that specialized brain areas or modules detect and represent faces or houses or even body parts
Latent Learning
something is learned but it is not manifested as a beahvioral change until sometime in the future.Rats in maze 7.2.4.
Sufficient Condition
something that if it is true of the object, proves that it belongs to the category. EX) If someone told you german shepherd then you know its a dog
Necessary condition
something that must be true of the object. Ex) to be a dog it must be a mammal
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
something that reliable produces a naturally occuring reaction in an organism → dog seeing food
Factor Analysis
sorts trait terms or self descriptions into small number of underlying dimensions or factors based on how people use the traits to rate themselves.
Self-verification
the tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept William Swann
Authoritarianism
the tendency toward political conservatism, obedience to authority, and conformity
Intervention-causation fallacy:
this fallacy involves the assumption that if a treatment is effective it must address that cause of the problem
Social Cognititve Approach
views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them. Ties together social and cognitive psychology, learning theories and emphasizes how the person experiences and construes situations
Eleanor Rosch
wanted to disprove Benjamin Whorf by showing how Dani tribe only knew light and dar yet could still think about different shades of color.
Syllogistic reasoning
we assess whether a conclusion follows from two statements that we assume to be true.
Exemplar theory
we make category judgments by comparing a new instance with stored memories for other instances of the category (compares to all category members). Ex) see wolf and consider it a dog because it looks like your cousins german shepherd. Right Hemisphere of the brain. Prefrontal cortext and basal ganglia involved in learning exemplars means involves analysis and decision making
Heuristics
fast and efficient strategies that may facilitate decision making but do not guarantee that a solution will be reached. Ex) shortcuts or "rules of thumb". EX) rrecalling your memory for how to do something
Seasonal Affective Disorder
recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern. Due to reduced levels of light over colder seasons.
Receptive Field
region of the sensory surface that when stimulated causes a change in the firing rate of neuron
Fixed Ratio Schedule:
reinforcement is delivered after a specific number of responses have been made. Continuous reinforcement. Having a response after so many counts (a fixed one). Possible to know when exact reinforcer will come. EX) a punch card after every ten froyos you get one free.
Observational learning in animals:
"enculturation hypothesis": being raised in a human culture has a profound effect on the cognitive abilities of chimpanzees, especially their ability to understand the intentions of others when performing tasks such as using tools, which in turn increases their observational learning capacities. Capuchin monkeys known for their ability to use tools. Human reared monkey was more likely to carry out the exact way of doing it by the modol.
Positive vs Negative stimulus
(+) for presentation which a stimulus was presented and (-) for situations in whih it was removed. positive reinforcement (where a rewarding stimulus is presented) and negative reinforcement (where an unpleasant stimlus is removed), as well as positive punishment (where an unpleasant stimulus is administered) and negative punishment (where a rewarding stimulus is removed). Here the words positive and negative mean, respectively, something that is added or something that is taken away, but do not mean "good" or "bad" as they do in everyday speech.
Theoretical Reasoning
(discursive reasoning) is reasoning directed toward arriving at a belief → which beliefs follow logically from other beliefs. A series of inferences that conclude in a belief EX) a friend lying to you about a broken car
Focused attention is needed
...
Oral Stage
0-1 ½ years. Experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed. Too much or too little of this at this stage can produce oral aggresson and feel the need to take in from others.
Pleasantness Encoding
1-5 how pleasant those words are
Moving Encoding
1-5 how useful each word was for setting up a new home doesnt think about survival
6 yr old
11-12 hrs of sleep
Rods
120 mil: become active under low light conditions for night vision more sensitive than cones only see shades of grey Foeva: where cones are most densly packed. area of retina where vision is clearest and no rods at all, decrease in sharpness of vision in reduced in light
Earnest Weber
1834 Leipzig. Noticed relationship that JND is roughly proportional to the magnitude of the standard stimuli
Henry Goddard
1920s. Decided that jews hungarians italians an russians were feeble minded and that they should be segregated in isolation and be void of their power to procreate. US restricted immigration of people from southern and eastern europe and 27 states required sterilization of them
Anal Stage
2-3 years. Experience is dominated by the pleasures and frustrations associated with the anus, retention and expulsion of feces, and urine, and toilet training. Too much or too little become anal
Psychology Major
2006 women received 71% of PHD degree in psychology
Insights:
25% of the time. reflect a spontaneous restructuring of a problem People are more likely to solve a non-insight problem if they felt tey were gradually getting warmer (incrementally closer to the solution). Even if someone felt warm that didnt help solve the problem solution rather came out of the blue. May actually come from unconscious incremental process → activating memory stores gathering past information
Language development:
3 Characteristics: 1. children learn language really fast. Age 1-10 words, age 5- 10K, 6-7 words per day. 2. children make few errors while learning to speak. 3. childrens passive mastery of language developes faster than their active mastery- understand better than they speak. Infants can distinguish among all of the contrasting sounds that occur in all human languages. Within the first 6 mo they lose this ability and lke their parents can only distinguish among contrasting sounds in the langurage they hear being spoken around them. EX) Jap infants All babies babble. D and t appear in infant babbling before m and n. deaf sign at 4-6mo 10-12 mo = first words, 18mo=50 words, begin scool= 10k words, 5th grade= 40k words, college 200k words. Babie learn nouns before verbs
Vestibutes system
3 fluid filled semicircular canals and adjacent organs located next to the cochlea in the inner ear → balance Vision helps balance. Balance depends on this.
Robert Sternberg
3 types of intelligence → analytic intelligence (identitfy, define, and strategize solutions for problems), creative intelligence (generate new solutions), practical intelligence (apply and implement new solutions in everyday life
Phallic Stage
3-5 years. Experience is dominated by the pleasures, conflict and frustration associated with the phallic genital region as well as coping with powerful incestuous feelings of love, hate, jealousy, and conflict.
Todd Feinberg
30 yr old women who couldnt remember herself in the mirror patient
Generalized Anixiety Disorder
31 yr old Terry. Unrelenting worries that are not focused on any particular threat they are often exaggerates and irrational. It is a chrinic excessive worry is accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscel tension, and sleep disturbance. 5% of Americans suffer from this at some point. Higher in lower SES and more common in women b/c women more likely to live in poverty. Only mild to modest level of heritability.
Latency Stage
5-13 years. The primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills.
Cones
60 mil: detect color, operate in normal daylight conditons and allow focus on fine deatil
Antisocial Personality Disorder
: a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood
Frankl and May
: argued that awareness about existence and choice making are double edged in that they bring richness and dignity but also force us to confront realities of death
Superego
: the mental system that reflets the internal-ization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority. Codes, standards, guidelines. ***Personality stems from which is dominate. The id force of personal needs, the superego force of social pressures to quell those needs, and the ego force of reality's demands together create constant controversy, almost like a puppet theater or a bad play.
DSM-IV-TR
:is a classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each reconized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems.
Electrooculograph (EOG
A device used to measure eye movements
Habituation:
A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding. Implicit learning. EX) first moving to the city and being annoyed with the noise of trafic. After a while of living there you no longer notice the noise of traffic. Uneffected by lesions to the hippocampus. Eric Kandel and the Aplysia. Amnesia patients can also exhibit this.
Environmental influence on height
A lot of trait that we consider hereditable also are determined by environment such as nutrition
Illusionary Conjunction
A perceptual mistake where features from multiple objects are incorrectly combined
Brain scanning
ASL and spoken language example
Dorsal Stream
Above. Occipital lobe → parietal lobe. Location and motion of object aka WHERE IT IS
Pupil
Ahole in the colored part of the eye
Reaction Time
Amount of time taken to respond to stimulus
Response (Pavlov)
An action or physiological change elicited by a stimulus. Tested with infant and white rat fear
Psychoanalytical Theory
An approach that emphasizes importance of unconscious mental processes in shaping feelings, thoughts, and behaviors.
Philosophical Empiricism
Aristotle. All knowledge is acquired through experience.
Hall
Development and education and influenced by evolutionary thinking
Inner ear
Balance and head movements embedded in the skull transduced into neural impulses. Contains cochlea: a fluid filled tube that is the organ of aufitory transduction Basila membrane: a structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid this stimulates hair cells Hair cells: specialixed auditory receptor neurons embedded in the basilar mem
Schizophrenia
Based on these ideas, McDannald and Schoenbaum (2009) proposed using conditioning procedures to test hypotheses concerning impaired reality testing in schizophrenia.
Sir Charles Wheatstone
Binocular Disparity
Language centers of the brain
Brocas area and Wernickes area. As brain matures, these areas become specialized in language and language could be effected if these areas of the brian are damaged. The right hemisphere can also help with language in meaning (with damage cant comprehend), some who have left part removed can earn language.
Albert Hofman (1938)
Chemist created LSD
Relative Height in the Image
Closer objects lower further up higher
Though Suppression
Conscious avoidance of a thought. Daniel Wegner, Fyoder Dostoevsky
3 Principles regarding neural representation of the body's surface
Contralateral organization tactile devoted to parts of skin surface what and where pathways are analogous A-delta fibers: immediate sharp pain C fibers: longer lasting dull pain Somatosensory: where and what source of pain Motivational and emotional centers of brain: unpleasant motives to escape Referred pain: sensory info from internal and external areals convergers on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord Black men lower tolerance for heat/ cold pain Gate control theory: signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped or gated by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from 2 directions PAG suppress pain signals
Triplett
Cyclist and fishing experiment
1st stage of sleep
EEG moves to frequency patterns lower than alpha waves called theta waves
Kennth Clark
First minority to become president
MAry Calkins
First women to serve as president APA. Mind as one whole not many parts
Max Wertheimer
Flashed Light experiment . Gestalt psychology
Temporal Code
Handles lower frewuencies. Registers these via the firing rate of AP entering aurditory nerves
Dualism
How mental activity can be reconciled and coordinated with physical behavior
Wave Length
Hue or what we perceive as color → length of wave
Eyes- Too Short
Image focused behind the retina, farsightedness (hyperopia)
Weber's Law
JND of a stimulus is a constant proportion despite variations in intensity. Not sensing to sensing is a gradual process.
Pitch (perceiving)
Inner Ear → AP (aud nerve) → thalamus → contralateral hemisphere or cerebral cortex Area A1: A portion of the temporal lobe that contains the primary auditory cortex
Four Basic Properties of Consciousness:
Intentionality, Unity, Selectivity, transience
Memories, moods, and motives
Interact with what you are seeing, hearing and smelling at any given time. Noise competes with ability to hear stimulus
William James
Invention of Psychology 1860s. Structuralists vs Functionalists
Sleep Apnea
Is a disorder in which the person stops breathing fo brief periods while asleep. Snoring
Storage
Is the process of maintaining information in memory overtime
Chromsky
Language relies on mental rules that allows people to understand and produce novel words and sentences
Retina
Light senstive tissues lining the back of the eyeball
Karl Lashley
Maize rat study remove parts the more removed the more the rat couldnt properly work.
Space and time
Mandarin were more likely to associate time with vertical and English more likely to associate time with horizontal
Observational Learning
Margie and Rodney. Learning takes place by watching the actions of others.
Humanistic Psychology
Maslow and Rogers: An approach to understand human nature that emphasizes the positive potential of human beings. Flower children, full potential, equality
Personality:combination of traits
May evaluate honesty, anxiousness, or moodiness but is often in the eye of the beholder
Hobbs
Mind and body are not different things
Broca
Mind is grounded in a material substance. Brain damaged patient could do everything but speak
Panic Disorder
Mindy. Sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror. Shortness of breath, heart palpitations, sweating dizzinesss, derealization, depersonalization. Have higer sensitivity to physiological signs of anxiety.
length, width, depth
Objects arranged with length, width, depth
JB
Oct 2000, 69 yrs, color language deteriorated dramatically, couldnt match objects with color even though he could still identitfy colors from color swatches
Bartlett
Our ability to remember is strongly influences by our knowledge, beliefs, hopes, aspirations and desires. We often retell the story the way we expected it to happen or the way it "should have" rather than reality
Language in infants
Overall, though, the main message from this study is that observed shifts in early language development reflect specific characteristics of language learning rather than general limitations of cognitive development.
Unconscious
Part of the mind that operates outside of conscious thoughts, feelings, and actions
Area V1
Part of the occiptal lobe that contains the primary visual cortex Specialized in encoding edge orientation Contains neurons each tuned to respond to edges oriented at each position in visual field
Jean- Martin Charcot and Pierre Janet
Patient acted different under hypnosis. Interviewed patients with histeria
Food Adaptation
People are adaptive when it comes to food and know when to avoid them. To have adaptive value, the mechanism should have several properties: Rapid learning with only one or two trials, if more trials then animal could die Conditioning take place over long intervals (sevrl hrs) b/c micro doesnt usually caus ilness immediately. More adapt to reject it based on smell or taste rather than ingestion Occurs more often with novel than familiar foods John Garcia tested Css (vis, aud, taste, smell) with Uss (injections of toxin, radiation) caused nausea. No conditioning when Cs was visual aud or tactile but did when taste/smell. To help cancer patients they are fiven unusual food before treatment b/c they will avoid that last unusal food.
People study
People are hard to study because of complexity, variability, reactivity
Selective Attention
Perceiving only what is relevant to you (legalization of texting while driving example)
3 Dimensions of sound way
Pitch, loudness, timbre
Nativism
Plato. Certain kinds of knowledge are innate or inborn
Personality Differences concerned with:
Prior Events: that can shape an individual's personality Anticipated Events: that might motivate the person to reveal particular personality characteristic
Margaret Floy Watson
Published the animal mind and argued that animals have conscious mental expiriences
5th stage of sleep
REM sleep:
Unity
Resistance to division. Trying to attend more than one thing at a time.
Transduction (senses)
Senses depend on this. Occurs when many sensors in the body convert physical signals from environment into encoded neutral signals sent to the CNS
Sensory Adaption
Sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions
Applied Stimulus
Sensory imput from environments
Scientific Method
Set of principle about the appropriate relationship between ideas and evidence
Empirical Method
Sets of rules and techniques for observation
Color- Order of wl
Shortest to longest: purple → blue → green → yellow → orange → red
Inter Position
Shows how blocking item closer than blocked item
Gestalt Perceptual Grouping Rules
Simplicity: Simpleset explanation usually the best. When presented with 2 or more interpretations of object, brain goes with short and simple Closure: We fill in missing elements "gaps" and perceive missing edges Continuity: Edges or contours tend to have same same orientation Similarity: similar color, lightness, shape or texture perceived as grouped together Proximity: Close together = grouped together Common Fate: Elements that moved together look like single involving part
20/20
Snellen Chart Hermann Snellen developed scale as means of assessing visual activity. Vision meant to transduce visual imagery into neural signals.
Wilson
Sociobiology designed to do few things well (adaptive) and everything else not at all. Jealous jeans
Phrenology
Specific mental abilities and characteristics ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness are localized in specific regions of the brain
Mental Control
The atttempt to change conscious states of mind. Usually to protect oneself from worry. When this thought comes to mind the person engages in thought suppression
Binocular Disparity
The differeces in the retinal image o the two eyes that provides info about depth Sir Charles Wheatstone (1838)
Visible Light
The portion of the electromagnetic specimen that we can see
Signal Detection theory
The response to a stimulus depends both on a persons sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a persons decision criterion. Allows researchers to quantify an observers response in the presence of a noise. Helps display observers response tendencies
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound that are recognizable as speech rather than as random noise- p and b are different in the way they are produced by the human speaker
Rebound Effect of Thought Suppression
The tendency of a thought to return to consciouness with greater frequency following suppression, suggests that attempts at mental control may be difficulty
Place Code
Used mainly for high frequencies at different locations along basilar membran
Vision and Brain
Visual Field → Optic Nerve → LGN → Area V1 → Represented Visiual Scene
Agnosia
Visual form: the inability to recognize objects by sight
Implicit Memory
When past experiences influence later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them. Not consciously aquiring memory but their presence is implied by our actions. Procedural memory and Priming
Superstitious Behavior:
When something like the pigeon continues to do whatever it was doing when the food came out thinking that that is what makes food appear.
Color opponent system
Where parts of visual neurons work in opposition. Ex) looked at cross between red and green dots. By staring the green got excited and eventually fatigued from firing so when you looked down you saw red because firing red to re-balance. Same on the other side with the red-the green then worked in opposition
Self Consciousness
William James, the person's attention is drawn to the self as an object. Embarrassment, having a photo taken of them, focal point of group, introspective of thoughts.
Benzodiazepines
a class of sedative drugs that appear to stimulate the NT GABA and can sometimes reduce symptoms of GAD. Some drugs buspirone, prozac dont effect GABA but can help
language acquisition device (LAD)
a collection of processes that facilitates language learning. Once puberty is reached aquiring language is extremely difficult (Genie). FMRI shows language easier to learn at young age rather than old.
Dissociative Disorder
a condition in which normal cognitive processes are severely disjointed and fragmented, creating significant disruptions in memory, awareness, or personality that can vary in length from a matter of minutes to many years
Displacement
a defense mechanism that involved shifting unacceptable wishes or drives to a neutral or less threatening alternative. EX) throwing a book or yelling at mom when really you were mad at your professor
Sublimation
a defenser mechanism that involves channeling unacceptable sexual or aggressive drive into socially acceptable and culturally enhancing activities. EX) football, rugby, other contact sports.
Oedipus conflict
a developemental experience in which a child's conflicting feelings toward the opposite sex parent are resolved by identifying with the same sex parent. Usually occurs in boys in the phallic stage. When a boy realized mommy has feelings for daddy nd gets jealousBoys stuck in this stage show seductivness, jealousy, power, competition. Girls stuck in this stage show seductiveness, flirtatiousness, and jealousy
Narcolepsy
a disorder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of waking activities
Manifest Content
a dreams apparent topic or superficial meaning. It is a smokescreen for its laten content
Latent Content
a dreams true underlying meaning Dreams harbor suppressed unwanted thoughts
Inattentive Blindness
a failure to perceive objects that are not in the focus of attention
Hallucinations
a false perceptual experience that has a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation. PET imaging study → have to do with activation of Brocas area the part associated with production of language
Echoic memory
a fast decaying store of auditory information. (5 second before decay)
Iconic Memory
a fast decaying store of visual information. (1-2 seconds before decay)
cochlea
a fluid filled tube that is the organ of aufitory transduction
Altered States of Consciousness
a form of experience that departs significantly from the normal subjective experience of the world and the mind. Can produce changes in thinking, disturbances in the sense of time, feeling loss of control, changes in emotional expression, alterations in body image and sense of self, changes in meaning or significance
Repression:
a mental process that removes painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from the conscious mind. "Motivated forgetting". Results in decreased activation of the hippocampus which is central to memory.
Repression
a mental process that removes unacceptable thoughts and memories from consciousness and keeps them in the unconcious.
Cognitive Map
a mental representation of the physical features of the environment. What the rats did in the maze.
Concept
a mental representation that groups or categorizes shared features of related objects, events, or other stimuli. Its abstract. Help us think and make sense of the world. Ex) Descriptions that form the word chair. Necessary and Sufficient Condition
Semantic Memory
a network of associated facts and concepts that make up general knowledge of the world. Hippocampus not required for new semantic memories.
Delusion
a patently false belief system, often bizzarre and grandiose, that is maintained in spite of its irrationality.
Diathesis-stress-model
a person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress. Observation that most disorders have both internal and external causes gave rise to this theory. Heritability is not destiny.
Outcome Expectancies
a person's assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior.
Self Concept
a person's explicit knowledge of his or her own behaviors, traits, and other personal characterisitics...comes from social experiences.
Means-end-analysis:
a process of searching for the means or steps to reduce the differences between the current situation and the desired goals. Takes steps:: analyze the goal state (patient without tumor, conquered fortress w/ undamaged surrounding bridges) analyze the current state (patient with inoperable tumor surrounded by good tissue, occupied fortress surrounded by fragile bridges) list differnces between the current state and the goal state (occupying enemy) Reduce the list of differences (tumor) direct means (solves problems without steps)9.4.1 (destroy tumor with x ray but would destroy to tissue and kill patient) generating a subgoal (step on the way to solving problem) (modify to weaker dose x ray) find a similar problem that has a known solution
Long term potential (LTP)
a process whereby communication across the synapse between neurons strengthens the connection, making further communication easier. Hippocampus, long term memory. NMDA receptor
Biological Preparedness
a propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others, so that some behaviors are relatively easy to conditition is some species but not others.
Gestalt Psychology
a psychological approach the emphasizes that we ofter perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts . Mind imposes organization on what it perceives rather than what is actually shown
Unconditioned Response (UR)
a reflexive reaction that is reliably produced by an unconditioned stimulus → dog's salivation
Trait
a relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and cinsistent way. Traits occur b/c preexisting disposition of the person that causes the person's behavior or it may be a motivation that guides the person's behavior
Grammer
a set of rules that specify how the units of language can be combined to produce meaningful messages
Disorganized Speech
a severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently from one another unrelated topic. Difficulty in organizing thought and focusing attention.
Pure Tone
a simple sound wave that first increases air pressure and the creates a relitive vaccuum
Loudness
a sounds intensity. Corresponds to amplitude → hight of sound wave
Agoraphobia
a specific phobia involving a fear of venturing into public places (due to being afraid of having a panic attack while out). More women then men. One twin has disorder 30% other will too.
REM Sleep
a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements and high level of brain activity. When deprived, you have even more REM sleep the next time. Mind as active as waking. More dreaming reported by EOG. Pulse increases, blood pressure rises and signs of sexual arousal
Daydreaming
a state of consciousness in which a seemingly purposeless flow of thoughts come to mind.
Deviation IQ
a statistic obtained by dividing a person's test score by the average test score of people in the same age group and then multiplying the quotient by 100. Does not allow for comparisons between people of different ages
Heritability coefficient
a statistic that describes the proportion of the differences between people's scores that can be explained by differences in their genes. 50% of differences between people's intelligence test scores is due to genetic differences between them. Intelligence of a single person is due to the product of their environment and the heredity. When people have identical experiences then the difference in their genes and vice versa. 65 yr olds tend to be more similar in environments than three yr olds
Factor Analysis (charles spearman student of wilhelm wundt:
a statistical technique that explains a large number of correlations in terms of a small number of underlying factors. → If intelligence is a single, general ability, then there should be a very strong positive correlation between people's performance on all kinds of tests.
Basila membrane
a structure in the inner ear that undulates when vibrations from the ossicles reach the cochlear fluid this stimulates hair cells
Hypnic jerk
a sudden quiver or sensation fo dropping as though missing a step or a staircase
Genetic dysphasia (correlates with Nativist theory)
a syndrome characterized by an inability to learn the grammatical structure of language despite having otherwise normal intelligence. Can be genetic. EX) deaf babies babble speech sounds they have never heard. Development of speech patterns is universal.
Language
a system for communicating with others using signals that are combined according to rules of grammer and convey meaning. EX) Honeybeas -waggle dance. Vervet monkey- 3 warning calls. Allows individuals to exchange information about the world, coordinate group action and form strong social bonds. 1. Infinite number of novel sentences. 2. words to refer to intangible things. 3. use language to name, categorize and describe things to ourselves. Written: 6K yrs ago. Spoken: 1-3 mil yrs ago 4k Human languages, 50 Language families
Histeria
a temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences
Stanford-Binet
a test that is based on Binet and Simon's original test but that has been modified and updated many times, most notibaly by Lewis Terman and his colleagues 10.1.2
Mirror neurons
a type of cell found in the brains of primates including humans. They fire when an animal performs an action, such as reaching. They also fire when watching someone else do that same specific motion. Critical role in immitation behavior and anticipating a likely course of future action (awareness of how a future behavior will unfold)...frontal and parietal lobes also the subregions perform most strongly to observing kinds of actions.
Opperant Conditioning
a type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future. Study of behaviors that are active rather than classical conditioning that is reactive.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
a well researched, clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems, 500 descriptive sttements, measures tendencies towards clinical problems, includes questions to test validiy scale. Compared with others scores but no interpretation needed due to possibe biases
Expectancy Theory
alcohol eefect are produced by people's expectations of how alcohol will influence them in particular situations
Second- order conditioning
after conditioning has been established. Conditioning where the stimulus that functions as the US is actually the CS from an earlier procedure in which is acquired its ability to produce learning. Ex) paired new CS with now reliable tone now after several trias that new CS (black square) is associated with eating in the mind of the dog. Desire for money.
Anxiety
an unpleasant feeling that arises when unwanted thoughts or feelings occur. Governs the id, ego, and superego.
Cognitive Unconscious
all the mental processes that not experienced by a person but that give rise to the person's thoughts, choices, emotions, and behaviors.
Physical coordination
allow people to balance teacups and swat flies
Lower frequency Activity
alpha waves during relaxation
Breland family
although much of every organisms behavior results from predispositions sharpened by evolutionary mechanisms, these mechanisms can have ironic consequences.
Emotional Conditioning
amygdala (experiences emotion fear ad anxiety) or centra nucleus is critical for emotional conditioning. After conditioning the CS can now cause "freezing" crouch down and sit motionless, working of the autonomic nervouse system, increase in heart rate and blood presssure, stress hormones released. Behavioral and Physiological components take place. If the amygdala and midbrain connection are disrupted then no behaviora freezing response. If the amygdala and the hypothalamus are severed the autonomic responses with fear cease.
Dynamic Unconscious
an active system encompassing a lifetime o hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires, and the person's inner struggle to control these forces.
Dynamic Unconscious
an active system encompassing a lifetime of hidden memories, the person's deepest instincts and desires, and the person's inner struggle to control these forces.
Hypnosis
an altered state of consciouness characterized by suggestibility and the feeling that one's actions are occuring involuntarily. Mosly occurs due to the person believing that it will occur. Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness characterized by suggestibility.
Priming
an enhances ability to think of a stimulus such as a word or an object as a result of a recent exposure to the stimulus. Can exist over long periods of time. Does not require hippocampal areas of the brain that when damaged, cause amnesia. The brain saves energy and doesnt have to work as hard after priming Perceptual Priming: reflects implicit memory for the sensory features of an item ie the visual characteristics of a word or pic. Right cerebral hemisphere Conceptual priming: reflects implicit memory for the meaning of a word or how you would use an object. Left hemispher
Category-specific deficit
an inability to recognize objects that belong to a particular category though the ability to recognize objects outside the category is undisturbed. Studying this such as in 16 yr old Adam who could only identitfy correctly and consistently no living objects after having a stroke at 1 day old, reveals that the brain is prewired to organize perceptual and sensory inputs into broad categories. Damage to front part of left temporal lobe = hard to identitfy humans, damage to lower left temporal lobe = hard to identify animals, damage to area where temporal lobe meets the occipital and parietal lobes = hard to identify names and tools. 9.2.2
Sociometer
an inner gauge of how much a person feels included by others at any given moment
Specific Phobia
an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interfers with an individuals ability to function: animals, natural envirnoments, situations, blood/injections/iinjury, others (illness, death, etc). Increasing in younger generations except fear of heights. More common with women 4:1 ratio.
Angst:
anxiety of fully being. Provoked by having the ability to make free choices.
Punisher
any stimulus or event that functions to decrease the likelihood of the behavior that led it.
Reinforcer
any stimulus or event that functions to increase the likelihood of the behavior that led to it
Cognitive Enhancers
are drugs that produce improvements in the psychological processes that underlie intelligent behavior. Ritalin, adderall improve focus, manipulate info in working memory, and flexibly control responses. Ampakines (Modafinil): improves short term memory and planning abilities The difference in brain altering due to drugs vs enhancing it by other means is not clear.
Depressants
are substances that reduce the activity of the central nervous system. Sedative or calming effect. Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and toxic inhalents. Physical and psychological effects
Rene Descartes
argued mind and body are separate.
Walter Mischel
argued that personality does a poor job of predicting behavior. Knowing how a person behave in one situation is not necessarily helpful in predicting how they act in another situation.
Watson fueled by Pavlov
arguing that psychologist hould never use terms consciouness, mental states, mind, content, introspectively verifiable, imagery. Watson proposed behaviorism which correlated with Pavlov. Observable and measurable. No need to consider the mind. Did experiment with 9 month old Little Albert. Healthy child Watson wanted to see if he could condition him with fear. Struck steel bar scared Albert put white rat in front of him every time he struck the bar until the sight of the rat made albert cry. The US was paired with a CS such that the CS all by itself was sufficient to produce the CR. Jennifer scared of helicopters b/c Iraq
Emotional Intelligence (John Mayer and Peter Salovey)
as the ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning. More intelligent people know how to regulate their emotions and thus use less brain activity when solving emotional problems
Self Narrative
aspect of self concept. A story that we tell about ourselves can be brief or lengthy.
Monocular depth cues
aspects of a scene that yield info about depth when viewed with only one eye Linear perspective: parallel lines seem to converse as they recede into distance Texture Gradient: patterned surface grows smaller as recedes Inter Position: Shows how blocking item closer than blocked item Relative Height in the Image: Closer objects lower further up higher
Louise Hay
author, You Can Heal your Life. everything that happens to us including accident and disease is a result of the thoughts we choose to think
Image
base object recognition theories: an object toy habe seen before is stored as a template template: a mental representation that can be directly compared to a viewed shape in the retinal image.
Ratio schedules:
based on the ratio of responses to reinforcement.
Interval schedules
based on the time intervals between reinforcements
reactivity
behave differently under different circumstances. Methods designed to meet challenges
Balanced placebo design
behavior is observed following the presence or absences of an actual stimulus and also following the presence or absence of a placebo stimulus.
Opperant Behavior (Skinner)
behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment. Environment responded by either strengthening or punishing the behaviors. Most animals are active in the environment doing things until they reap a reward.
Law of Effect
behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and those that produce an "unpleasant stat of affairs" are less likely to be repeated.
IQ SES
being raised in high SES is worth about 12-18 IQ points and do better than lower SES Low SES (10 mill words): poorer nutrition, more stress, air polution, less breast fed all to do with brain development → more risky in younger than older children High SES (30 mill words) knows about 50% more words than low SES
Alfred Binet
believed that intelligence was hereditable but could be trained and changed through environment. Education is intelligence's friend. Correlation to amount of formal education to intelligence is r=.55-.90
Howard Gardner
believes standard intelligence tests fail to measure some important human abilities. He observed ordinary people, people with brain damage, Prodigies(people of normal intelligence who have extraordinary ability, savants(people of low intelligence who have an extraordinary ability. Concludes that there are 8 kinds of intelligence → linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. Believes stand intelligence tests only measure the first three
Rorschach Inkblot Test:
best known technique a projective personality test in which individual interpretations of the meaning of a set of unstructured inkblots are analyzed to identify a respondent's inner feelings and interpret his or her personality structure. Loosing its popularity
Dogmatist
best way to understand illness was to develop theories about the body's function
High Frequency Activity
beta waves during alertness
Pheromones
biochemical odorants emitted by other members of its species that can affect the animals behavior or physiology Related to sexual orientation
IQ and Race
blacks due worse on test when they have to state their race b/c they have pressure to want to overcome cultural racism. Asian women do poorer when reminded of their gender or when question talks about math b/c they know the stereotype that they shouldnt be good at math and that they arent as smart as men. Asian women do reallly good when olny reminded of their race b/c stereotype of asiains doing well in general. Environmental and SES factors tend to be more influential on scores of black vs white than actual genes (Richard Nisbett)
Erotogenic zone
body regions that dominate the child's subjective experience during for eample the oral stage
Parts based object recognition theories
brain deconstructs viewed objeccts into a collection of parts stored as structural descriptions Mental inventories of object parts along with spatial relations among those parts- as as "alphabet" - geons
Olfactory bulb
brain structure located above nasal cavity beneath frontal lobes sneds output to various centers in the brain including the parts tat are responsible for controlling basic drives, emotions, and memories hints +/- memories w/ smells
Actuarial method
can be used to gauge personality even when the self report items are not clearly related in content to the characteristics being measured. Basis for the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
Absolute Intelligence:
can change considerable over time. Intelligence increases between adolescence and middle age and decreases afterwards sharpest decline in old age due to slowing of the brains processing speeds. Small changes with knowledge and larger changes with reasoning abstract new memory skills. Decreases over life span and increase over generations Flynn Effect: accidental discovery that the average intelligence test score has been rising by about .3% every year shows intelligenceis not a fixed quantity that cannot be increased. Genes determine range of IQ but environment determines exact point in that range
Evidence
can only prove theory wrong not right
Discrimination
capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli
Fast Mapping
children mao a word onto an underlying concept after only a single exposure
Freudian Unconscious
consciousness much deeper mind made up on unconscious processes. Dynamic unconscious, Repression
Synesthesia
constantly percieving particular letters in a particular color Atypical feature binding:color feature not present in external stimulus
Photoreceptor cells
contain light sensitvie pigments that transduce light into neural impulsuses. Inner more layer of the retina. Cones and Rods
Olfactory epithelium
contains 2 million olfactory receptor neurons
John Carrol
correlations within 8 independent middle level abilities: memory and learning, visual perception, auditory perception, retrieval ability, cognitive speediness, processing speed, crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence
Lewis Terman
created Stanford Binet test. Whites performed better than non whites. False: the differences in genes are the reason why some groups outperform others. Truth: Whites outscore latinos who generally outscore blacks. Women routinely outscore men on tests that require rapid access to and use of semantic information, production and comprehension of complex prose, fine motor skills, and perceptual speed of verbal intelligence, and men routinely outscore women on tests that require transformations in visual or spatial memory, certain motor skills, spatiotemporal responding, and fluid reasoning in abstract mathematical and scientific domains.
Middle Intelligence
data based approach, theory based approach, emotional intelligence
Regression
defense mechanism in which the ego deals with internal conflict and perceived threat by reverting to an immature behavior or earlier stage of development. EX) return to sucking thumb, watching cartoon, or baby talk when faced with a distressing situation
Secondary Reinforcers
derive ther effectiveness from their associations with primary reinforcers through classical conditioning. Neutral flashing lights now associated with tickets.
Methods of observation
determine what people do
Methods of explanation
determine why people do it
Eadweard Meybridge
developed rapid photo taking technique solved questions about horse feet leaving ground
Insomnia
difficulty in falling asleep or staying asleep. 15% people severe and 15% mild. Anxiety and stress Sleeping pills are addicitive and dependant When you think about trying to sleep you become hypersensitive to having trouble sleeping
Aphasia
difficulty in producing or comprehending language.
Personal Constructs
dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences. Lead to differing perspective.
James
disagreed with Wundts claim that consciousness could be broken down into basic elements, he believed this distorted the essential nature of consciousness he believed in functionalism.
Activation sythesis theory
dream begin randomly
Activation- synthesis model
dreams are produced when the mind attempts to make sense of random neural activity that occurs in the brain during sleep
Freudian Theory
dreams begin with meaning
Narcotics or opiates
drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain. Morphine, methadone, codeine. Relaxation.
Hallucinogens
drugs that alter sensation and perception, often causing hallucinations. LSD, acid, mescaline, psilocybin, PCP, ketamine. Some ancient plant based. Produce most extreme alterations of consciouness. Not addictive or dependant.
Implicit Learning
earning that takes place largely independent of awareness of both the process and the prodcuts of information acquisition. Learn to do things or to predict patterns but cant articulate why or how. When performing a task people differ very little in implicit learning. Unrelated to IQ. Dyslexia is a part of not having good implicit memory. Hippocampus and temporal lobe not necessary for implicit learning. Using implicit show decreased brain activation inoccipital region. Broca's area is turned on during implicit learning 7.4.3
Friedrich Gauss
elementary school wieght thought solution for adding numbers 1-10 in an esy solution
Shaping through successive approximations:
elements of behavior get shaped over time until one smooth motion. EX) show dolphins
Wilhelm Wundt
emergence of psychology. 1879- 1st lab. Consciousness, structuralism, introspection
Negative Symptoms
emotional and social withdrawl; apathy; poverty of speech, and other indications of the absence or insufficiency of normal behavior, motivation, and emotion.
Humanistic psychologists
emphasized a positive, optimistic view of human nature that highlights people's inherent goodness and their potential for personal growth.
Two factore theory of intelligence
every task requires a combination of a general ability and skills that are specific to the task.
Visual -Treismanand Schmit
ex) showed visual displays in which black digits flanked Feature integration Theory: focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that comprise a stimulus such as color, shape, size, and location of letters, but is required to bind those individual features together Attention provides "glue" necessary to bind features together Brain damage to upper and posterior portions of parietal lobe casue problems with focused attention "locks in" attention
Big Five
factor analysis researchers agree that personality is best captured by five factors. The traits of the five factor model: conscientiousness, agreeable, neuroticism, openess to experience, and extraversion. Over laps with the work of Cattell and Eysenck. 1. strikes right balance of variation in personality wi/out overlapping traits. 2. these five factors have emerged over others tests that look at many different things. 3. It is universal. These diminsions of personality miht reside in the eyes of the beholder
Hypothesis
falsifiable prediction made by a theory
Family Resemblance (Eleanor Rosch
features that appear to be characteristic of category members but may not be possessed by every member. Ex) brother may have moms eyes but I may have dads but we both may have moms hair.
Practical Reasoning
figuring out what to do, or reasoning directed toward action. Means to an end analysis. EX) how to get to concert across town without car
Edward L. Thorndike
first studied active behaviors in 1890s. Focused on intrumental behaviors that is behavior that required an organism to do something, solve a promblem or manipulate elements of its environment. Cat Puzzle Box → ineffective behaviors become less and less frequent.and instrument behavior becomes more and more frequent. Developed law of effect. Learning takes place in context.
Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner
first to theorize that classical conditioning only occurs when an animal has learned to set up an expectation → Pavlov himself didnt set off the dogs b/c he was associated with other things lack of reliability with food.. The Rescoria-Wagner model introduced a cognitive component. Conditioning easier when the CS was an unfamilar event than familiar because familiar events already have expectations with them making new conditioning diffiult
Feature integration Theory
focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that comprise a stimulus such as color, shape, size, and location of letters, but is required to bind those individual features together
Richare Thompson:
focused on eyeblink conditioning in rabbit. Found cerebellum (part of the hindbrain → motor skills and learning) is critical for delay and trace conditioning. The hippocampus however is important trace conditoning but not delay.
Functionalist
focused on how mental abilities allow people to adopt to their environments
Existentialist psychologists
focused on the individual as a responsible agent who is free to create and live his or her life while negotiating the issue of meaning and the reality of death.
Person-situation controversy
focuses on the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors
Primary Reinforcers
food, comfort, shelter, or warmth. Help satisfy biological needs.
D.F. Brain Damage
from toxic CO. Sight but not touch effected Visual form agnosia: the inability to recognize objects by sight
Trust (learning to)
game with money depends on whether or not trustworthy partner. Madoff con artist. 7.2.4
Consequences
getting good grades in school, or other rewards of doing well
Procedural Memory
gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things. This memory is crucial for motor perceptual and cognitive skills. Uses regions outside of the hippocampal area including motor cortex
Oliver Sacks and Greg
greg lost short term memory and could only remember things from back when he was young. Greg and HM behaved like they had experienced these new things but they could not remember them.
Risky decision making
grows out of insensitivity to the future consequences of their behavior. This can stem from drinking or alcoholic problem or brain damage in the prefrontal cortext (prefrontal lobe). Elliot had prefrontal damage.
David Rosenhan
had six associates report to diff mental hospitals complaining of hearing voicesand hospitals labeled them as schizophrenic even though symptoms went away. Labeling is detremental to a person and will stick
Maslow
hierarchy of needs essential needs must be met
Surface Structure
how a sentence is worded
Cultural PSychology
how cultures reflect and shape the psychological processes of their members. Wundt, Mead, Bateson
Pitch
how high or low sound is perceived by frequency. → frequency = wavelength.
Phenomenology
how things seem to the conscious person in their understanding of mind/ behavior
Karl Duncker
ill defined problems, thinking aloud, means-end-analysis
Eyes- Too long
image focused in front of retina , nearsightedness (myopia)
A-delta fibers
immediate sharp pain
Increment problen solving
in which one gradually gets closer and closer to a solution.
Generalization
in which the CR is observed even though the CS is slightly diferent from the original one during acquisiton ie if you got a different can opener for the dog food.The more the new stimulus changes the less conditioned responding is observed
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to transfer new information from the short term store into the long term store.
Integrated Perspective
incorporates biological, psychological and environmental factors
Additive color mixing
increasing light to create color ie red, blue and green = white. Red and green = yellow
Morphological Rules
indicate how morphemes can be combines to form words. Content morphemes and function morphemes
Phonological rules
indicate how phonemes can be combined to produce speech sounds. Every language has these and they differ. EX) initial sound ts is acceptable in German. Typicall \learn rules WITHOUT instruction. When violated it sounds funny in that language or an accent is noticed
Syntactical Rules
indicate how words can be combined to form phrases and sentences. EX) Need verb and noun to make a sentence
Diffusion Chain
individuals initally learn a behavior by observing another individual perform that behavior, and then serve as a model form which other individuals learn the behavior.
Helplessness Theory
individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal (i.e. their own fault), stable (unlikely to change), and global (widespread).
Valium
induces sleep but prevents dreaming
NMDA receptor
influences the flow of information between neurons by controlling the initiation of LTP in most hippocampal pathways. Glutamate neurotransmitter is released by a presynaptic neuron which attaches to the NMDA receptor site on the postsynaptic neuron and excitation takes place in the postsynaptic neuron these events initiate LTP
Identification
is a defense mechanism that helps deal with feelings of threat and anxiety by enabling us unconsciously to take on the characteristics of another person who seems more powerful or able to cope. EX) a child bullied by parents may then go and bully school kid
Reasoning
is a mental activity that consists of organizing information or beliefs into a series of steps to reach conclusions. If you know a set of statements is true logic will tell you what other statements must also be true.
Thematic Apperception Test
is a projective personality test in which respondents reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people.
Psychological disorder
is a relatively recent invention. Thought of as demon possession or punishment for wrongdoing.
Harm reduction approach
is a response to high risk behaviors that focuses on reducing the harm such behaviors have on people's lives.
Minimal consciousness
is consciousness that occurs when the mind inputs sennsations and may output behavior. Plants, animals, and humans can have this response. You can besleeping and have a response to someone poking you without ever remembering it.
Memory
is constructed. Memories are stored not by taking pictures and storing them for later rather they combine info we already have with new info. Kind of like a recipe it comes to more completion the more you add Bubles could memorize numbers
Sleep Paralysis
is the experience of waking up unable to move and is sometimes associated with narcolepsy. Happens in hypnagogic or hypnopompic sleep. May occur due to pressure on chest
Retrograde Amnesia
is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date, usually the date of an injury or operation. Patient HM.
Natural intelligence
is the kind of intelligence that is not taught ie the child isnt taught something and then asked to test on it rather it is a test of his natural intelligence
Id
is the part of the mind containing the drives present at birth; it is the source of our bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressing drives. Pleasure and immediate gratification. Ex) grab food at table near by instead of waiting if only controlled by id forces.
Retrieval Induced Forgetting
is the process by which retrieving an item from long term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items. Also means that when trying to focus on a particular thing avoiding the distracting competing thoughts, we will then have a harder time recalling those competing thoughts. Recent fMRI evidence indicates that during the retrieval practice phase of a retrieval-induced forgetting paradigm, regions within the frontal lobe that are involved in retrieval effort play a role in suppressing competitors, whereas the hippocampal region is associated with successful recall Successful supression of unwanted memory causes reduced activity in the hippocampus.
State dependent Retrieval
is the tendency for info to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
Broca's area
is turned on during implicit learning 7.4.3
Availability Bias
items that more readily available in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently. EX) famous female name and no name males automatically made you think there were more females than males
Alcohol
king of depressants. 51% over 12yrs a drink in last month, 23% binged. 18-25yr at 62% drikn in last month 42% of them binged. Is a disinhibitor: a chemical that lets transmissions occur that otherwise would be held in check.
Autobiographical memory
knowledge of ourselves organized in two ways; narratives about episodes in our life and in terms of traits.
Nativist Theory
language development is best explained as an innate, biological capacity. Explains why but not how. According to Chromsky the human brain is equipped with a language acquisition device (LAD): a collection of processes that facilitates language learning. Once puberty is reached aquiring language is extremely difficult (Genie). FMRI shows language easier to learn at young age rather than old.
Chomsky Native Explanations:
language learning capacities are built into the brain which is specialized to rapidly aquire language through simple exposure to speech.
Linguistic Relatiivity Hypothesis
language shapes the nature of thought. Benjamin Whorf- EX) Inuits have many different words for the thing we call snow therefore they thing differently about snow than we do.
Shaping
learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior.
Optic Nerve
leaves eye through hole in retina, cant sense light. Creates blind spot
Simonides
left banquet before ceiling collasped killing everyone. Remembered everyone that was present based on where they were sitting very proficient in visual imagery encoding.
Broca's area
left frontal cortex, sequential patterns in vocal and sign language, Paul Broca (first reported speech problems with damage to this part of brain), if damage then understand language but have trouble with complex grammatical structure. Can do content morphemes but struggle with function morphemes
Wernicke's area
left temporal cortex, language comprehension (spoken and signed), Carl Wernicke(first discovered results of damage in this part of brain), can produce grammatical speech but it tends to be meaningless,have a hard time comprehending language. Jap can recognize pictographs but not other symbols when damage to this area.
Belief Laden
left temporal lobe involved in retrieving and selecting facts from long term memory. Previously encoded memories. Knowledge affecting believability of conclusions
Retinal Image
length and width
Ratio IQ
lewis terman. Is a statistic obtained by dividing a person's mental age by the person's physical age and the multiplying the quotient by 100.
Mind and body
linked through pineal gland
Behavioral Neuroscience
links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes
Confirmatory factor analysis
mathematical technique. Showed correlations between scores on different mental ability tests are best described by a three level hierarchy with a general facotr (g) at the top, specific factors (s) at the bottom, and a set of factors called group factors (like primary mental abilities) in the middle. (three level hierarchy). 10.2.1
Ecstatic religious experiences
may have a basis in the same brain region-the right anterior temporal lobe-associated with some forms of epilepsy.
Deep Structure
meaning of the sentence
Locus of Control:
measure a person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment. Julian Rotter. Internal locus control own destiny. External locus controlled by luck or other people
Hemholtz
measure speed of nerve impulses. Applied stimulus and reaction time
Intelligence tests
measure the ability to answer questions and perform tasks that are highly corrrelated with the ability to get good grades, solve real world problems, and so on.
Spearman
measured how well school age children could discriminate small differences in color, auditory pitch, and weight and correlated these scores with childrens grades in different academic subjects as well as teachers estimates of those childrens intelligence. Revealed that most were positively correlated "most replicable result in all of psyhology", revealed that although positively correlated is not perfectly correlated.
Gustav Fechner
measured sensation and perception by psychophysics
Transfer appropriate processing
memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when the encoding context of the situations match Initially repeatidly retrieving info turns our to produce better memory then initially studying the info several times
William Stern
mental age was examined by the ratio of the child's mental age to the child's physical age.
Mood Disorders
mental disorders that have mood disturbances as their predominate feature. Two forms depression and bipolar disorder.
Depression
more common in women. Involve diminished activity in the left prefrontal cortex and increased activity in the right prefrontal cortext (area involved in the processing of information)
Skinner
most behavior is under stimulus control (which develops when a particular response only occurs when an appropriate discriminitive stimulus is present. Discussed in threee term contingencyin the presence of Discriminative stimulus( classmates drinking coffee together in starbucks), response(joking comments about teachers increasing weistline) produces a reinforcer (laughter among classmates).Pigeons pecked at painting from same style.
William James
most by age 30 have plastered personality traits..this is extreme.
Bekesy
movement of basilar membrane resembles traveling wave. Decreased frequency = wide floppy tip (apex). High frequency= narrow stiff end (base)
Motion perception
must encode info about both space and time. initial stimulation on retina MT: specialized for visual perception of motion (stationary) For moving observer and object: brain monitors eye and head movements and "subtracts" them form the motion in retinal image Like color perception motion opperates in part on opponent processes and subject to sensory adaption Waterfall illusion Maz Wertheimer: phi phenomenon recall Gestalt rule of common fate
Circadian Rhythm
naturally occuring 24 hr cycle. We naturally want to sleep in a 25.1 cycle
Anandamide
naturally produced in brain. Receptors in brain respond to THC the same way that it responds to anadamide which regulates mood, memory, appetite, and pain perception
Primary mental abilities
no general ability such as intelligence rather we have primary ones such as verbal or perceptual
Incoherent series
no solution
Variability
no two individuals are identical
Pavlov
nobel prize 1904 work on salivation of dogs. Classical conditioning
Pleasure centers of the brain
nucleus accumbens, medial forebrainbindle, and hypothalamus. Medial forebrain bundle (from midbrain)→ hypothalamus → nucleus accumbens: most susceptible to stimulation that produces pleasure. Also the neuronsall along this pathway esp in the nucleus accumbens are all dopaminergic (secrete NT dopamine). Dopamine= expectation rather than reward and craving rather than liking. FMRI show that increased activity in nucleus accumbens in heterosexual men when looking at pics of atttractive women or when looking at food when hungry.
Dancing
observational learning was studied using fMRI scans which noticed that those who were exposed to dancing shows performed better at those specific dances than those who had not watched the video. Applying a TMS to the brain after watching those videos had a big impact on the dancing whereas those who did not watch the videos the TMS had no impact. Motor Cortex.
Framing effects
occur when people give different answers to the same problem depending on how the problem is phrased or framed
Henry Murray
originator of TAT. EX) Traits reflect motives hunger motive might explain smoeones many trip to snack bar.
Freudian slips
origins of their everytday mistakes and memory lapses errors that have come to be called this
Frequency Format hypothesis
our minds evolved to notice how frequently things occur, not how likely they are to occur.
Retinal Ganglion (RGC)
outer most layer of retina: orginizes signals and sends to brain
Color- Each cone absorbs light
over a range of wavelengths pigments sensitive to reen (med), red (long), and blue (short) (primary colors of light)
Linear perspective
parallel lines seem to converse as they recede into distance
Belief neutral
parietal lobe involved in mathematical reasoning and spatial representation. Abstract. Obscure terms whose meanings are unknown to participants
Prospect theory (Tversky and Kahneman)
people choose to take on risk when evaluating potential losses and avoid risks when evaluating potential gains. 2 phases: 1. people simplify available info Ex) when looking at apartments only focusing a a few key differences b/c too complicated to focus on everything 2. people choose what they believe offers best value. Value differs person to person prospect therory assumptions: certainty effect: when making decisions people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thing. Peple compare choices to a reference point. Ex) discount if pay by x or surcharge if paided after x people will go with the discount event though same price if paided on time. People are morewilling to take risks to avoid losses than to achieve gains.
Sunk-cost fallacy
people make decisions about a current situation based on what they have previosly invested in the situation
Implicit egotism
people not typically aware of their biases.
savants
people of low intelligence who have an extraordinary ability
Prodigies
people of normal intelligence who have extraordinary ability
Self-serving bias
people tend to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures.
Conjunction Fallacy
people think that two events are more likely to occur together than either individual event. When in reality it is less likely to occur
Cocktail phenomenon
people tune in one message while they filter out others nearby
Dichotic Listening
people wearing headphones are present with different messages in each ear. Tuning out or filtering out one ear.
Belief bias
people's judgements about whether to accept conclusions depend more on how believable the conclusions are than on whether the arguments are logically valid. fMRI studies.
Psychiatrists
physicians concerned with treatment of mental disorders who use a system for classifying mental disorders
Complexity
physiological make up of humans is very complex
Extinction
pigeons stop pecking at key if reward (food) is no longer given. If rest period given, it can typically be recovered. Unlike classical ocndtioning, in operant conditioningreinforcement only occurs when proper response is given. Depends on often reinforcement is received
William James
plus 5 psychologist attend meeting by Stanley Hall formed AAA
Hypnagogic state
presleep consciouness
Skinner
principle of reinforcement. Consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be more or less likely to occur again. Skinner box
Intentionality
quality of being directed towards an object. Conscious attention is limited
Edward Tolman
questions Skinners strictly behavior interpretation. Advocate for cognitive operant learning. Means to an end reationship.That is, the conditioning experience produced knowledge or a belief that, in this particular situation, a specific reward (the end state) will appear if a specific response (the means to that end) is made. (For an example of one aspect of the reward [being ready for the test] given the response [decision to study], see the Hot Science box.). Stimulus does not directly evoke a response. Latent Learning, cognitive map
Correlation
r= .26 for unrelated siblings raised in same household
Conditioned Response (CR)
reaction that resembles an unconditioned response but is produced by a conditioned stimulus → Dogs salivation to the buzzer
Receptor Neurons:
receptor cells that initiate the sense of smell receptor = lock, odoran t= key ORNs send axons from olfactory eph to olfactory bulb
Content Morphemes
refer to things and events
Shared environment
refers to those environmental factors that are experienced by all relevant members of a household
Nonshared environment
refers to those environmental factors that are not experienced by all relevant members of a household. Correlation of IQ scores with siblings decreases as age increases b/c they begin to experience different environment with different friends.
Black color
reflects no light because the darer the color the less light reflected
Existential Approach
regards personality as goverend by an individual's ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the reality of life and death. Contronting square on and leaarn to tolerate the pain of existence. Frankl and May: argued that awareness about existence and choice making are double edged in that they bring richness and dignity but also force us to confront realities of death
OCD
repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere significantly with an individuals functioning. Anxiety plays a role. . Most common obsessions are : contamination, aggression, death, sex, disease, orderliness, and disfigurement. Modest heritability. Family members may not have OCD but may be more susceptable to anxiety. Higer activity in the caudate nucleus of the brain portion of basal ganglia (initiation of intentional actions.) Drugs that increase serotonin can help OCD
Semantic Judgments
required the participants to think about the meaning of the words. Best memory for words out of the three
Rhyme Judgments
required the participants to think about the sound of the words
Visual Judgments
required the participants to thnk about appearance of the words
Trace Conditioning
same but brief time after the tone ends and the air puff delivered. Only in aware patients. Vegitative patients fMRI test do exhibit this conditioning but administered unconsious patients did not. Requires awareness of the contingency between the tone and the air puff. Amnesic patients showed delay conditioning of eyeball blink rresponse yet failed trace conditioning
George Herber Mead
say that we accumulate all that people say about us and the common ones we tend to stick with and believe them about ourselves.
Referred pain
sensory info from internal and external areals convergers on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord
Function Morphemes
serve grammatical functions (when, to, and, or, but)
Survival Encoding
showed volunteers randomly chosen words after asking telling them they needed survival items and then they had to rate words 1-5 on how relevant each word was for survival. Most remembrance after this question out of all three.
Gate control theory
signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped or gated by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from 2 directions
Sensation
simple stimulation of a sense organ (sound, pressure, odor, taste) Registers in the CNS
Somnambulism
sleepwalking, which occurs when a person arises and walks around while asleep. Common 11-12 yrs olds. 25% children experience it at least once. Early in night. Slow sleep waves.
Papillae
small bumps thousands are located on tongue. Withing each papilla are hundred of taste buds:the organ of taste transduction
Cornea
smooth outer tissue. Bends light wave and sends through pupil
Coherent series
solvable
Eric Kandel
studied Aplysia being shocked and retreat time response increased with an immediate increase in shocks. Long term storage involves the growth of new synaptic connections between neurons
Delay Conditioning
the CS is a tone that is followed immediately by the US a puff of air which elicits an eyeblink response. In aware and unaware patients. Book notes 7.1.4. Does not require awareness of the contingency between the tone and the air puff or (CS and US)
William James
the I is the self that thinks, experiences, and acts in the world; it is the self as a knower. The Me is the self that is an object in the world; it is the self that is known.
Crystallized Intelligence
the ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience
Fluid Intelligence
the ability to see abstract relationships and draw logical inferences
Structuralism
the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind.
Empiricism
the belief that accurate knowledge can be aquired through observation and is the essential element of the scientific method
Prototype
the best or most typical member of the category, possesses most or all of the most characteristic features of the category (compares to prototype). Ex) birds the wren. Left hemisphere of brain. Visual cortex involved in forming prototypes and involves image processing holistic process.
Social Psychology
the causes and consequences of interpersonal behavior Lewin. Germans were first with social theories
Anxiety Disorder
the class of mental disorder in which anxiety is the predominate feature. Typically more than one anxiety disorder at one time. Anxiety and depression typically go together. Generalized anxiety disorder, phobic disorders, panic disorders, and OCD.
Comorbidity
the co-occurence of two or more disorders in a single individual
Episodic Memory
the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place. Mental time travel. Also plays a role in imagining the future
Ego
the component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life's practical demands. Operates according to the reality principle. Delay immediate gratification and function in the real world. Ex) ability to find restaurant, pay bill, and not snatch food.
Medical Model:
the conceptualization of psychological disorders as diseases that, like physical diseases, have biological causes, defined symptoms, and possible cures. Diagnosis, symptoms, syndrome.
Variable Ratio Schedule:
the delivery of reinforcement is based on a particular average number of responses. Every tenth shirt or every 100th pull. Higher rates of responding than fixed.
Self Esteem
the extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self.
Intermittent-reinforcement effect:
the fact that operant behaviors that are maintained under intermittent reinforcement schedules resist extinction better than those maintained under continuous reinforcement. Gradually extendinga variable ratio until increase pecks for one food tablet.
Posthypnotic amnesia
the failure to retrieve memories following hypnotic suggestions to forget. Earnest Hilgard Hyponosis does not enhance the accuracy of memory and instead only increases the person's confidence in false memory reports
Problem of other minds
the fundamental difficulty we have in perceiving the consciousness of others.
Extinction
the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the US is no longer presented. "extinguished" no longer observed
Self-actualizing tendency
the human motive toward realizing our inner potential and a major factor in personality. Humanistic view. Pursuit of knowledge creativity, spiritualness, giving back.
Dopamine Hypothesis
the idea that schizophrenic involves an excess of dopamine but has yet to be determined.
Mind/Body Problem
the issue of how the mind is related to the brain and body
Marijuana
the leaves and buds of the hemp plant. THC main ingredient Hashish: the concentrated form of marijuana Anandamide: naturally produced in brain. Receptors in brain respond to THC the same way that it responds to anadamide which regulates mood, memory, appetite, and pain perception
Just noticeable difference
the minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected. Measures different thresholds.
Genetics
the more genes you have incommon with someone the more similar your personalities are likely to be (.40-.60). Big five traits derive from genetic difference range from .35-.49. Heritability estimates for the big five personality traits: Conscientiousness=.38, Agreeable=.35, Neuroticism=.41, Openness=.45, Extraversion=.49. For identical twins personality still correlates the same way regardless of the different environment this applies with other siblings as well.
Self Report
the most popular technique, a series of answers to a questionnaire that asks people to indicate the extent to which sets of statements or adjectives accurately describe their own behavior or mental state
Self actualization
the need to be good, to be fully alive and to find the meaning of life.
Trichromatic color representation
the pattern of responding across the three types of cones provides a uniquw code for each color. This is the first step of encoding color
Distributed Representation
the patterns of activity across multiple brain regions that identifies any viewed object including faces
Classic personality psychology
the personality characteristics cause people to behave in the same way across situations over time
Acquisition
the phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together
Consolidation
the process by which memories become stable in the brain.
Eyes- Accomidation
the process by which the eye maintains a clear image on the retina
Visual Imagery Encoding
the process of storing new information by converting it into mental pics. Does the same thing elaborate encoding does by relating incoming info to current info. Second you end up with 2 placeholders both visual and verbal. Occipital lobe.
Schizophrenia
the profound disruption of basic psychological processes; a distored perception of reality; altered or blunted emotion; and adisturbances in thought, motivation, and behavior. Delusion, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized behavior or catatonic behavior, and negative symptoms. More common in men than women. Emil Kraepelin. There is a genetic component. 48 for identical 17 for fraternal. Reduce sysmptoms by lowering NT dopamine.
Hypnotic analgesia
the reduction of pain through hypnosis in people who are hypnotically susceptable
Dythymia
the same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present, but they are less severe and last longer, persisting for at least 2 years. When both types occur condition is called double depression. Heritability rates are inconsistent
Morphemes
the smallest meaningful units of language EX pa has sound but not meaning like pat does
Introspection
the subjective observation of one's own experiences
Dissociative Fugue
the sudden loss of memory for ones personal history, accompanied by an abrupt eparture from home and the assumption of a new identity. Associated with stress.
Dissociative amnesia
the sudden loss of memory for significan personal information. . Memory loss is typically for a traumatic specific event or period of time but can involve extended period of a persons life
Drug Tolerance
the tendency for larger drug doses to be required over time to achieve the same effect. Drug tolerence, physical dependance, and psychological dependance all effects the need to take more of a drug over an increases amount of time.
Spontaneous recovery
the tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period.
Functional Fixedness
the tendency to perceive the functions of object as fixed → it constricts our thinking. Most problem solving is incremental
Genital Stage
the time for the coming together of mature adult personality with a capacity to love, work, and relate to others in a mutually satisfying and reciprocal manner.
Change brain chemistry and alter personality
the use of pharacueticals, Alzheimers, stroke, brain tumor
Louis Thurstone
there was actually no such think as g and that there were instead a few stable and independent mental abilities such as perceptual ability, verbal ability, and numerical ability which he called the primary mental abilities.
Personality Disorders
thinking feeling or relating to others or controling impulses that cause distress or impaired functioning. 10 personality disorders -3 clusters: odd/eccentric, dramatic/erratic and anxious/inhibited. Most conroversial.
William Dement and Nathaniel Kleitman
time in dreams real or extended? First hour waking to fourth and deepest stage creates a general synchronization of neural firing. You then return to lighter sleep reaching REM and dreamland. REM and slow moving waves rotate every 90 min or so but as the night goes on REM occurs more frequently.
Microvilli
tips of taste receptor cells that react with tastant molecules in foods
Alfred Benet and Theodore Simon
to developw tests that would determine which children were behind. These tests included logic problems, word memory, copying pics, distinguishing inedible/edible foods, making rymes, and answering questions. Measured childrens aptitude for learning rather than their educational achievment
Analogical problem solving
to solve a problem by finding a similar problem with a known solution and applying that solution to the current problem
Self-schemas
traits people use to define themselves. Markus.
Iris
translucent, doughnut shaped controlssixe of pupil and how much light can enter
Middle ear
transmit vibrations to inner ear. Tiny airfilled chamber plus three smallest bones in body → ossicles: hammer, arvil, stirrup
Hans Eysenck
two major traits extrovert s and introverts added iin neurotic. Studied the differeces in introverts vd extroverts and how extroverts peursue stimulation b/c their reticular formation the part of the brain that regulates arousal or alertness in not easily stimulated
Identical Twins
twins who develop from the splitting of a single egg that was fertilized by a single sperm → share 100% of genes. Intelligence correlation r= .86 (same house) r=.78 (different household. Same as a single person taking the test twice!).
Fraternal Twins
twins who develop from two different eggs that were fertilized by two different sperm → share 50 % genes
Defense Mechanisms
unconscious coping mechanisms that reduces anxiety generated by threats from unacceptavle impulses
Empiricist
understand illness by observing the sick
Academic skill
understand shakespeare and sum numbers
Kurt Lewin
understand the person's subjective experiment using topology
Casual Observation
unstable and dont help on all interest
Same Gosling
used big five to determine personalities in animals. SPECIES do have specific traits to a certain extent
IQ Old test
used to be racially biased.
Rational Choice Theory
we make decisions by determining how likely something is to happen, judging the value of the outcome, and then multiplying the two. EX) 20% chance of gaining 2K = 2K x 20% = $400 We are good at determining frequency but not probability
Algorithm
well defined sequence of procedures or rules that guarentees a solution to a problem. Ex) using a step by step set of instructions on how to do something
Allen and Beatrix Gardner
were the first to use ASL with apes. Worked with Washoe as if she was a deaf child. Manipulated her hands as a process known as Molding. She learned 160 words in 4 yrs and could contruct simple sentences. Others have taught bonobo chimps to communicate using a geometric keyboard system- kanzi (660 sentences spoken 72% carried out correctly) Apes also have critcial period for learning language. Limitations to apes: 1. size of vocab number in hundreds, 2. type of words mastered have to be tangible unlike the word economics, 3. construction of sentences rarely exceeds 3 or 4 words
Organizational Encoding
what waitresses do. The process of categorizing info according to the relationships among a series of items
Classical Conditioning:
when a neutral stimulus produces a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces a response. Demonstrates that durable, substantil changes in behavior can be achieved simply by setting up the proper conditions → stimulus not cognitive rather it is eliciting circumstances. Previously exposed dogs to the experiment had anticipatory salivary response as soon as put in harness. Draws on imlicit but not explicit memory. Four basic elements of this conditioning
Overgeneralization
when children start messing up grammer because they have learned a bunch of rules that are now confusing them and they make grammatical mistakes. Children aquire grammatical rules by listening but also by trying to incorporate correct rules.
certainty effect
when making decisions people give greater weight to outcomes that are a sure thing.
Intermittent Reinforcement:
when only some of the responses made are followed by reinforcement, they produce behvior that is much more resistant to extinction than a continuous reinforcement schedule. Try man times even without response and resilient to extinction. EX) if you put money into a soda machine that you didn't know if broken and don't get a soda, that doesnt mean you will never use a soda machine again.
Default Network
when people are not busy, they still show a widespread patten of activaton in many areas of their brain. Actvated during daydreaming or while doing a task that you know so well that you could succeed in while daydreaming at the same time. Used when thinking about social life, oneself, past, and future. Mental Control
Explicit Memory
when people consciously or intentially retrieve past experiences. Semantic and Episodic
Change Blindness
when people fail to detect changes to the visual details of a sense
Schedules of reinforcement
when rat wasnt given food every time he pushed the bar, he started pushing the bar depending on time and frequency of presentation of reinforcers. . Operant conditioning focuseson the pattern with which the reinforcements appear
Subliminal Perception
when though or behavior is influenced by stimuli that aperosn cannot consciously report perceiving. Theatre popcorn sign- James Vicary. John Bargh- experiment on college student subliminally shown words associated with old and when they left they walked more slowly.
Somatosensory
where and what source of pain
Foeva
where cones are most densly packed. area of retina where vision is clearest and no rods at all, decrease in sharpness of vision in reduced in light
Response Style
whether people respond honestly or not even when unflattering and if they dont always agree or always disagree
Interactionist Explanations
while buological capacity for language is true, it is also essential to have social interactions. Parents speeak slowly and enunciate clearly with simple sentences with children more so than with children. EX) deaf nicaraguan children
Full Consciousness:
you know and are able to report your mental state. Aware of havinga mental state while you are experiencing the mental state itself. Thinking about the fact that you are thinking.
