Psychology 2
What reward pathway does drug addiction affect?
Drug addiction stimulates a dopamine-based reward pathway in the limbic system of the brain.
Regarding dreaming, describe Psychoanalytic Theory
Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud) = Dreams are expressions of unconscious desires, thoughts and motivations. Dreams can serve as a virtual form of wish fulfillment.
What are the 8 main components of the Limbic System?
Amygdala (implicit emotional memory) Thalamus Hypothalamus Hippocampus (explicit emotional memory) Corpus Callosum Fornix Septal Nuclei Cingulate Gyrus
In regards to Problem Solving, What is Heuristics
"Rules of Thumb." Heuristics can be helpful in problem solving, but can also cause functional fixedness and a lack of cognitive flexibility.
What is Self-EFficacy?
The strength of a person's belief in their own abilities. ▪ Different from other "self-terms" because it is a self-evaluation of one's ability: "I am confident I can accomplish anything." "I usually fail." ▪ Answers the question: "What am I capable of doing?" ▪ THINK: MY ABILITY
What are the 3 stages in the General Adaptation Syndrome?
1) Alarm Stage 2) Resistance Stage 3) Exhaustion Stage
What are the 5 drug types that alter consicousness?
1) Depressants 2) Stimulants 3) Hallucinogens 4) Pain Killers 5) Marijuana
What are the stages of Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development?
1) Oral 2) Anal 3) Phallic 4) Latency 5) Genital
What are the stages of Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development?
1) Pre-conventional Morality (pre-adolescence) = Obedience, Self-Interest 2) Conventional Morality (adolescence to adulthood) = Conformity, Law and Order 3) Post-conventional Morality (adulthood) = Social Contract, Universal Human Ethics
Carl Rogers proposed one of the more popular ways of thinking about self-concept, what are the 3 components?
1) Self-Image 2) Self-Esteem 3) The Ideal Self = Who I wish I could be.
What are Piaget's Stages of CD (Cognitive Development)
1) Sensorimotor 2) Preoperational 3) Concrete operational 4) Formal operational
What are the 6 main approaches to Problem Solving?
1) Trail and Error 2) Algorithms 3) Heuristics 4) Intuition 5) Deductive Reasoning 6) Inductive Reasoning
What are the 6 States of Consciousness?
1)Alterness 2) Sleep 3) Dreaming 4) Hypnosis 5) Meditation 6) Drug-Altered
What is Self-Conception?
A collection of beliefs and self-perceptions about one's own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior. ▪ Self-Concept = Self-Schemas + Self-Esteem + Self-Image + Self-Identity + Past Self + Present Self + Future Self ▪ Different from other "self-terms" because it is a collective mental picture of oneself: "I am a tall, young, attractive, athletic male." ▪ Answers many questions: "Who am I?"; "Who do others think I am?"; "What are my strengths?"; "What is my nature?"; "How do I behave?" ▪ THINK: MY TOTAL CONCEPTION OF MYSELF
Describe Emotion
A complex psychological state of mind involving one's mood, feelings, and reactions to circumstances.
The LD50 value is the amount of a drug in milligrams that results in the death of 50% of lab animals administered that dosage. Large doses of a benzodiazepine, a barbiturate, and gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB), a drug used to treat narcolepsy, were administered to rats. If GHB has the lowest LD50 of the three drugs, and the benzodiazepine used has the highest LD50: A) GHB is safer than the barbiturate or the benzodiazepine at supra-therapeutic doses. B) GHB is more dangerous than the barbiturate or the benzodiazepine at supra-therapeutic doses. C) Benzodiazepine is more dangerous than the barbiturate or GHB at supra-therapeutic doses. D) Benzodiazepine is more dangerous than GHB at supra-therapeutic doses, but more information is necessary to rank the relative safety of the barbiturate.
A high LD50 value is desirable for a therapeutic drug. This indicates that a large amount of the drug would need to be taken to cause death. A low LD50 means relatively less drug can cause death. GHB is therefore the most dangerous of the three drugs because it has the lowest LD50. This makes answers A, C, and D all false because they all suggest that GHB is safer than the other drugs listed in the stem. Therefore, B must be the correct answer.
Describe Attitude
A learned tendency to evaluate things in a certain way. This can be a tendency to be positive, negative, biased, or neutral. It is possible to be uncertain or unclear of one's attitudes— something colloquially described as having "mixed feelings."
What is Social Identity?
A person's sense of who they are based on the groups to which they belong. This is very closely related to "Identity" as defined above, except that the term identity INCLUDES one's social identity but is not exclusively one's group-based identity. Identity by itself defines what makes a person unique relative to others. Social identity is that portion of our self-identity derived specifically from group membership.
What is Self-Image?
A persistent mental picture of one's appearance and personality, including observable traits (height, weight, hair color, gender, etc.) and self-knowledge derived from experience or internalization of the judgments of others (e.g., people think I'm fat; people think I'm handsome; people think I'm nice). ▪ Different from other "self-terms" because it is my mental picture of my own personal characteristics: "I am a young, attractive, athletic woman." ▪ Answers the questions: "How do I see myself?"; "How do others see me" (In ways I've internalized); "How do I perceive that others see me?" ▪ THINK: MY APPEARANCE
In regard to behavior and influence, what is Role-playing Effects?
A person acting out a role is likely to internalize the attitudes associated with that role. In this case, one's own behavior (acting a part) directly impacts, almost determines, the attitudes they will hold.
Describe Self-esteem
A person's overall sense of self-worth or personal value. Relatively stable and enduring. ▪ Different from other "self-terms" because it is a valuation judgment of one's worth: "I feel good about being a fast runner. Being a fast runner makes me feel like an important person." ▪ Answers the questions: "How do I feel about myself?"; "Why am I of worth?" ▪ THINK: MY VALUE
What is Self-Schemas?
A pre-existing, organized pattern of thought (i.e., cognitive framework) about oneself that is used to categorize or process information. Self-schemas, like schemas generally, can be helpful, but can also result in bias or omission of information. ▪ Different from other "self-terms" because it is my cognitive framework about myself: "I am an athlete; therefore, I make friends who are also athletic." ▪ Answers the questions: "What does this mean [based on my schemas]?" "How will I act [based on my schemas]." ▪ THINK: HOW MY IDEAS OF WHO I AM ARE USED TO CATEGORIZE NEW INFORMATION.
Describe Zimbardo Prison Study
A psychologist staged interactions between two groups of college students, one group playing the role of prison guards, and the other the role of prisoners. Within only six days, the attitudes of the "guards" had become so harsh and domineering, and the attitudes of the "prisoners" had become so despondent, defiant, or depressed, that Zimbardo ended the study prematurely on ethical grounds.
What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory?
A state of unpleasant psychological tension experienced when one holds two attitudes or beliefs that are in conflict with one another. A person is likely to ease the tension by changing their attitude or belief to remove the conflict. This case illustrates that our behaviors are often in conflict with our attitudes.
What is the Functional Attitudes Theory?
A theory asserting that attitudes serve three positive functions: ▪ Knowledge: Attitudes give us valuable information about other people, events, and the likelihood of outcomes. ▪ Ego-Expressive: Attitudes are one route through which we express our self-identity. ▪ Adaptive: Socially-acceptable attitudes provide an adaptive advantage in society much like certain random mutations provide an evolutionary advantage.
In regards to Influence of Social Factors on Identity Formation, what is Looking-Glass Self?
A theory suggesting that a person's self-concept is largely determined by how they believe others see them. From this perspective, the self is not a function of what we are, but what others think we are.
What is Social Identity Theory?
A theory suggesting that individuals derive significant pride and self-esteem from their group memberships. As a result, individuals always strive to INCREASE the status of the group to which they belong (i.e., their IN-GROUPS), and will discriminate and hold prejudices against other groups to which they do not belong (i.e., their OUT-GROUPS).
What is Hypnosis
A trance-like state under which a person becomes highly suggestible. It is induced by a therapist and can serve to recall repressed memories, control pain, or stop undesirable behavior (e.g., weight loss, addictions).
According to Kohlberg's theory, assign a stage of moral development to the following reasons for paying one's taxes: a) If no one paid their taxes, society would not be able to provide necessities such as roads, military protection, and emergency services, b) Not paying my taxes would be wrong, c) I pay my taxes so that I will qualify for tax rebates and refunds, d) It is immoral for one citizen to benefit from the contributions of his neighbors without contributing his fair share, e) If I do not pay my taxes, I will go to jail, f) All Americans have a right to live in a free society. I pay my taxes so that the federal government can afford to protect and secure individual rights.
A) Conventional moral reasoning B) Conventional moral reasoning C) Pre-conventional moral reasoning D) Post-conventional moral reasoning E) Pre-conventional moral reasoning F) Postconventional moral reasoning
Are the following individuals evaluating their behavior using an internal or an external locus of control? a) A premedical student received a subpar score on the MCAT. He is quick to point out that he was asked to work extra hours at work the week before his exam and the exam room was too cold; b) Another premedical student, who took the Altius MCAT Course, earns a subpar score. She remembers being shown the correlation graph between program adherence and MCAT score. She thinks to herself, "I should have studied harder and done more of the program requirements"; c) After losing a basketball game the coach is interviewed and states the following; "I should have had our players ready and I did not. We need to practice harder this week and improve our free-throw percentage"; d) Another coach is interviewed following a loss and complains that poor refereeing gave their opponent an unfair disadvantage.
A) External locus of control B) Internal locus of control C) Internal locus of control D) External locus of control
Label the following as examples of inductive or deductive reasoning. Justify your answers. a) Some people believe dogs are more intelligent than cats. My dog can play fetch, but my cat cannot. Therefore, dogs are smarter than cats. b) The veterinarian visited all of the horses in the county last week. All of the horses the veterinarian visited were brown. Therefore, all of the horses in the county are brown.
A) This is an example of inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning involves making generalizations from specific observations. The statement "my dog can play fetch, but my cat cannot" is an observation that is used to make the generalization "therefore, dogs are smarter than cats." B) This is an example of deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning occurs when an assumed premise is explored to reach a logical conclusion. The statement "the veterinarian visited all of the horses in the county last week" is a premise. The statement "all of the horses the veterinarian visited were brown" is another premise. The logical conclusion to draw then would be "....all of the horses in the county are brown."
Freud's theories have many critics. The following individuals would disagree most strongly with which stage of Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development? Explain your answer. a) A woman who rejects the notion of penis envy, b) a gay rights activist, c) a psychologist who argues that an unusual focus on maintaining order is a positive trait rather than a neurosis.
A) This woman would disagree most strongly with Freud's phallic stage because, according to Freud, this entire stage was driven in girls by the anxiety that they experience upon realizing that they do not have a penis. B) A gay rights activist would disagree most strongly with the genital stage because Freud viewed heterosexuality as the natural, healthy culmination of moving through the psychosexual stages of development. C) The psychologist would disagree most strongly with the anal stage because Freud believed that fixations at this stage would lead to neuroses characterized by an unhealthy concern with neatness and order.
Label the following as examples of extrinsic or intrinsic motivation: a) a person works hard at their job to avoid being fired, b) a student studies diligently for the MCAT to earn a good score, c) a student works hard as a volunteer because they enjoy the work and hope to earn a permanent position, d) a person reads a book to relax at the end of a long day at work, e) a professor increases a student's grade from an A- to an A because of the hard work he has seen the student invest throughout the semester.
A) extrinsic motivation B) intrinsic motivation C) both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation D) intrinsic motivation E) intrinsic motivation
Provide a conceptual definition of the following terms: actual self, ought self, ideal self. How do these three terms relate to the concept of self-esteem?
According to the self-discrepancy theory, we make internal comparisons between our actual selves and our ought and ideal selves. When there is a discrepancy among these states, the result can be discomfort and lowered self-esteem. The actual self is our self-concept. It's who we (or others) think we are and which attributes we (or others) think that we possess. The ideal/ ought self serves as internal "guides" for the self-concept to be measured against. The ought self is a representation of characteristics that we (or others) think we ought to possess. The ideal self is a representation of characteristics that we (or others) would ideally like to possess. Again, when there are discrepancies between the actual self and the ought or ideal self, we experience emotional discomfort that can contribute to lowered self-esteem. However, these discrepancies might also serve as motivation to move the actual self towards the ought or ideal self and ultimately a higher level of emotional satisfaction and self-esteem.
In regards to Influence of Social Factors on Identity Formation, what is Role-Taking?
Adopting and acting out a particular social role. This could be as simple as a child playing "cops and robbers," or the more complex types of role-taking that help adults feel empathy for others (i.e., "put yourself in someone else's shoes").
Describe Depressants
Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines
What is the Social Cognitive Theory of Attitude Change?
Although often listed as a separate theory, socialcognitive theory essentially predicts that attitudes will change because of observational learning experienced by the person doing the changing. That is why observational learning was included in the discussion above of the Learning Theory of Attitude Change. It is important to note, however, that social-cognitive theory is not ONLY about modeling. Alfred Bandura suggested it was about how observation, personal factors (perceptions, expectations), and environment (reinforcement, social influences) interact with one another to produce learning—and thereby change.
Describe the general physiological and psychological effects of the following drugs: alcohol, amphetamines, ecstasy, marijuana, cocaine, opioids/opiates, and barbiturates/benzodiazepines.
Alcohol is a "messy" drug with effects on all sorts of neurotransmitter systems. In general, it is considered a depressant because of its ability to agonize GABA neurotransmission (a feature it shares with both the barbiturates and benzodiazepenes). The specific effects of these depressants vary widely as a function of dose. At low doses, they can result in relatively minor mood changes and mild impairment of coordination. At high doses, these drugs can result in unconsciousness and in the case of alcohol and barbiturates, death. Using alcohol in conjunction with either benzodiazepenes or barbiturates can exacerbate the effects of these drugs in the user and make negative outcomes much more likely. Amphetamine and cocaine act as stimulants of the central nervous system. Users report feelings of euphoria and high levels of energy. Physiologically, users experience increased heart and respiration rates that would normally be associated with an acute stress response. Amphetamine and cocaine act as agonists of the monoamine neurotransmitters with their effects on dopamine activity receiving the most attention from researchers. Both drugs block the reuptake of dopamine from the synapse, but amphetamine actually causes additional release of dopamine into the synapse. Opiates have pronounced analgesic properties and act on the opioid system in the brain. Users report feelings of euphoria when administering these drugs intravenously or via smoking. These drugs also affect motility of smooth muscle, regulation of temperature, heart rate, and respiration. Marijuana acts on the endocannibinoid neurotransmitter system. Users report mild euphoria, sedation, and increased appetite as the most common effects of the drug. Marijuana's abuse potential and potential medical applications are points of controversy among the scientists.
Describe Stimulants
Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy
What are the two components of Emotional Memory?
An emotional memory has two components, one implicit and one explicit. The explicit portion is the CONSCIOUS memory of having experienced the emotion. The implicit portion is the UNCONSCIOUS encoding and storage of the actual feeling. This implicit memory may be retrieved, and the emotion "felt again," when one encounters a similar experience, or during explicit recall of the original event
What is a stressor? Describe a few stressors
An external event, condition, or stimulus that leads to stress. • Catastrophes = Animal attacks, severe weather, war, etc. • Life Events = New job, marriage, divorce, death of a loved one, increased responsibility, etc. • Daily Hassles = Poor phone connection, waiting in traffic, a long to-do list, etc.
What is Meditation?
An intentionally altered state of consciousness intended to improve focus or overall well-being. Meditation is a part of many religious beliefs. It is not well defined scientifically, but it has been shown to be associated with a relaxed, slower wave state of arousal reproducible on an EEG.
In regard to influence of groups on identity formation, what is Reference Group?
Any group to which a person usually compares him or herself.
Which perspective is most relevant for illustrating the relationship between a lack of adequate financial resources and an urgent and primary motivation to obtain employment? A) Arousal theory B) Maslow's hierarchy of needs. C) Instinct theory D) Drive-reduction theory
Arousal theory suggests we are motivated by a desire to maintain relatively high arousal levels. Perhaps one could seek a job because one is bored, but the stem specifies it is the lack of resources initiating job-seeking behavior, making Answer A unlikely. Answer C is false because Instinct theory focuses on evolutionary advantage as a source of motivation. Answer B could be correct; Maslow would rate financial security as his second-most important level of need. Because the stem states that job-seeking is "urgent and primary," Answer D is the better answer. The person referenced in the stem is seeking employment to reduce the discomfort caused by inadequate resources—an example of drive-reduction theory.
Alcohol is known to increase the activity of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain. If GABA binds a membrane receptor that allows Cl- ions to flow through the axon membrane into the nerve cell, what is the likely effect of alcohol on: a) the voltage difference across the axon membrane? Will it be more negative compared to resting potential or more positive? and b) the magnitude of the stimulus required to initiate an action potential? Will the neuron require a stronger stimulus to reach threshold potential, or will it reach threshold under a weaker stimulus?
As Cl- ions moved into the cell, one would expect the axonal membrane to become hyperpolarized (or more negative relative to resting potential). This would create a situation in which a depolarizing stimulus would have to be larger in magnitude to move the cell membrane towards the threshold potential.
How does Attitude influence Behavior?
Attitude Influences Behavior: Absent any strong external influences, attitude generally guides behavior. The more strongly held the attitude, the more directly and quickly it will determine behavior.
What is the Learning Theory of Attitude change?
Attitudes can be changed by learning. This includes classical conditioning (associating positive feelings with the target attitude or object), operant conditioning (reinforcing the desired attitude or punishing the undesirable one), and observational learning (modeling the desirable attitude can lead to change).
How does changing behavior affect Attitude Change?
Because attitudes reflect and often mirror behavior, one is more likely to have a new attitude if they have a new behavior, or more likely to retain old attitudes if their behavior remains constant. The foot-in-door technique illustrates that if you can get someone to behave in a certain way, you can often mold their attitudes.
Describe the Arousal Theory of motivation
Behavior is motivated by a desire to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. That optimum level varies among individuals. People seek new interests, action, or stimuli when arousal is low to increase arousal. When arousal is too high (hyperstimulation) they reduce activity or seek more relaxing activities to reduce the level of arousal.
Describe the Incentive Theory of motivation
Behavior is motivated by a desire to obtain rewards or to avoid punishments
Describe the Instinct Theory of motivation
Behavior is motivated by evolutionary instincts.
Describe the Drive Reduction Theory of motivation
Behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce or eliminate an uncomfortable or undesirable internal state.
Describe the Needs-Based Theories of motivation
Behavior is motivated by the drive to satisfy one's most urgent needs. -Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs -ERG Theory -Self-Determination Theory
Describe Cognitive Theory of motivation
Behavior is motivated by thinking; including plans, goals, expectations, perceptions and attributions. ▪ Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Sources of Motivation • Intrinsic Motivation = Purpose or drive to act based upon personal, internal, often unseen motives. • Extrinsic Motivation = Purpose or drive to act based upon external rewards or stimuli. ▪ Expectancy-Value Theory: An aspect of Cognitive Motivational Theory. The magnitude of one's motivation to engage in a behavior is a function of an interplay between an individual's 1) expectation of success and 2) perception of the relative value of the rewards associated with success.
Regarding factors that affect attitude change, what is the Characteristic Model?
Carl Hovland proposed that attitude change is best accomplished when we consider the characteristics of the target, the source, the message, as well as cognitive routes.
What is Cataplexy?
Cataplexy = Sudden, transient periods of muscle weakness or paralysis during which the patient remains fully conscious and aware.
Regarding dreaming, describe Cognitive Theory
Cognitive Theory (Hall) = Dreams are a conceptualization of our experiences; they are visualizations of our thoughts and perceptions about five concepts: our self, others, the world around us, morals, and conflict.
researcher examines the Looking-glass Self Theory by asking subjects what they think others believe about them, and comparing this to a self-concept inventory. This an example of which study design? A) cause-effect B) correlational C) meta-analysis D) experimental
Comparing subject self-reports to an inventory would be a correlational study (Answer B). The investigator is not directly manipulating the independent variable, and has no control, so it is not a true experimental design (Answer D). A meta-analysis combines results from multiple studies. Cause and effect is not a recognized psychological study method.
What is attention?
Concentration on one aspect of environmental stimuli while ignoring or excluding other stimuli
In regards to Problem Solving, What is Deductive Reasoning
Conclusions are based on assumed premises; also referred to as "Top-Down Processing."
Who is Jean Piaget? What was his thoughts on Schema?
Considered to be the father of developmental psychology and a major contributor to Cognitive Theory. Schema (Alternate plural form = Schemata): Piaget believed schemas were an important part of how we learn. You will hear about schemas not only from Piaget, but throughout Psychology. It is an important and yet slightly abstract concept—and thus something the MCAT is likely to test.
What is Automatic Processing?
Controlled processing requires attention, while automatic processing does not. When you are first learning to drive a car, that task requires an incredible amount of attention, and it would be difficult to engage in some other task that required attention at the same time. However, as tasks become well-learned, processing becomes more automatic and requires less active attention. This is why you can engage in a task like driving and carrying on a meaningful conversation once you have mastered driving.
What is Controlled Processing?
Controlled processing requires attention, while automatic processing does not. When you are first learning to drive a car, that task requires an incredible amount of attention, and it would be difficult to engage in some other task that required attention at the same time. However, as tasks become well-learned, processing becomes more automatic and requires less active attention. This is why you can engage in a task like driving and carrying on a meaningful conversation once you have mastered driving.
In regards to Influence of Social Factors on Identity Formation, what is imitation?
Especially in children, modeling and imitation of others influences identity formation.
Describe the thought Adaptive Role of Emotion
Darwin proposed that emotion, like all other traits, evolved via natural selection. Possible support for this theory lies in the fact that some emotions are tied to evolutionarily older parts of the brain, indicating they may have evolved earlier in our ancestral history. The facial expressions associated with some emotions appear to have functional advantages that could logically be selected during evolution. For example, the universal emotion of disgust includes a scrunching of the nose and mouth, which would limit the intake of foul odors. Similarly, the expression of fear usually involves widening of the eyes, which would allow in more light and visual information for identification of a perceived threat.
What is Dyssomnias?
Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or avoiding sleep Insomnia: Difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep. Sleep Apnea: Difficulty breathing while asleep. Narcolepsy = Chronic neurological disorder caused by autoimmune attack of the neurons that release hypocretin—a hormone that normally regulates sleep-wake cycles.
What are the Stages of Erickson's Theory of Psychosocial Development?
Each stage presents a different conflict between personal needs and social demands. 1) Trust vs. Mistrust 2) Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt 3) Initiative vs. Guilt 4) Industry vs. Inferiority 5) Identity vs. Role Confusion 6) Intimacy vs. Isolation 7) Generativity vs. Stagna
Regarding the 3 primary components of emotion, describe Behavioral Response
Facial expressions or body language that accompany the expression of emotion.
What is Availability Heuristic?
Favoring the most easily recalled or imagined solution as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment.
Provide a conceptual definition for each of Freud's stages of psychosexual development.
Freud's theory of psychosexual development was an attempt to describe how personality develops from infancy through adulthood. According to the theory, the libido, which is a form of psychosexual energy, focuses on different erogenous zones in the body at different stages of development. The libido serves as the force that propels a person through psychosexual development, and as it moves from each erogenous zone the individual is faced with the prospect of resolving issues associated with each particular stage of development: the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latent stage, and the genital stage. According to Freud, a healthy personality was associated with a successful resolution of each individual stage. However, if the person was unsuccessful in resolving issues related to any given stage, then s/he would experience a fixation on that particular stage. Because of their inability to successfully resolve these issues, the person would experience anxiety that would translate into neuroses, or mental disorders, and specific personality characteristics in adulthood. For example, someone who has an oral fixation may continue to seek oral stimulation in the form of smoking or in overeating. This person might also be described as overly passive, gullible, and immature. During the phallic stage, Freud thought that young boys would begin to focus their sexual energies on their mothers and view their father's as a rival for their mother's affection. During the Oedipal complex, the id secretly wants to kill the father and possess the mother as its own. However, ultimately the fear of the stronger father leads to the fear that challenging the father may result in castration of the boy (i.e. castration anxiety) and instead identifies with the father in a way to possess the mother vicariously. Freud believed that young girls experience penis envy when they first realize that they do not have a penis and that the anxiety that ensued from this realization propelled the girl's viewing the mother as a rival for the father's affection to identifying with her to vicariously possess the father. Carl Jung coined the phrase Electra complex to describe a situation similar to the Oedipal complex in young girls, and neo-Freudians like Karen Horney preferred this approach because it normalized female development in the absence of male influence. During the latency stage, the libido appears to go largely quiet, and Freud believed this was a time when the sexual urges were sublimated into other areas of life's pursuits (e.g. sports, hobbies, etc.).
What is Galton's Theory of Intelligence
Galton = Argued that individual heritable characteristics contributed to intelligence as much as any gene contributes to physical traits. Although he introduced "genetic intelligence," he also pioneered the nature vs. nurture debate (he coined the actual phrase) by conducting the first twin studies involving monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Galton was the first to use the questionnaire/survey as an experimental tool. Finally, Galton introduced the concept of "correlation" and the method of calculating statistical correlations. • Galton's Genetic Bias and Eugenics: When you see GALTON THINK: Nature, NOT Nurture. Despite his twin studies providing groundbreaking evidence for nurture, Galton leaned toward a stronger genetic component. In fact, this bias led him to be a strong proponent of eugenics. • Eugenics = Any belief, method, or practice designed to improve the genetic makeup of the human race, usually by preventing the birth, reproduction rate, or survival of individuals deemed to have "less-desirable" genes. Today, eugenics is almost universally considered unethical by scientists and non-scientists alike.
What is Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic?
Giving higher priority to the very first piece of information received and/or framing subsequent information around it.
In regards to Stress what is Appraisal?
How an individual cognitively appraises a potentially stressful situation.
What is the formula for IQ?
IQ = mental age/chronological age*100
Regarding dreaming, describe Information Processing Theory
Information Processing Theory = Memories and information accumulated during the day are consolidated during sleep. Dreaming is the cerebral cortex associating images or meaning with this consolidation process.
Compare and contrast the Instinct and Arousal theories of motivation. Propose two real-life examples that illustrate each theory.
Instinct theories of motivation basically assert that behavior is motivated by instincts which are hardwired as a function of evolution. An instinct by definition is an inborn pattern of behavior that is not learned and is exhibited by all members of a given species. There are very few, if any, examples of instinctive behaviors among humans. An example of instinct motivating behavior in a nonhuman animal would be seasonal migrations seen in a number of birds, insects, and fish. Arousal theories of motivation state that behavior is driven by a need to maintain some optimal level of arousal. If we are overstimulated, we will behave in ways to reduce that stimulation. If we are under stimulated, we will seek out stimulation in our environments. As an example, think of final exam weeks in college. You are overwhelmed by all that is going on, and you want nothing more than to get out of school and relax. However, once you've spent a few weeks at home, you become bored and likely yearn to return to school.
Variations in Intellectual Ability follows what pattern?
Intelligence follows a Normal Distribution (aka Gaussian)
Describe Hallucinogens
LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) peyote, mushrooms
What role does the Wernicke's Area play in speech?
Language comprehension Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area communicate via a bundle of axons called the arcuate fasciculus. This connection allows integration of language comprehension and speech.
Describe Brain Waves
Level of consciousness is associated with different brain wave patterns on an electroencephalograph (EEG): alpha, beta, theta, and delta. Wave frequency decreases according to: beta (14-40 Hz) > alpha (9-13 Hz) > theta (4-8 Hz) > delta (0.5-3.9 Hz). This is important to note because it does not follow the alphabetic trend implied by the names. • Alpha = Very relaxed, or meditating • Beta = Awake and alert • Theta = Light sleep • Delta = Deep sleep
Describe Marijuana
Listed separately because it can be categorized as a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen based on its various effects.
General Locus of Control
Locus of Control plays an important role in self-esteem and self-concept. Persons with an external locus of control tend to be more prone to low self-esteem, and even depression. Those with an internal locus of control tend to be happier and have higher self-esteem.
In regards to Problem Solving, What is Inductive Reasoning
Making generalizations from specific observations; also referred to as "Bottom-Up Processing."
What is Gardner's Theory of Intelligence
Often called "Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences." Gardner identified eight types of intelligence. His theory challenged the concept that all students learn in the same way, or that numerical measures of intelligence are sufficient. Gardner noted that IQ tests examine only the last two intelligences, and that Western cultures favor the last two over the previous six. The MCAT would be most likely to give you an example or scenario and ask you to identify it as an illustration of one of the eight types of intelligences. 1) Visual-Spatial 2) Bodily-Kinesthetic 3) Musical 4) Interpersonal 5) Intrapersonal 6) Naturalistic (added by Gardner later, some texts report only seven intelligences) 7) Linguistic 8) Logical-Mathematical
In regard to influence of groups on identity formation, what is Group Membership?
One's identity is tightly associated with the groups to which one belongs. Religion, nationalism, and ethnicity all directly favor the creation of an identity that matches other members of one's group.
Describe Opponent-process theory
Opponent-process theory is centered on homeostatic principles. Whenever we take some substance this creates a physiological and psychological state that pushes us away from the norm. For example, a drug like heroin can produce a sense of euphoria along with potent analgesia, antitussive, and anti-diarrheal properties. If we use heroin routinely, then the body "learns" to expect heroin to come on board. In an effort to maintain homeostasis, the body then mounts an opponent process which will create symptoms that are in the opposite direction of the heroin itself. Over time, this opponent process will onset earlier and earlier and will grow stronger and stronger until at some point the effects of the drugs are completely offset. We often describe such an experience as tolerance. In order to achieve the positive effects, we would need to take larger and larger doses of the drug. If we ever skipped the drug, we'd experience withdrawal from the drug. Now the drug free state would be marked by dysphoria, increased sensitivity to pain, coughing, and diarrhea. Some users would then continue to use the drug to avoid the negative symptoms associated with withdrawal.
How does Behavior influence Attitude?
Our behavior can change our attitudes significantly. People tend to have a positive attitude toward behaviors they exhibit themselves, or toward things in which they personally participate. Clearly, the behavior of others impacts our attitudes about them.
What is Parasomnias?
Parasomnias = Abnormal movements, behavior, perceptions, or emotions during sleep. Sleepwalking (a.k.a., sommambulism) Night Terrors (a.k.a., pavor nocturnus) = Experience of severe anxiety, dread, or terror during the first few hours of Stages 3-4 (non-REM) sleep. Most common in children. Associated with screaming, thrashing, or suddenly sitting up in bed, and hyperstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system.
Regarding the 3 primary components of emotion, describe Physiological Response
Physiological changes in heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, and skin temperature observed in the individual experiencing the emotion.
Regarding Cognitive Changes in Late AdulthoodWhat are Age-Related Memory Changes?
Overall memory = Declines Procedural memory = Stable Working memory = Significant decline Semantic memory = Stable.
In regard to behavior and influence, what is Foot-in-door Phenomenon?
People are more likely to agree to a larger or more difficult request if they first agree to a smaller request. In this case, the behavior of the person making the request changes the attitude of the person being asked to do something.
What is the Dissonance Theory of Attitude Change?
People change their attitudes because they feel cognitive dissonance, as a method to reduce that discomfort.
Regarding the Characteristic Model, what is the Source?
Person or source delivering the message. Attractiveness, expertise, and trustworthiness = Increased likelihood of persuading target. Credibility = Strong positive correlation with successful target persuasion.
Regarding the Characteristic Model, what is the Target?
Person receiving/processing the message. Higher intelligence = Less likely to be persuaded by shallow or one-side messages, more likely to respond to reason and logic. Moderate self-esteem = Most likely to be persuaded. High/Low self-esteem = Less likely to be persuaded. Mood and mind-frame of the target alters the likelihood of persuading them.
Regarding Language, what is Phonology?
Phonology focuses on the phonemes (sound units within a given language) and how they can be combined in meaningful ways.
What are the physiological Effects of Chronic Sleep Deprivation?
Positively correlated with decreased cognitive functioning, depression, and multiple chronic diseases including: heart disease, high blood pressure, obesity, and diabetes.
Regarding Language, what is Pragmatics
Pragmatics refers to the ability to competently use language appropriately in any given social context.
Differentiate between primary and secondary drives and provide three examples of each.
Primary and secondary drives are concepts from Hull's Drive Reduction Theory of motivation. In general, this theory evoked homeostatic principles in trying to explain motivated behavior because he believed that when a biological system was thrown out of balance, the organism would experience drive states to motivate behavior to reestablish homeostatic equilibrium. Primary drives involve physiological needs for survival (e.g. food, water, and sex). Secondary drives take on their motivating force because they have been associated with and/or provide access to the basic needs listed above (e.g. money, social status, and fame).
Regarding dreaming, describe Problem-Solving Theory
Problem-Solving Theory = Dreams are a way for the mind to solve problems encountered while awake. Some proponents suggest the unconscious dreaming mind is better suited or more capable of solving problems than the awake mind—unrestricted by reality or more sensitive to subtle clues.
Describe the Limbic System's role with emotions
Region of the brain most directly tied to the emotion. The ventral prefrontal cortex is also involved. Research suggests the LEFT prefrontal cortex processes positive emotions and the RIGHT prefrontal cortex processes negative emotions. • When you see LIMBIC SYSTEM THINK: Limbic System = Emotion and Motivation
What is Representative Heuristic?
Reliance on prototypes or stereotypes as a shortcut to making a decision or judgment.
In terms of consciousness, describe sleep
SLEEP: A regular state of rest and reduced consciousness deemed physiologically necessary at approximate 24-hour intervals (i.e., circadian rhythms). Cortisol levels are higher when a person is awake and alert and lower during sleep. The hormone melatonin is released by the pineal gland, at least in part due to decreasing levels of light.
Provide a conceptual definition for the term schema, as used by psychologists. How do people use schemas to process new information? What generally happens when a person finds new information that does not fit within one of their existing schemas?
Schemas are patterns of thought that we use to create categories of information or behavior and to understand the relationship that exists among those categories. They prove useful because they allow us to speed up processing of the tremendous amount of information that bombards us each day, but they can also bias the ways in which we deal with new information to create stereotypes about a category of individuals or objects and prevent us from retaining information that doesn't fit the schema. We often assimilate new information to fit into an existing schema, but we can also accommodate, or amend, the schema to include new information.
Subcategorized under Needs-Based Theories of Motivation, Explain Self-Determination Theory
Self-Determination Theory = A third needs-based theory emphasizing the motivational importance of three basic needs: • Autonomy (i.e., a sense that one is in control of one's own life choices) • Competence (i.e., feeling capable at a task; the ability to excel at something) • Relatedness (i.e., a sense of being accepted in social settings or relationships)
What are social factors that affect attitude change?
Social norms can either direct or inhibit attitude change because people generally seek to align themselves with socially acceptable attitudes and behavior. If an attitude change requires rejecting social norms, it will be more difficult to achieve. The tendency of individuals in a group to avoid conflict and seek harmony (i.e., Groupthink; discussed in the Sociology chapters) may influence them to change an attitude or behavior they otherwise would not. Social roles are an important factor because they lend credibility, or a lack thereof, to the person doing the persuasion. For example, in a culture that upholds patriarchy, fathers may have strong influence over their children, while in a culture that values feminism, fathers may have less influence.
Define "The Self"
Social scientists use several terms related to the self, many of which are easy to confuse, or are misused in common speech. Be sure you understand each concept and how it differs from the others.
What are Biological and Sociocultural Motivators?
Some motivations are self-explanatory, but are the root of many behaviors we exhibit on a regular basis. o Hunger o Sex Drive o Substance Addiction
What is Spearman's Theory of Intelligence
Spearman = Introduced the concept of General Intelligence—often called the "g factor" and assigned a lowercase variable, g. Spearman argued that general intelligence was the bedrock intellect from which all other forms of intelligence are developed.
Describe Alertness
State of consciousness in which a person is awake, responsive, and capable of processing information.
What is the physiological initial response to stress?
Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system. Chronic stress → ulcers, decreased immune response, increased risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, etc.
What is Distress vs Eustress?
Stress can arise from both positive/pleasant aspects of life (eustress; e.g., graduating, getting married, landing a new job) AND negative/unpleasant aspects of life (distress; e.g., poor performance in school, losing your job, divorce).
What are the 3 primary components of emotion?
Subjective Experience Physiological Response Behavioral Response
In regard to behavior and influence, what is Self-Perception Theory
Suggests that actions influence attitudes because people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior.
Regarding Language, what is Syntax
Syntax refers to the rules that govern how words are ordered into meaningful sentences. Colloquially, we refer to syntax as the rules of grammar.
Subcategorized under Needs-Based Theories of Motivation, Explain the ERG Theory and how it relates to Maslow's Hierarchy of needs. What do the two approaches share in common and how do they differ?
The ERG theory essentially distills Maslow's needs into three different categories: existence needs, relatedness needs, and growth needs. The existence needs combine Maslow's physiological and safety needs into one category. Relatedness needs combine portions of Maslow's love/belonging needs and esteem needs. Growth needs combine portions of Maslow's esteem needs and self-actualization needs. While these two approaches are very similar, one striking difference is that ERG theory presents these needs in an ordinal fashion. While Maslow thought an individual would need to satisfy lower level needs before moving on to higher needs, this is not the case in ERG theory because an individual can be motivated by needs from each category simultaneously.
What is the Elaboration-Likelihood Model of Attitude Change?
The Elaboration-Likelihood model is a theory to explain how attitudes are formed and changed and is often discussed in the context of persuading someone to change their attitudes about a given situation. This particular model describes two different routes by which someone can be persuaded: the central route and the peripheral route. The central route involves thoughtful consideration of information that is being presented. While the central route is more likely to result in lasting change in attitude, the person who is being persuaded must have an open-mind about the relevant issues and be interested enough to really think about the information that is being presented. The peripheral route, on the other hand, can be used when the person who is being persuaded has very little interest in the topic at hand. Here, the person is more affected by their early impressions of the person that is trying to persuade them and their own moods. The peripheral route can result in attitude change, but generally, such changes are much shorter-lived than those accomplished via the central route.
What is the James-Lang theory of emotion
The James-Lang theory of emotion states that emotions arise from physiological arousal. In other words, we only experience fear because of the activation of the sympathetic nervous system upon encountering a threatening stimulus. Because the activation of the sympathetic nervous system looks similar regardless of whether we encounter a threat or the love of our lives
What is the Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion?
The Schachter-Singer theory, therefore, posits that emotions are composed of 2 factors: a physiological component and a cognitive component. Here, physiological arousal is interpreted in context which leads to the emotional experience.
Regarding the Characteristic Model, what is the Message?
The actual words, images, or other information presented to the target. Balance (presentation of both sides of an issue) = Increased likelihood of persuasion.
During the alarm stage of an individual's response to an acute stressor, which physiological changes are most likely? a) dilated pupils, b) constricted pupils, c) increased heart rate, d) decreased heart rate, e) increased blood pressure, f) decreased blood pressure, g) increased blood flow to the digestive organs, h) decreased blood flow to the digestive organs, i) increased glucose production, j) decreased glucose production, k) increased peristalsis, l) decreased peristalsis.
The alarm stage would be associated with increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system and so dilated pupils, increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, decreased blood flow to the digestive organs, increased glucose production, and decreased peristalsis would all be more likely to occur during this stage.
Describe the Learning Theory of language development
The behaviorist (or learning) theory of language development asserts that we are born without any knowledge of language and that we learn language through classical learning mechanisms (e.g., being reinforced for engaging in linguistic behavior) and through observational learning.
A recent study reported that compared to the children of upper class families, children from families of government-defined low socioeconomic status are twice as likely to report night terrors. This suggests that the children of: A) wealthy parents are more likely to experience nighttime elevations in blood pressure. B) wealthy parents are less likely to experience nighttime elevations in blood pressure. C) poor parents are more likely to have constricted pupils when they awake from a night terror. D) poor parents are less likely to have dilated pupils when they awake from a night terror.
The children of wealthy parents are less likely to have night terrors. Night terrors are characterized by hyperstimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, so night terrors would be associated with elevated blood pressure and dilated pupils. Combining this information, we see that A cannot be true because children of wealthy parents are less likely to have night terrors. Answer C is false because children of poor parents are more likely to have terrors, and therefore more likely to have dilated pupils. Answer D is false because children of poor parents are actually more likely to have dilated pupils, not less. Answer B is the correct answer because children of wealthy parents are less likely to have terrors and therefore less likely to experience elevated nighttime blood pressure.
Use Expectancy-Value Theory to rank the following behaviors according to increasing level of motivation: a) purchasing a lottery ticket to win $10,000,000, b) winning a cereal-box sweepstakes among millions of entrants to claim the grand prize of a Secret Decoder Ring c) winning a golf tournament playoff against one opponent for the grand prize of $1,000,000, d) beating your co-worker one-on-one in basketball, having agreed that the loser will buy lunch.
The expectancy value theory of motivation asserts that individuals are more likely to exert effort to accomplish the task if they believe that they have a chance for success and if the task is viewed as valuable. Given this understanding, any task for which an individual believes that there would be a low probability of success would not engender much in the way of motivation. Similarly, any task which is not valued would also not result in much motivation. All of the tasks described here are presumably valued by the individual either because of the monetary value, for "bragging rights," or both. Therefore, the probability of achieving success would be the key variable in these examples. That said, lotto and sweepstakes entries would be lowest on the spectrum. Beating a coworker for lunch would follow, and beating one other person for a million-dollar prize would engender the most motivation.
In regard to influence of groups on identity formation, what is Culture and Socialization?
The expectations and norms of one's culture, along with the socialization processes to which one is subject, provide a strong driving force during identity formation. Certain identities may be encouraged, or discouraged by different cultures.
Using the Foot-in-door Phenomenon, propose a method for each of the following: a) obtaining a large loan for $10,000 from your reluctant father, and b) borrowing your roommate's brand-new car.
The foot-in-door phenomenon describes the increased chance of getting someone to agree to a large request if they have already agreed to a more moderate request. For instance, in trying to obtain a loan of $10,000 from your father, you might ask him if he would be willing to loan you $500 to apply towards some honorable cause. If he agreed to the smaller request, he'd be much more likely to agree to the larger request at some later time. If you were trying to get your roommate to agree to let you borrow his or her brand new car, you might first ask them to let you use the car to run an errand 5 minutes from home. Assuming s/he agreed to this initial request, agreeing to a more long-term request would be much more likely.
Describe the Interactionist Theory of Language Development
The interactionist theory of language development asserts that language acquisition occurs in predictable, fixed stages of development.
Update your BRAIN MAP to indicate the approximate location of the dopaminergic pathway associated with drug addiction.
The mesolimbic dopamine pathway originates in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain and projects to the nucleus accumbens. This pathway is thought to be instrumental in dopamine's role in drugs of abuse. This pathway is shown among several pathways in the image below
Which portion of the brain is primarily responsible for arousal?
The reticular activating system is probably most associated with arousal, but it is by no means the only part of the brain that would be involved in arousal.
Describe the Nativist Theory of Language Development
The nativist (or psycholinguistic) theory asserts that humans are prewired for language at birth and that language will naturally emerge as we grow and interact with our environments.
Regarding the Characteristic Model, what is the Cognitive Routes?
The nature of the approach to persuasion. Main Route = Presentation of data/information to target and asking them to change their mind after evaluating the information. Peripheral Route = Suggesting the target ignore data/information and decide based upon the reliability of the source (Celebrity endorsements utilize this approach).
Suppose a patient is taking an experimental steroid-derived drug suspected to be a steroid antagonist. The patient complains of difficulty sleeping at night and difficulty staying awake during the day. A medical student suggests the drug may be interfering with the normal action of melatonin. Is the student's suggestion a plausible explanation for these observations? Why or why not?
This is a plausible proposition. Melatonin is a hormone produced by the pineal gland that tends to be elevated during times of sleep and lower in times of wakefulness. While melatonin is not a steroid hormone, there is some "cross-talk" between steroidal hormone systems and the melatonin system. The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of cortisol secretion from the adrenal glands and melatonin secretion from the pineal gland. Drugs with steroidal activity might affect the timing of the release of each of these hormones that could interfere with sleep.
What is Identity?
Those descriptive characteristics, qualities, and abilities that make a person unique or different relative to others, especially in relation to, or within, social contexts. ▪ Identity = Self-identity + Group Identities (e.g., national identity, racial identity, cultural identity) ▪ Different from other "self-terms" because it is how I am defined by myself, by others, AND in various situations: "I am a leader. I am a pre-med student. I am a native Pacific Islander." ▪ Answers the questions: "Who am I?"; "Who am I in various social roles or settings?" ▪ THINK: WHO I AM
In regards to Problem Solving, What is Trial and Error
Try it out, test both or multiple options, and discover what works and what doesn't. This is only effective when there are relatively few available options.
What effects can results from Childhood stressors?
[Abuse, neglect, exposure to violence] → avoidance of intimacy, attachment problems, poor school performance, and increased risk of major psychological disorders. [Divorce/marital conflict] → increased life stress as an adult, more family conflict, lack of social support networks, increased propensity for learned helplessness. [war/terrorism] → Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder PTSD, depression.
What effects can result from Adult Stressors?
[Major stressful life event] → frequently precedes first episode of depression. [Life stress generally] → depression, anxiety disorders, increased substance abuse. [Traumatic events] → PTSD, Acute Stress Disorder (ASD).
What are the outcomes of behavioral stress?
negative behavior (increased substance abuse, social withdrawal, aggression, mental health problems).
What are the outcomes of emotional stress?
negative moods and emotions (fear, anger, moodiness, irritability, etc.)
What is Primary and Secondary Appraisal?
o Primary Appraisal = Initial evaluation of the potential threat. It is suggested that we judge the potential threat to be either: irrelevant (unimportant), benign-positive (good), or stressful (bad). o Secondary Appraisal = If the threat is determined to be stressful, the individual next judges whether he or she has the resources to cope with the stress.
Research indicates that people are most likely to behave in a way that matches their attitudes (i.e., no cognitive dissonance) when a person...
• Holds the attitude as the result of personal experience • Is an expert in the subject • Frequently expresses the attitude • Expects a favorable (i.e., positive) outcome • Has a risk of gaining or losing something based on the outcome
Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System
• Skin Temperature = Lower during fear; higher during anger • Skin Conductivity = Indicator of general stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system • Heart Rate = Higher during anger or fear; lower during happiness • Blood Pressure = Higher during anger, fear, sadness AND happiness
What are the 3 primary components of attitude?
▪ Cognitive = How you THINK about something or somebody. ▪ Affective (Emotional) = How you FEEL about something or somebody. ▪ Behavioral = How you BEHAVE toward, or with respect to, somebody or something.
What are the 2 methods to managing stress?
▪ Problem-Solving Approach: Find solutions, obtain help, stress prevention plan, etc. ▪ Emotional Approach: Change how you feel about the stressor through positive thinking, taking personal responsibility, internal locus of control, etc. • Proven Tools for Stress Management = Exercise, relaxation, spirituality.
What is the Cocktail Party Effect?
The cocktail party effect is a specific instance in which we may suddenly shift our attention to something that was previously ignored because of some cue that draws our attention. This gets its name from the experience we have all had where we are at some gathering and we tune out the noise around us to focus on a conversation that we are having with someone nearby. However, if someone says our name, our attention is suddenly shifted to hear what is being said to or about us.
Suppose it is discovered that the kidney has a hormone function that was previously unknown and is currently the subject of further investigation. A researcher exhibiting functional fixedness is likely to favor which new kidney function? A) Secretion of gonadotropins B) Secretion of oxytocin C) Regulation of aldosterone levels D) Regulation of triiodothyronine levels
The functional fixedness bias suggests that a person has a hard time visualizing a tool or object as having a use or application different from the one with which they are accustomed. Applied to kidney function, researchers would be biased toward a new kidney function that is closely related to what they normally expect the kidney to do. Answer C is therefore correct, because it involves a hormone that acts on the kidney. Answers A, B and D are false because these hormones are unrelated to the kidney (based on current understanding) and therefore researches would have a hard time considering them in an unbiased way as possible new functions.
Regarding the 3 primary components of emotion, describe Subjective Experience
(a.k.a., Cognitive Response) = The subjective interpretation of the mood or feeling experienced by the individual.
Provide a conceptual definition for the following types of bias: confirmation bias, overconfidence, belief perseverance, and base rate fallacy. Propose your own real-life example to illustrate each bias.
A number of cognitive biases influence the way in which we think. Often times, these biases can interfere with our ability to make sound judgments and good decisions. Ultimately, we tend to overestimate how "right" we are about some particular opinion or thought and we become subject to the effects of the confirmation bias by seeking out information that agrees with our own perspective and paying less attention to any information that might challenge our previously held beliefs. For instance, if someone believed that elderly individuals are bad drivers, they will take notice each time they encounter an elderly person who is driving recklessly. They will fail to notice the many examples of good driving exhibited by elderly people around them. In cases in which we are confronted with evidence that clearly contradicts our previously held belief, yet continue to hold onto it, we are engaging in belief perseverance. To expand on the example from above, someone would be demonstrating belief perseverance if they continue to assert that elderly people make poor drivers even after reading a news story that indicates that a much higher percentage of younger drivers are involved in automobile accidents than elderly drivers. One of the reasons we might do so relates to the fact that we tend to be very sure of our own judgments and opinions which can lead to overconfidence. We're very unlikely to question the wisdom of our decisions because we suffer from the overconfidence bias. In simple terms, this refers to the fact that we are convinced that we've arrived at the correct decision even when we are wrong. Base rate fallacies occur when representativeness heuristics are used in error. In these situations, individuals fail to take into account general information when dealing with specific cases. For instance, when asked if an individual who is described as thin with horned-rimmed glasses and wearing a tweed coat with leather patches on the elbows is more likely a server at a restaurant or has a PhD in English history, most people would choose the latter. This occurs despite the fact that basic probability (i.e., a much smaller percentage of the population has a PhD in English history than those who are servers in restaurants) would dictate otherwise.
Regarding dreaming, describe Activation-Synthesis Theory
Activation-Synthesis Theory = The limbic system is randomly active during sleep, mimicking incoming stimuli. Dreams are an attempt by the cerebral cortex to synthesize and interpret this activity in a logical way.
What is Binet's Theory of Intelligence
Binet = First to develop an intelligence scale, the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, and the concept of mental age vs. chronological age. Binet's purpose was to identify children who needed extra educational help or attention in school. Adapted by a Stanford professor to create the Stanford-Binet IQ Test widely in use today.
Explain Duncker's candle problem and provide a conceptual definition for functional fixedness. Provide two additional real-life examples of functional fixedness.
Duncker's candle problem is a task that is used to determine how certain types of cognitive bias might influence one's ability to solve a problem. During this task, individuals are asked to fix a burning candle to a corkboard without dripping wax onto a table. The individuals are provided (or are shown a picture of) a book of matches, a box of thumbtacks, and a candle. The correct solution is to empty the box of thumbtacks, secure the box to the wall using the thumbtacks, place the candle in the box, and to light the candle. Many people struggle in solving this task because they cannot conceive of using the box of thumbtacks for anything other than pinning something to a corkboard. This inability to recognize that any given object might serve purposes other than those for which it is traditionally used is an example of functional fixedness. Other examples of functional fixedness might involve searching for hours for a screwdriver to repair a knob on a kitchen drawer without recognizing that one of the knives in the drawer could serve a screwdriver's function. Another example of functional fixedness might occur if you failed to recognize that the heel of your shoe would make an excellent hammer in a pinch.
What are the 4 main theories of intelligence?
Gardner Galton Spearman Binet
What is IQ Correlations?
IQ is positively correlated with the following, and negatively correlated with the opposite, or lack thereof. As usual, intelligence is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. High level of parental expectation Higher socioeconomic status Early educational intervention Adequate nutrition
What is the Stanford-Binet IQ Test?
IQ stands for Intelligence Quotient and is given by the formula below. The mean (M) is 100 and the standard deviation (SD) is 15. S-B tests linguistic intellect and logical-mathematical intellect. S-B is considered a best practice for evaluating differences in intellectual ability. However, the test, and IQ testing generally, is not without criticism. An IQ test measures only certain types of intellect and should NOT be interpreted as implying that IQ is fixed and unchangeable. IQ = mental age/chronological age*100
What is Divided Attention?
In tasks that require divided attention, we must split our attention among multiple tasks. You engage in divided attention when you do something like drive a car while engaging in a conversation with a passenger in the car.
In regards to Problem Solving, What is Algorithms
Mathematical formulas or a step-by-step, flowchart-like approach.
Regarding Language, what is Morphemes
Morphemes (the smallest units of language that carry meaning) can be used by combing one or more phonemes together, and morphology involves focusing on how words are formed from combinations of morphemes.
What role does the Broca's Area play in speech?
Motor aspects of speech (e.g., moving your mouth and tongue) Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area communicate via a bundle of axons called the arcuate fasciculus. This connection allows integration of language comprehension and speech.
Describe Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy = Chronic neurological disorder caused by autoimmune attack of the neurons that release hypocretin—a hormone that normally regulates sleep-wake cycles. Symptoms include cataplexy (defined below) and inappropriate daytime sleep. Patients experience daytime sleepiness similar to that described by normal adults after 24-48 hours of sleep deprivation. During narcolepsy episodes the individual enters REM sleep after 5 minutes or less, when REM is normally reached after 90-120 minutes.
Neural Pathway regarding Alertness
Neural Pathway: The reticular formation of the brain stem stimulates the prefrontal cortex to maintain alertness. Loss of this function = Coma.
In regards to Problem Solving, What is Intuition
One's "gut feeling." Often based on previous experience, in which case, it is an example of unconsciously applying a heuristic, or mental set.
Describe Pain Killers
Opiates, opioids
What is paradoxical sleep
Paradoxical Sleep = Phrase used to describe the ironic fact that during REM sleep alertness, heart rate, breathing, and EEG patterns are nearly that of wakefulness, and yet one's muscles are paralyzed.
Rapid-Eye Movement Sleep (REM)
Rapid-Eye Movement Sleep (REM): REM is an intervallic period of sleep denoted by rapid or random eye movements and a heightened sense of alertness that is greater than any of the sleep stages. It occurs in between the other stages of sleep, with several periods of REM happening throughout the night. The first REM period are shorter and the longest REM period usually occurs in the morning right before waking. Most vivid dreams are thought to occur during REM sleep.
What is Selective Attention?
Selective attention refers to the process by which we focus on one aspect in our environment while ignoring others. Selective attention can lead to inattentional blindness, a lack of attention that is not associated with sensory deficits, (e.g., think of the example of the involving the gorilla that walked amongst the basketball players dressed in black and white that was likely mentioned in your psychology textbook) because we are "blind" to those aspects of the visual field upon which we are not focused.
Regarding Language, what is Semantics
Semantics deal with the meaning of language and involve issues about how meaning is changed as a function of the relationship among the words that are used.
Michael can solve algebra problems more quickly than his little brother, Alan. Michael also has a larger vocabulary. However, on a recent administration of the Stanford-Binet IQ test, Alan scored higher than Michael. Assuming there were no errors or bias in the test, how is this possible?
This is possible because the Stanford-Binet scale is calculated as a function of mental age (MA), divided by chronological age (CA), x 100 (IQ = MA/CA*100). One brother may be more intelligent on various measures, but because he is also older, the denominator (chronological age) will be larger. If both brothers have exactly the same mental age, the older brother will have the smaller IQ. A second reason this could occur is because the exam measures more than algebra and vocabulary. It is possible the brothers have drastically different intellect in the other areas measured by the test.
Update your BRAIN MAP to indicate the regions of the brain that are responsible for maintaining conscious alertness.
When asked to associate alertness with a brain region, THINK: Reticular Formation. The reticular formation communicates with the thalamus and the cerebral cortex to regulate what information comes to our conscious awareness and regulates states of consciousness such as alertness and sleep. Injury to the reticular formation can induce coma.
Provide two real-life examples of a case in which schemas are used to efficiently process new information in an unfamiliar situation. Provide two additional real-life examples of how the use of schemas could have undesirable results.
You might have developed a schema for how to be a successful student in grade school. As a part of this schema, you incorporated the ideas of taking notes regularly, asking questions for clarification, and reviewing those notes in preparing for tests. Once you arrived to college, you were able to use this schema to approach how to be a successful college student. As young children learn language, they probably create schemas about the people, places, and things that they are learning to speak about. For instance, a young child may determine that furry four-legged creatures fit into the schema of "dog." So, they are able to identify a Great Dane as a dog as well as a Chihuahua. However, the use of schemas might also have undesirable results. For instance, the first time the child sees a goat, he or she may classify it as a dog. In the end, the child would likely have to amend the schema for dog to exclude those furry four-legged creatures that do not fit into the category of dog.
What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
the Cannon-Bard theory asserted that the physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time. In other words, fear is felt at the exact same time that sympathetic nervous system activation occurs. However, research indicates that if signals of physiological arousal are blocked, then the emotional experience is blunted.
Regarding Cognitive Changes in Late Adulthood, what are Age-Related Physical Changes to the brain?
the brain literally shrinks in size, AND neural plasticity decreases. Neural plasticity = the brain's ability to change structure and function to accommodate new memories, make new connections, create new motor skills, etc. • Loss of Neurons: The frontal lobe and corpus callosum lose neurons at the fastest rate; the cerebellum eventually loses about 25% of its neurons.
What are other influences on cognitive development?
• CULTURE: Different expectations and traditions; different cultures will reward different behaviors because of different values. • HEREDITY: Inheritance of genetic predispositions; inherited disorders such as Down's Syndrome or Autism. • ENVIRONMENT: different parenting styles can reward different behaviors; exposure to environmental chemicals or toxins; fetal environment (e.g., fetal alcohol syndrome) • BIOLOGY: metabolic or other biological conditions can alter cognition or cause brain damage.
What 3 barriers to effective problem solving?
• Mental Set = Predetermined mental framework for approaching a problem; a tendency to rely on approaches and solutions that have worked in the past. Mental sets can lead to rigid thinking and a lack of cognitive flexibility. • Functional Fixedness = One example of a mental set in which, when solving a problem, we can only visualize using an object or tool in the ways we have seen it used previously. • Cognitive Bias = An error in thinking that leads to inaccuracy, illogical thought, a lack of objectivity, a failure to consider all available options or consequences, or prejudice toward one approach or outcome.
What are the stages of sleep?
• Stage One = Falling asleep, EEG is a mix of alpha and theta waves. • Stage Two = Deeper sleep, EEG is theta waves mixed with sleep spindles and K complexes. • Stage Three = Transitional, EEG is mostly theta waves, but delta waves begin to appear. • Stage Four = Deep sleep, often called "delta sleep" because the EEG contains slow (low frequency) delta waves.
Ekman's proposed 7 universal emotions
▪ Fear ▪ Anger ▪ Happiness ▪ Surprise ▪ Joy ▪ Disgust ▪ Sadness
What are the 3 main Theories of Emotion?
▪ James-Lange ▪ Cannon-Bard ▪ Schachter-Singer
What are the 3 theories of Language Development?
▪ Learning (a.k.a., environmental, behaviorist, nurture) ▪ Nativist (a.k.a., biological or nature) ▪ Interactionist
Regarding cognition, what are the steps in the Information Processing Theory/Model?
▪ Thinking: Thinking includes perception of stimuli, encoding that stimuli, and storage of that information for later retrieval. ▪ Analysis of Stimuli: As a part of decision-making, stimuli are altered and analyzed by the brain, not just responded to automatically. ▪ Situational Modification: Stored decision-making and problem-solving experiences from the past can be extrapolated to solve new problems. ▪ Obstacle Evaluation: An individual's skill level in problem-solving does not depend solely on their cognitive development level, but largely on the nature and context of the problem/obstacle.