Psychology 241
Sensorimotor stage
(birth-2 years) infants use their senses and motor actions to explore and understand the world. They deal with the world through their perceptions (senses) and actions (motor skills), because they are unable to use symbols (gestures, images, or words). They learn a great deal by exploring the world, and acquire tools along the way.
psychosocial stages
Erikson's theory that humans everywhere experience these 8 stages, pushed by both biological maturation and social demands into the next stage, regardless of whether the conflict of a particular stage is resolved or not.
thalidomide
introduced as a sedative drug in the late 1950s, then banned in the early 1960s after it was found to cause deformed limbs in the children of women who took it early in pregnancy.
repression
removing unacceptable thoughts of traumatic experiences from consciousness.
Cross-sectional Designs
research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time. studied age differences rather than age changes. Age effects- relationship between age (a rough proxy for changes brought about by nature and nurture) and development Cohort- group of individuals born at the same time, either in the same year or within specified span of years. (historical context or period)
The Scientific Method
systematic observation, explanation of phenomena (Theory), Hypotheses, research study, and then draw conclusions
Brain Damage and Recovery
timing and plasticity are important for recovery, brain is pretty resilient and tough, very fragile but very tough for kids. For adult, a nearby area might take over, but it won't take over what got damaged, (if gets damaged in sensory area, and other parts will creep in, but sensory area gets way more sensitive) (go back to this slide)
conception
to begin to understand how genes contribute to differences among humans, we must start at this moment- when an egg is fertilized by a sperm - look at the workings of genes, and then consider the mechanisms through which genes influence traits
Nutrition for Children
children prefer familiar foods that they have been around and have been eating their whole lives, they also imitate other people, highly restricting increases desire, parental pressures can backfire, forcing children to eat foods they don't want to can be an issue, children are natural regulators (big lunch, small dinner) body knows how to do it unlike older people, decreased attention and behavioral problems
systems theories
claim that changes over the life span arise from ongoing transactions in which a changing organism and a changing environment affect one another.
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
(1-3 years) Children must learn to be autonomous -- to assert their wills and do things for themselves -- or they will doubt their abilities.
anal stage
(1-3 years) Libido is focus on the anus, and toilet training creates conflicts between the child's biological urges and the society's demands.
genital stage
(12 years and older) Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youths seek to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of reproduction.
Identity vs. role confusion
(12-20 years) Adolescents ask who they are and must establish social and vocational identities; otherwise, they will remain confused about the roles they should play as adults.
Preoperational stage
(2-7 years) now developed the capacity for symbolic thought but is not yet capable of logical problem solving. Nonetheless, have egocentric personalities, having difficulty adopting perspectives other than their own and may cling to incorrect ideas solely because they want them to be true, easily fooled by appearances (conservation tests)
Intimacy vs. isolation
(20-40 years) Young adults seek to form a shared identity with another person, but may fear intimacy and experience loneliness and isolation.
phallic stage
(3-6 years old) Libido centers on the genitals. Resolution of the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in identification with the same-sex parent, and development of the superego.
Initiative vs. guilt
(3-6 years) Preschoolers develop initiative by devising and carrying out bold plans, but they must learn not to impinge on the rights of others.
Generativity vs. stagnation
(40-65 years) Middle-aged adults must feel that they are producing something that will outlive them, either as parents or as workers; otherwise, they will become stagnant and self-centered.
latent period
(6-12 years old) Libido is quiet, physic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same-sex friends
Industry vs. inferiority
(6-12 years) Children must master important social and academic skills and keep up with their peers; otherwise, they will feel inferior.
Integrity vs. despair
(65 years-older) Older adults must come to view their lives as meaningful to face death without worries and regrets.
Concrete operations stage
(7-11 years) school children are more logical than preschoolers, mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.
Jean Piaget
(Cognitive Development theories) Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, very observant, coding IQ tests for Binet, noticed children perform differently than adults, but always different in same way. Maybe its totally different from adults, can't even compare. He made the field of cognitive development. He wanted to know how thinking grows as you mature from a child to older.
B.F. Skinner
(Learning Theory) 1904-1990; Operant conditioning, Field: behavioral; Contributions: created techniques to manipulate the consequences of an organism's behavior in order to observe the effects of subsequent behavior; Studies: Skinner box
John B. Watson
(Learning Theory) developed behaviorism and classical conditioning, rejected pyschoanalytic theory and demonstrated that some of Freud's discoveries about human behavior could be explained as learned associations between stimuli and responses. Watson set out to demonstrate that fears can be learned, and not necessarily inborn. Basic view was further advanced by B.F. Skinner.
Albert Bandura
(Learning theory) developed social cognitive theory. Stanford Psychologist, Pioneer in observational learning, (AKA social learning), stated that people profit from the mistakes/successes of others; Studies: Bobo Dolls-adults demonstrated 'appropriate' play with dolls, children mimicked play
trust vs. mistrust
(birth to 1 year) revolves around whether or not infants become able to rely on other people to be responsive to their needs. Infants must learn to trust their caregivers to meet their needs. Responsive parenting is critical.
oral stage
(birth- 1 year) Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to later development
incomplete dominance
when crossing red and white flowers produce pink or when dark and light skinned parents have a child with light brown skin.
social learning theory
-The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished. -Humans are cognitive begins whose active processing of information plays a critical role in their learning, behavior in development.
Germinal Period
1) 1st divison - 30 hours 2) Blastocyst- fluid filled ball, 150 cells in 4 days 3) Implantation - after 1st week 4) End of 2nd week - embedded in uterine wall
emerging adulthood
18-25 or even later (transition period between adolescence and adulthood)
early childhood/preschool period
2-6 years
early adulthood
25-40 years (adult roles are established)
middle adulthood
40-65 years
middle childhood period
6 to about 10 (until the onset of puberty)
late adulthood
65 years and older (some break out subcategories such as the young old, old-old, and very old based on differences in functioning
fetal period
9th week to birth, growth and finishing, by about 12 weeks most movements that will be present at birth. Critical part of brain development, number of neurons increases through proliferation.
positive punishment
A behavior is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus that decreases the future frequency of the behavior (spanking for bad behavior)
gamete
A haploid cell such as an egg or sperm. Gametes unite during sexual reproduction to produce a zygote.
experimental method
A method of investigation used to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships by purposely manipulating one factor thought to produce change in another factor. (cause and effect, experimental control, random sampling, random assignment) Problems: may not generalize to real world settings, may not be possible -Quasi Experiments, no manipulated IV
gene expression
A multitude of environmental factors -- not only in the womb but throughout the life span -- influence which genes go into action when. Gene expression is the activation of particular genes in particular cells of the body at particular times; only if a gene is "turned on" is it influential. Gene expression is what ultimately influences our traits and therefore converts genotypes into phenotypes. Influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, drugs, toxins, and even early parenting.
negative punishment
A response behavior is followed immediately by the removal of a stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of the stimulus), that decreases the future frequency of similar responses under similar conditions. (losing TV or computer privileges)
sex linked characteristics
A trait that is influenced by single genes located on the sex chromosomes (23rd chromosome), more genes on X chromosomes, less on Y chromosomes. Males often do not have the overriding gene, so the trait is expressed.
Formal operations stage (11-12 years-older)
Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.
zygote
a sperm cell and an ovum (gamete) each contribute 23 chromosomes to the zygote, or fertilized egg, to give it 46 chromosomes total, organized into 23 pairs.
from genotype to phenotype
An individual whose genotype cals for exceptional height may or may not be tall. Indeed, a child who is severely malnourished from the prenatal period onward may have the genetic potential to be a basketball center but end up too short to make the team. Environmental influenced combine with genetic influences to determine how a particular genotype is translated into a particular phenotype- the way a person looks, thinks, feels, or behaves.
embryo
An organism in the earliest stage of development
Low Birth Weight
Average is 7.5 lbs, under 5.5 is LBW, Preterm if born before 35 weeks, small for date: weigh less than average
reciprocal determinism
Bandura's idea that though our environment affects us, we also affect our environment
stage theorists
Believe that people everywhere follow the SAME (general) sequence of development
Legal drugs on development
Caffeine- Flows through to placenta, possible miscarriage if too much, increases blood pressure, heart rate, and urination, irritability at birth, growth restrictions Medicine- occasional low dose is okay, but used in large quantities may cause bleeding and intestinal discomfort. Large amount of over-the-counter drugs like Advil have been associated with low birth weight, prematurity, and increased risk of miscarriage. Antidepressants- Drugs such as Prozac may place infants at greater risk for low-birth weight and respiratory disease. Slightly inconclusive because some may be more depressed than others.
processes of development
Cell division, Cell migration, Cell differentiation, Apoptosis (cell death).
Illegal drugs on development
Cocaine- premature delivery, spontaneous abortion, and low birthweight, possibly later learning and behavior problems. Heroin/opiates- increases risk of premature delivery and low birth weight. The newborn is often addicted and experiences potentially fatal withdrawal symptoms like vomiting and convulsion, sometimes even long term cognitive problems. Methamphetamines- increased rates of premature delivery, placental abruption (separation of the placental lining from the uterus), and various effects on babies prenatally exposed to methamphetamine, including small size, lethargy, and heart and brain abnormalities.
placenta
a tissue fed by blood vessels from the mother and connected to the embryo by the umbilici chord.
amnion
a watertight membrane that fills with fluid that cushions the embryo
ovum
Female sex cell
spina bifida
In approximately 1 out of 2,000 pregnancies, when the neural tube fails to fully close. This means that part of the spinal cord is not fully encased in the protective covering of the spinal column. Children with spina bifida typically have neurological problems depending on size and location of the opening.
universality-context specificity issue
Is development similar from person to person and from culture to culture or do pathways of development vary considerable depending on the social context? ex: all preschool kids start to realize that dreams aren't real vs. kids in Taiwan believing that dreams are real more and more because adults in their community believe it.
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (ex: beeping seatbelt noise)
Aging
Involves more than biological aging, it refers to a range of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes, positive and negative, in the mature organism. Children gain many cognitive abilities as they get older, they also lose self-esteem and become more prone to depression.
Nature vs. Nurture
John Locke believed that human behavior is solely determined by nurture, and that humans were essentially born a blank slate, or "tabula rasa" and shaped through their life experiences. Jean Jacques Rousseau believed that human development occurs due to individual genes meaning that human behavior/trait is there at birth.
Environmental pollutants
Lead- smaller at birth and may be born preterm. They also show impaired intellectual functioning as children in proportion to the amount of lead in their umbilical cords, and allergies. Pesticides- associated with prenatal and postnatal problems. Poor infant reflexes in infants, lower IQ scores, greater body fat relative to those who aren't exposed, smaller genitals, early breast development because of functioning hormones, neural tube defects
latent learning
Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement but is not demonstrated until such time as reinforcement occurs.
social clock
a persons sense of when things should be done and when he or she is ahead or behind the schedule dictated by age norms (reason why age norms are important, and what they're based off of)
Historical changes in childhood
Not until the 17th century in Western Cultures did children come to be viewed as distinctly different from adults, as innocents to be protected and nurtured. In medieval Europe, 6 year olds were dressed in miniature versions of adult clothing, treated as mini adults.
Maternal factors
Nutrition- Emotional State- don't be in a stressed environment you're entire pregnancy. Age- Under 16, infant mortality and premature, down syndrome risk. Under 30, 1 in 1000. 40, 1 and 105, very young mothers aren't going to the doctor regularly.
vicarious reinforcement
Phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response.
Longitudinal Designs
Same individuals studied multiple times across time. In the same cohort, Information about age changes rather than age differences, Can reveal things that remain consistent. (Age changes rather than age differences) vocabulary skills over aging time.
dominant gene
The "stronger" form of a gene that is always expressed when it is present.
Age of viability
The age (about 22 weeks/5 months after conception) at which a fetus may survive outside the mother's uterus if specialized medical care is available.
Activity-passivity issue
The issue in developmental theory centering on whether humans are active contributors to their own development or are passively shaped by forces beyond their control.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
X chromosome
The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Data collection
Verbal reports- interviews, written questionnaires or surveys, ability and achievement tests, and personality scales all involve asking people question, either about themselves or about someone else. Behavioral observations: Naturalistic observation, involves observing people in their everyday (natural) surroundings. Ongoing behavior is observed in homes, schools, playgrounds, workplaces, nursing homes, or wherever people are going about their lives (Observe behaviors in regular setting, Observer can influence behavior, May not know what influenced behaviors, Behaviors may be rare/hard to observe.). Structured Observation- create special stimuli, tasks, or situations designed to elicit the behavior of interest. Physiological measurements- assess variables of interest to them, hard to fake, helpful for study on infants. (fMRI)- brain scanning technique that uses magnetic forces to measure the increase in blood flow to an area of the brain that occurs when that brain area is active. (MEG, EEG, FMRI)
meiosis
When a reproductive cell in the ovary of a female or the testis of a male that contains the usual 46 chromosomes splits to form two 46-chromsome cells, and these two cells each split again to form a total of four cells. In this last step, each resulting cell receives only 23 chromosomes. The end product is one egg, and three non function cells that play no role in the production in a female, or four sperm in a male. Sperm and ova, only have 23 chromosomes because of this special process. Males: Puberty, continues throughout adolescence and adulthood, produces four sperm each with 23 chromosomes, and accomplished formation of male reproductive cells. Females: Begins in early prenatal period when unripened ova form, continues through reproductive years; an ovum ripens each months of the menstrual cycle, produces ovum and three nonfunctional polar bodies, each with 23 chromosomes, accomplished formation of female reproductive cells
classical conditioning
a simple form of learning in which a stimulus that initially had no effect on the individual comes to elicit a response through its association with a stimulus that already elicits the response. Dog salivation experiment demonstrates this concept. Proved that emotional responses can be learned.
quasi experiment
a biased sampling technique in which a researcher identifies subsets of the population of interest, sets a target number for each category in the sample, and nonrandomly selects individuals within each category until the quotas are filled
chorion
a membrane that surrounds the amnion and attaches root like extensions called villi to the uterine lining to gather nourishment for the embryo. It eventually becomes the lining of the placenta.
teratogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm (deformities, blindness, brain damage, or even death) 15% of newborns have minor problems, and even fewer - perhaps 15%. -Critical period: the effects of a teratogenic agent are worst during the critical period when an organ system grows most rapidly -Dosage and duration: the greater the level of exposure and the longer the exposure to a teratogen, the more likely it is that serious damage will occur. -Genetic makeup: the mothers genetic makeup, and the resistance to teratogens, quality of environments.
fraternal twins
also called dizygotic twins because two eggs are involved, result when two ova are released at approximately the same time and each is fertilized by a different sperm, as happens in about 1 of every 125 births. (2 separate fertilized eggs)
identical twins
also called monozygotic twins, the one exception of the rarity of ever having some exactly like you genetically. This occurs when one fertilized ovum divides to form two or more genetically identical individuals. Because a sibling shares around 50% of their siblings with their mother and father, there's a good chance they share on average 50% with you as well. (1 fertilized egg splits into two)
adolescence
approximately 10-18 (or from puberty to when the individual becomes relatively independent)
Birth
at around 38 weeks, a fetus will turn upside down, and releases a protein that triggers labor, which thins the cervix (effacement) and then the cervix opens (dilation), which forces the baby down the birth canal, the head appears, followed by the shoulders and then the rest of the baby body, with a few final pushes, the placenta is delivered. (delivery 20-50 minutes) Head squeezing for baby looks rough but is actually beneficial, forces fluid from the lungs, wakes baby up, and lets out protein. After birth where placenta comes out, why people want a doctor, if placenta breaks you could have huge amount of blood loss.
Id
at birth, there is only the id, the impulsive, irrational, and selfish part of the personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. Id seeks immediate gratification, crying until needs are met.
extinction
behavior that is ignored, for no longer reinforced, tends to become less frequent
maturation
biological processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experiences
DNA
both members of a chromosome pair, one from the mother and one from the father, influence the same characteristics. Each chromosome consists of strands of DNA, the double helix molecule whose chemical code is our genetic endowment. DNA is made up of sequences of four chemicals ACGT, these functional units sequences are called genes.
Brain Development
brain is about one-third of the size of an adult brain, day 1 has a lot going on, brain is ready to learn things and grow and development. Early stage in the first year of life you're developing brain cells (neurons), but 2nd year of life you start to become overwhelmed with synapses (synaptogenesis). It's a little too much, chaotic. (Synaptic pruning) stuff you use becomes stronger, and stuff you don't leaves, has potential to learn any language. You also get more glial cells, (take out waste and bring in nutrient) which create myelination which makes neurotransmissions faster, rubber coding like a wire. Frontal lobe- planning inhibition, some of our personality characteristics, audacity, during adolescence they fall apart again and have to figure themselves out again, changing often
chronosystem
captures the idea that people and their environments and the relations between the two change over time and unfold in particular patters or sequences over a person's lifetime. Bronfenbrenner's- final system; consists of environmental events that occur over an individual's lifespan and impact the individual in ways that depend on the individual's circumstances and developmental stage (e.g. the immediate and long-term effects of a change in family structure or socioeconomic status). , Brofenbrenner's design meaning time. Life changes can be imposed externally or can arise from within the person, since individuals shape many of their own settings and experiences
unconscious motivation and instincts
central to Freudian theory that says that humans have basic biological urges or drives that must be satisfied, and that newborns are inherently selfish, aggressive beings driven by instincts -- inborn biological forces that motivate behavior. Freud believed in unconscious motivation -- the power of instincts and other inner forces to influence our behavior without our awareness.
Constructivism
children actively construct their own understandings of the world based on their experiences. They can start of with actual false things, but eventually use these opinions to revise their understandings to make them better fit reality. (little scientists)
Sequential design
combines the cross-sectional approach and longitudinal approach in a single study. A researcher starts with people of different ages and studies them again at later times. 1) Tells which age-related trends are truly developmental in nature and reflect how most people, regardless of cohort, can be expected to change over time. 2) Which age trends differ in different cohorts and differed by growing up experiences 3) Which trends suggest that events during a specific period of history affect all cohorts alive at the time.
Prenatal period
conception to birth
umbilical cord
connects placenta and embryo
exosystem
consists of linkages involving social settings that individuals do not experience directly but that can still influence their development. Ex: Children can be affected by how their parents' day at work went.
mesosystem
consists of the interrelationships between two or more microsystem. Ex: teenagers from Mexican, Chinese, European American backgrounds who experience stressful events such as arguments in the family (one microsystem) report increased problems of poor attendance and difficulty learning (a second microsystem) for a couple days afterwards, as well as four years later.
development
constancy and change between conception and death, from womb to tomb. Physical Development Cognitive Development Psychosocial Development
Uri Bronfenbrenner
created Bioecological model of development model which described the individuals development in interaction with the immediate environment. Development is a continuous and is an ACTIVE process. Founded series of environmental systems.
continuity-discontinuity issue
debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct developmental stages (discontinuity). This debate also highlights quantitative change (changes in degree and indicate continuity: growing more tall, knowing more vocabulary words, gains more winkles, or talks to friends less) and qualitative (change in kind and suggest discontinuity, changes that make the individual fundamentally different in some way, caterpillar into butterfly, nonverbal infant into a toddler who uses language). ex: little frog to bigger frog vs. tadpole to frog
Behaviorism
developed by John B. Watson, that conclusions about human development and functioning should be based on observations of overt behavior rather than on speculations about unobservable cognitive and emotional processes.
psychoanalytic theory
developed by Sigmund Freud, focused on the development and dynamics of the personality, challenged prevailing notions of human nature and human development. It proposed that people are driven by motives and emotional conflicts of which they are largely unaware and that they are shaped by their earliest experiences in the family. Though Freud's theory includes environmental influences on development in the first 5 years of life, his theory leans towards the nature side of nature vs. nurture issue: Development is shaped by biological forces that provide an unconscious motivation for behavior.
Sigmund Freud
developed the psychoanalytic theory that challenged prevailing notions of human nature and human development, followed by Erik Erikson.
Cerebral Lateralization
different hemispheres, left and right, are assigned to different types of tasks. Hemisphere controls the opposite side of your body. Nobody knows why. Brain becomes more compartmentalized with age. Left handed are more creative and artsy, right handed are more math and logic Left Hemisphere: analytic processing, uses more logic, for most people houses language, verbal capacity Right Hemisphere: holistic processing, spacial abilities, possibly negative emotion. Young brains are less lateralized (if something happens, another part will take over), are more capable of that, trauma is easier to overcome in children than in adults
Alcohol
directly crosses the placenta, disrupting developmental processes. Causes Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, with noticeable physical symptoms such as small head and distinctive facial abnormalities. Children with FAS have physical symptoms such as small head and facial abnormalities. Low IQ, hyperactivity, startle reflex messed up Up to 5th month of pregnancy - no other substances, good prenatal care. Followed until 7th year- Moderate drinking leads to subtle damage.
Eating: Don'ts
don't provide unlimited amount of different foods (make whatever a kid wants), force/coerce (can make you dislike a food greatly) or even offer rewards because then (goal is getting ice cream not eating spinach), don't force eating a certain amount, or totally control diet because when they go to school or are on their own who knows whats going to happen, give them liberties but help them develop things they like etc.
Mendelian (single gene-pair) inheritance
each of thousands of human characteristics are influenced by only one pair of genes - one from the mother, one from the father. Gregor Mendel contributed to single gene pair inheritance by cross breeding different strains of peas and carefully observing the outcomes. Ex: three fourths of us can curl our tongues in a tubelike shape, one fourth of us cannot. This is because there is a gene associated with tongue curling; it is a dominant gene, meaning that it will be expressed when paired with a recessive gene, a weaker gene that can be dominated.
age grade
each socially defined age group in a society, is assigned different statuses, roles, privileges, and responsibility. (18 year voting privileges, etc)
anencephaly
failure to close at the top of the neural tube leads to this, a lethal defect in which the main portion of the brain above the brain stem fails to develop. Neural tube defects occur by 26 days after conception and are more common when the mother is deficient in folate, a type of B vitamin that is critical for normal gene function, caused by birth control pills and poor nutrition, helped highlight importance of good maternal nutrition for child development.
lanugo
fine, downy, unpigmented hair that appears on the fetus in the last 3 months of development
Infancy/toddlerhood period
first 2 years of life (the first month is the neonatal or newborn period)
correlational method
generally involves determining whether two or more variables are related in a systematic way. No random assignment or manipulated IV. -1 TO 1 relativity. correlational coefficient- an index of the extent to which individuals' scores on one variable are systematically associated with their scores on another variables.
Adolescent brain
grey matter decreases through teens, brain gets faster, white matter increases (I play baseball, I play violin, so lets get good at these things), amygdala may differ (go back to this slide), is it worse or different (but definitely some development) amygdala works differently in adulthood (emotional responses get allocated to other parts of your brain) more cold processing, adolescents misread emotions (show a picture of face getting scared and might think its fear), sleep changes in adolescence, need more sleep than you did (10 vs 8), can lead to weight problems, brain is more susceptible to alcohol during adolescence
nature-nurture issue
how biological forces and environmental forces act and interact to make us what we are. Answer: Developmental changes are the products of a complex interplay between nature and nurture. To make matters more complex, it is nature affecting nurture and nurture affect nature. Biology (nature) provides us with a brain that allows us to learn from our experiences (nature) experiences that in turn change our brains by altering neural connections and can even change our genes by activating or deactivating them.
microsystem
immediate physical and social environment in which the person interacts face-to-face with other people and influences and is affected by them.
operant conditioning
in which a learner's behavior becomes either more or less probable depending on the consequences it produces. In operant conditioning, a learner first behaves in some way (rather than automatically to a stimulus like in classical conditioning, and then comes to associate this action with the positive or negative consequences that follow it. For this reason, People tend to repeat behaviors that have desirable consequences and cut down on behaviors that have undesirable consequences.
Tobacco
increased risk of miscarriage, prematurity, growth retardation, small size, respiratory problems, cleft lips and palates, CNS impairment, and later problems such as inflammatory owl disease, it also raises the risk of SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) in which a sleeping baby dies, Low birth weight, reading and math, hyperactivity.
genotype
inherited genetic material, the genetic makeup a person inherits
germinal period
lasts approximately 2 weeks, the first day is when fertilization usually occurs, the second day is when the single-celled zygote begins to divide 24-36 hours after fertilization, 3-4 day is when the mass has 16 cells and is called a moral; it is traveling down the fallopian tube to the uterus, on the 5th day the inner cell mass forms; the entire mass is called a blastocyst and is the size of a pinhead, 6-7 day is when the blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus. 8-14 is when the blastocyst becomes fully embedded in the wall of the uterus. It now has about 250 cells. (STOPPED HERE)
embryonic period
lasts from the 3rd to 8 week of conception. The period of prenatal development that occurs two to eight weeks after conception. During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for the cells form, and organs appear. (gives rise to the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.) Fertilized egg, all genetic material, chemical reaction seals the membrane. The beginning of a brain are apparent after only 3-4 weeks, when the neural plate folds up to form the neural tube. The bottom of the tube becomes the spinal cord. "Lumps" emerge at the top of the tube and from the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. They regulate such biological functions as digestion, respiration, and elimination; and control sleep-wake states and simple motor functions.
case study method
lots of information about the individual, generate hypotheses, atypical development, and difficult to generalize
Erik Erikson
net-freudian who influenced thinking about life-span development, compared to Freud, Erikson placed less emphasis on sexual urges and the drivers of development and more emphasis on social influences, placed less emphasis on the unconscious and irrational id, and more on the rational ego and its adaptive powers, held a more positive view of human nature, seeing people as rational and active in their development, and more emphasis on development after adolescence
Adulthood
neuron loss (brain is getting smaller) sensory and motor areas, a lot of elderly people get parkinson which happens through one area of basal ganglia, after a certain amount you're not making enough dopamine to initiate movement and dying off. Brain is losing connections (falling away) in an older adult, 12% loss versus 30% white matter loss, which is why people have cognitive deficits. Chemical loss (dopamine, serotonin) could be related to overall health problems, high blood pressure is bad, this is where your brain is, your brain can't get there. Sleep needs decline too, when we get into 50-90 years you only need 6-7 hours, and REM sleep declines too
Growth influences
no reason for being small besides emotional stress (not ideal home environment, just not growing) psychosocial dwarfism, if you move them to somewhere emotionally better, they will catch up eventually. Nutrition and disease will stunt growth, liver diseases and things in your digestive system which leads to a lack of nutrients, we also all need to have enough sleep to grow
protective factors
nutrition and exercise (cardio builds new brain cells (neurogenesis), cross country students have great GPA's all running makes brain better, level of education
phenotype
observable characteristics, physical and behavioral, the characteristic or threat the person eventually has (5'8 inches tall)
sex determination
of the 23 pairs of chromosomes that each individual inherits, 22 are similar in males and females. The chromosomes of the 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes.
Sociocultural perspective
offered by Lev Vygotsky, disagrees with Piaget's notion of universal stages of cognitive development, and says that cognitive development is shaped by the sociocultural context in which it occurs and grows out of children's interactions with members of their culture. Culture, in forms of language, art media, math systems, shapes thought. While Piaget tended to see children as independent explorers, Vygotsky saw them as social beings who develop their minds through their interactions with more knowledgeable members of their culture.
Historical changes in adulthood/late adulthood
once labeled a time of crisis due to children leaving the house, labeled as a time of hardly any change, now understood to be a time of good health, peak cognitive functions, stable relationships, responsibilities, and high satisfaction. In the old days people worked until they dropped, especially because not many people made it to old age, in current time is a period of retirement and relaxation. Now people can retire in their 60s due to social security, pensions, Medicare, and other support programs, working adults began to retire in their 60s
Eating: Do's
provide access to healthy foods, present new foods, assume child can regulate eating, and expect variability in amounts consumed
ego
rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic ays of gratifying the instincts. According to Freud, the ego begins to emerge during infancy and takes the form of cognitive processes such as perception, learning, and problem solving. As the ego matures, children become more capable of postponing pleasures to a more appropriate time.
Resiliency
recovering from potential harmful/damaging experiences for babies, the more risk factors, the more negative the outcome probably is. 2 main protective factors. 1) Responsive caretaker- social support needed within or outside the family, or find at least one person who loves them and who they feel secure with. 2) Personal characteristics: intelligence, sense of being capable, more happy and aware and control of their life experience, to help them choose or choose to create a more positive environment.
nature
refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are - from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics. (inborn or innate, and maturation - the biological unfolding of the individual according to a blueprint contained in the genes.)
nurture
refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social relationships, and our surrounding culture. (environments that influence development)
regression
retreating to an earlier, less traumatic stage of development, caused by anxiety
Psychosexual stages
shifting from one part of the body to another, seeking to gratify different biological needs, including oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital.
Observational learning
simply learning by observing the behavior of other people. By learning from and imitating other people, children can master computer skills and math problems, as well as how to swear and smoke. Observational learning is regarded as a more cognitive form of learning than conditioning because learners must pay attention, construct and remember mental representations of what they saw, retrieve these representations from memory later, and use them to guide behavior.
Baby Sleep Cycles
sleeps a lot, maybes have more cycles, and 50% of their sleep in REM sleep. By the time they're a year, only around 30% REM sleep. Sleeping 16 hours a day at first, and then around 12 hours by one year. Infant REM sleep, so much because central nervous system development, related to visual system (auto simulation theory) need muscle practice when eyes are moving around a lot during REM sleep, babies have 0 vision because they don't have the muscle to focus, can't see color for a while (Working on the visual system)
vernix
substance that protects the fetus's skin during development
Biological aging
the deterioration of organisms that lead inevitably to their death. (Growth in early life, stability in early and middle adulthood, and decline associated with now-accumulated effects of aging later in life.
defense mechanisms
the ego adopts these unconscious coping devices such as repression and regression
id, ego, superego
the id communicates its basic needs, the ego restrains the impulsive id long enough to find realistic ways to satisfy these needs, and the superego decides whether the ego's problem solving strategies are morally acceptable.
macrosystem
the larger cultural content in which the microsystem, mesosystem, and exosystem are embedded. The cultural and subcultural context in which the other systems are embedded. e.g. racism, socioeconomic conditions, cultural ideals re: child-rearing--all things that affect the child's development, outermost level of bronfenbernner's model that is not a specific context but consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources (political systems, laws, religion, values, lifestyles)
polygenic traits
the most important human characteristic, they are influenced by multiple pairs of genes, interacting with multiple environmental factors, rather than by a single pair of genes. Examples influence height, weight, intelligence, personality, susceptibility to cancer and depression, and much more. (traits controlled by two or more genes)
libido
the physic energy of the sex instinct
growth
the physical changes that occur from conception to maturity.
myelination
the process by which axons become coated with myelin, a fatty substance that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron
organogenesis
the process where every major organ takes shape, in at least a primitive form. The layers of the blastocyst differentiate, forming structures that sustain development. 1 inch long, rapid growth
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
mitosis
the single-celled zygote formed at conception becomes a multiple-celled organism through the more usual process of cell division, mitosis. During mitosis, a cell (and each of its 46 chromosomes) divides to produce two identical cells, each containing the same 46 chromosomes. As the zygote moves through the fallopian tube toward its prenatal home in the uterus, its first divides into two cells; the two then become four, the four become eight, and so on, all through mitosis. Mitosis continues throughout life, creating new cells that enable us to grow and replacing old cells that are damaged. Simply Put: Mitosis begins in conception, continues throughout life span, produces two identical daughter cells, each with 46 chromosomes like its parent, accomplishes growth of human from fertilized egg, renewal of the body's cells
Third-variable problem
when both variables could've been affected by a third party variable
independent variable
the variable manipulated so that its casual effects can be assessed- have different effects on the behavior expected to be affected
Newborns
their brain is big, but it is not ready, still needs input and work which is why our parents hang around so long, come in with some things to help us, reflexes- inborn, there when you're born very adorable, mechanical response to a certain situation. Touch a baby's foot, survival aspect. Sucking reflex, need to eat, rooting reflex which moves face towards nipple for nutrition. Most go away around 6 months, and come back as a real intentional behavior. Sometimes these aren't there the day a baby is born, if the baby keeps fanning its foot at 8 or 9 months, might be a sign of CNS issue
superego
third part of Freudian personality, the individuals internalized moral standards, develops from the ego as 3-6 year old children internalize the moral standards and values of their parents. once the superego emerges, children have a parental voice in their heads that keeps them from violating society's rules and makes them feel guilty or ashamed if they do, finds acceptable outlets for the id's undesirable impulses.
Chromosomes
threadlike bodies in the nucleus of each cell and are made up of genes, the basic units of heredity, one member of the chromosome pair come from the father, and one member came from the mother.
prenatal development
three stages: germinal period, embryonic period, and the fetal period
Historical changes in adolescence/ emerging adulthood
transition period between childhood and adulthood that begins with puberty and and involves significant physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes -- recognized as a distinct phase of the life span. Industrialization advanced, educated labor force was needed, so laws were passed restricting child labor, making school compulsory, separating youths attending school from the adult world. Emerging adulthood has been defined in the late 20th and 21st centuries because of how long the period from childhood to adult has become.
codominance
two genes influence a trait but each is expressed in the product, as when crossing a red and white flowers produces flowers with both red and white stripes.
age norms
what people should and should not do at different points in the life span (age expectations)
recessive gene
when inherited from both parents, the offspring will have that condition; when inherited from only one parent, the offspring will not have the condition (dominant gene overpowers)
Directionality problem
when you can't tell which variable affected the other
Ethical issues
• Avoid harm, informed consent, debriefing. • Consent. • Understand consequences, communicate a choice. • Assent. • Somewhat impaired, affirmative agreement.