Psychology Ch. 6-10
Zygote splits into a _________________.
blastocyst
a remarried couple that has atleast one step child living with them deifines a blank family
blended
reconstructionist model of memory
blending of fact with fiction our memories can fade (fact part) faded memories can be replaced (fiction part)
the wechsler scales consist of
both verbal and nonverbal skills
Anterograde Amnesia
cannot form any new declarative (episodic/semantic) or explicit memories
Discrimination
capacity to distingiuish between two similar but distinct stimuli
What is fluid intelligence?
capacity to learn new ways of solving problems
What is intelligence?
capacity to understand hypothetical concepts
Ratio
certain number of responses must be reached
Learning
change in behavior due to experience that is relatively durable, results in physical change in brain
inhibited children
children who are characteristically shy, fearful, and timid
In ____ the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior
classical conditioning
________ is the study of cognitive processes in nonhuman animals, especially in natural environments
cognitive ethology
Exemplar Theory
compare a new instance with ALL stored memories for other instances for the category (many examples), may or may not posses all critical features
Prototype Theory
compare new instances to the prototype
intelligence quotient
compares test-taker's performance with standardized norms
according to carol gilligan, womens moral reasoning is based on the concept of
compassion
Missy has developed a collection of social skills that permit her to perform successfully in social settings. she has achived social
competence
concrete operations (what are children capable of now?)
conservation- understanding that physical properties are maintained even when their appearance changes
When asked to describe a examination room at his doctor's office. John seemed to do an accurate job. However, his description included a framed medical degree on the wall that in fact was not there, this is an illustration of
constructive memory
The time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop is known as ____
critical (sensitive) period
binet
developed the first intelligence test
Lucas is walking around his busy college campus between classes. He notices smoke coming from the side of the cafeteria, but assumes that someone inside already has called the fire department. What phenomenon does this example illustrate?
diffusion of responsibility
In __________________ ________________, students figure out scientific principles through trial and error.
discovery learning
Conditioned taste aversions contradicts the notion of ___________________________.
equipotentiality
Preparedness for certain phobias also contradicts _____________________.
equipotentiality
The storage capacity of long-term memory is
essentially limitless
Motivation
factors that energize, direct, or sustain behavior
insight
finding a solution through "aha" moments
Classical Conditioning
form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that had been paired with another stimulus that elicits an automatic response
According to Erikson's theory of psychosocial development, what is the main task of the adolescent ?
forming an identity
a preschooler who expects to be punished immediately after doing something his father told him not to do believes in
immanent justice
Hippocampus
in charge of the initial storage of info (consolidation) and each subsequent consolidation of that information (reconsolidation)
Constructivist Classroom:
in contrast to traditional classroom, encourages students to construct their own knowledge. Although constructivist approaches vary, many are grounded in Piaget's theory, which views children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than absorbing those of others. Richly-equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self chosen problems, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs. Students are evaluated by considering their progress in relation to their own prior development
Reinforcment
increases behavior
severe intellectual disability
intellectual disability in which IQ scores range from 20 or 25 to 35 or 40
moderate intellectual disability
intellectual disability in which IQ scores range from 35 or 40 to 50 or 55
fluid intelligence
intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory
Phobia
intense, unmanageable fear about 5% of school-age develop this
aggression
intentional injury or harm to another person
Mr. Moss is the head coach of the high school football team. He notices that, after learning the names of the players on the team this year, he has trouble remembering the names of the players from the previous year. In fact, he sometimes says the name of a current player when he is referring to a player from the previous year. This is an example of
interference
mental representation
internal image of an object or past event
Intimacy vs. isolation
intimate relationships have most influence in this stage
theory of mind
knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior
self-awareness
knowledge of oneself
Autobiographical memory
knowledge of ourselves
object permanence
knowledge that an object exists even when it's not in sight
as a child grows, the hemisphere of the brain
laterilazation
Conditioned
learned
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to the CS (salivating)
Operant conditioning
learning based on consequences -Thorndikes law of effects
operational conditioning
learning based on consequences -B.F. Skinner
Associative Learning
learning by forming new connections between stimuli and behaviors
Vicarious Learning
learning by watching how someone else responds or reacts (aka modeling) (aka observational learning)
dyslexia is a type of
learning disabilityu
Retroactive Interference
learning new info interfere with old info
Tailoring teaching to people's ______________ ____________ does not result in improved learning.
learning styles
Social Cognitive Learning
learning that results from watching, imitating, and modeling (think of the Bobo doll experiment)
Avoidance Learning
learning to make a response to avoid, postpone, or prevent discomfort
Escape Learning
learning to make a response to end an adverse stimulus
Latent Learning
learning which is not directly observable
almost all right handed people have their language functions in their
left hemisphere
Permissive
lenient, little discipline, affectionate
____ is a chemical messenger secreted by fat cells that acts an appetite suppressant
leptin
Short-Term Memory
like RAM in a computer, allows you to carry on a conversation, holds about 4-7 pieces of memory, lasts as little as 12 seconds and as long as 30 seconds, aka working memory
Long-Term Memory
like the hard drive in a computer, this memory's capacity cannot easily be measured, constantly dumping or removing stored info through disuse
What is the post hoc fallacy?
logical error where you assume that A causes B just because B came after A (never assume)
non existant
low on both
Storage
maintaining information over time for later retrieval
sensory memory
memory retained for a few seconds at most based off our senses (iconic & echoic)
Fetus
name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby
McClelland's Theory
need for affiliation, power, and achievements
secondary drive
needs learned through experience; money or social approval
Nature
organism's biological inheritance (genetics)
Nurture
organism's environmental experiences
Schemas
organized cluster of knowledge (definitions of things)
Schema
organized knowledge structure or mental model stored in memory
operations
organized, formal, logical mental processes
During the ____ phase of sexual response cycle, individuals experience rhythmic contractions of the pelvis that are accompanied by uterine contractions in women and ejaculation in men
orgasm
Talent
outstanding performance in a specific field
Maslows Heirarchy of motives
physiological saftey need to belong self-esteem self-actualization
Three major components that psychologists focus on when defining "emotion" are
physiological changes, cognitive processes, and action tendenices
cooperative play
play in which children genuinely interact with one another, taking turns, playing games, or devising contests
constructive play
play in which children manipulate objects to produce or build something
Newborn Taste
prefer sweet at birth
Myelin
protective insulation that surrounds parts of neurons
Eva had difficulty recognizing that a sea horse was a fish because it did not closely resemble her fish
prototype
Most people take longer to identify a platypus as a mammal than to identify a cat as a mammal. This is likely because a cat is closer to most people's _______________ for the concept of mammal.
prototype
Developmental psychologist study human growth and development across three domains. Which of the following is NOT one of these domains ?
psychological
after a boy spills his milk at the dinner table, his father tells him he is clumbsy and will grow up to be a loser. this is an example of
psychological maltreatment
Albert Bandura
psychologist known for his social learning theory
Spontaneous Recovery
recovery from extinction (we never unlearn behavior)
People who are______ thinkers generally understand that some thing can never be known with certainty, but they also understand that some judgments are more valid than others
reflective
laughter (around 3-4 months)
reflects faster processing of information than smiling. first laughs occur in response to very active stimuli. as they understand world better they laugh at subtler events.
Unconditioned
reflex (innate)
What are the three types of memory?
sensory, short term, long term
what happens if ur born with out groth hormorne
shorty wassup only four feet tall and if u born without Thyroid SH u are retarted
Rejected-aggressive children
show high rates of conflict, physical and relational aggression, and hyperactive, inattentive, and impulsive behavior
Cued Recall
significant hints about correct answer (fill in the blank questions)
Superficial Processing
simply repeating the material that you are trying to memorize (structural) (what it looks like (typing))
latent learning
something we learn earlier in life and dont use until later -occurs without reinforments
Sarah says that certain colors make her experience different smells. For example, she says that the color purple smells like a rose to her. Sarah is displaying the symptoms of:
synesthesia
____ provides general principles for organizing words into meaningful sentences.
syntax
__________ examines the rules for combining words to make sentences in a particular language.
syntax
Negative Punishment
taking away a stimulus to decrease a behavior
Negative
taking away something
Which of the following is an example of artificial concept ?
teachers
disadvantage to punishment
tells you what NOT to do but doesnt tell you correct behavior
advantage of reinforcement
tells you what to do
Instinctive drift
tendency for animals to revert to instinctual behavior
State dependent Retrieval
tendency for info to be better recalled when person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
Nature via Nurture
tendency of individuals with certain genetic predisposition to seek out and create environments that permit the expression of those predispositions
primacy effect
tendency to better remember information at the beginning
recency effect
tendency to better remember information at the end
Primacy Effect
tendency to remember the beginning of a list; lack of proactive interference/only get retroactive interference
Recency Effect
tendency to remember the end of a list; lack of retroactive interference/only get proactive inference
Von Restorff Effect
tendency to remember unusual items better than more common items
confirmation bias
tendency to search for or favor evidence that fits one's beliefs while ignoring any evidence that doesn't fit those beliefs
Attachment
the close emotional bond between the child and the caregiver
concrete operational stage
the period of cognitive development between 7 and 12 years of age, which is characterized by the active, and appropriate, use of logic
What is memory?
the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
race dissonance
the phenomenon in which minority children indicate preferences for majority values or people
Handedness
the preference of using one hand over another
motivation
the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so physical or psychological needs are met
Lateralization
the process in which certain cognitive functions are located more in one hemisphere of the brain than in the other
Conjunction Fallacy
thinking that two events are more likely to occur than either one individually...opposite is true
Chromosome
tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA
Interval
time must pass
What is information processing?
to remember any event requires that we get information into our brain(encoding), retain that information(storage), and later get it back(retrieval)
avoidant attached infants seem
to think their caregiver will not respond to their need
Token Economy
tokens are receive for displaying desirable behavior, which are then traded in for a meaningful object or experience
body proportions in eaerly childhood?
top heavy, pot brownies end of early childhood kids have adult body proportions and are longer legged and not top heavy
Haptic Memory
touch and body sensory memory
Mildred parten
types of play
Higher Order (Second Order) Conditioning
using the previously conditioned stimulus to condition a new stimulus (like pairing the metronome with a light)
maintenance rehearsal
using working memory through repetition (flash cards)
Implantation occurs in ____________.
uterus
Slot machines reward gamblers with money according to which reinforcement schedule ?
variable ratio
Which learning style involves talking through problems?
verbal learning
Sensory Memory
very first stage of memory, point at which info enters the nervous system through sensory system
Systematic Desensitization
very set way to come over fear, first learn to relax, then make a anxiety hierarchy, then go to each thing on list and use that relaxed behavior
Authoritarian
very strict, punishing, little affection
Visual (Iconic) Memory
visual image memory
delay of gratification
waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act
Frequency Format Theory
we are hardwired to notice numbers, not probability
Caveat Emptor
"Buyer beware". The buyer alone is responsible for checking the quality and sustainability of goods before a purchase is made
Formal Operations
(11 years to adulthood) - Can understand hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now - Understand logical concepts and abstract questions
Insecure-avoidant attachment
(15 percent-20 percent)- engage in little interaction with the parent, no distress when parent leaves, and avoid when returns
Insecure-anxious attachment
(15 percent-20 percent)-cling to parent before leave, cry and then refuse to be comforted
Preoperational Stage
(2 years to 7 years) - Marked by an ability to construct mental presentations of experience - Egocentrism and inability to perform mental operations - Lack conservation
Disorganized attachment
(5 percent-10 percent)- show fear, back into parent, cry while moving away
Secure attachment
(60 percent)- refers to how infants use their caregivers as a secure base from which to explore their environment (best attachment style)
Concrete Operation
(7 years to 11 years) - Can perform mental operations, but only for actual physical events
Concrete Operational Stage:
(Erikson) extends from about 7 - 11 years and marks a major turning point in cognitive development. Though is far more logical, flexible and organized that it was earlier
Industry versus inferiority
(Erikson) the psychological conflict of middle childhood, which is resolved positively when children develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks
Sensorimotor stage
(birth to 2 years) - Focus on the here and now - Lack object permanence and deferred imitation - Major milestone is mental representation
Sternberg's Triarchic model of types of intelligences
(book smarts)analytical, (street smarts) practical, (creativity) creative
Germinal period
(conception to 2 weeks) - first stage of prenatal development which begins with conception and ends with implantation in the uterus
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
(level 1) Physiological Needs, (level 2) Safety and Security, (level 3) Relationships, Love and Affection, (level 4) Self Esteem, (level 5) Self Actualization (level 6) Self Transcendence (give to others)
Skinner box
(or operant chamber) to record organisms' activities more effectively. -recorded rats behavior.
Infancy and Childhood
- Brain and other parts of the nervous system grow faster than any other system during prenatal and first 2 years of life - Brain development depends on neural stimulation - Pruning - Plasticity in children with brain damage - By 2 years of age, brain is approximately 75% of its adult weight
What happens during conception and prenatal development?
- Most dramatic changes occur during early prenatal development - A zygote is formed when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg - Three stages of development occur
Physical Development in Adults
- Most of us reach physical peak in twenties - Strength, coordination, speed of cognitive processing, and physical flexibility - Declines begin shortly after twenties in muscle tone, sensory processes, and fertility - Menopause signals the end of a female's reproductive ability
Parenting styles
- Permissive - Authoritarian - Authoritative - Uninvolved/Neglectful
Processes Involved in Development
- Physical - Cognitive - Socioemotional
Brain Changes in Adulthood
- Plasticity (decreases but the brain is still able to learn) - Lateralization occurs in late adulthood (split hemisphere [logic side of brain and creative side], combine, they work together)
Physical Maturation in Adolescence
- Transitional period between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage years - This is when our bodies reach full maturity, in part due to hormonal release - Estrogens and androgens Genetics and environment influence timing of puberty
Prenatal Development
- Zygote divides over and over again to form a blastocyst during the germinal stage - Middle of the second week, cells begin to assume different functions and the blastocyst becomes an embryo - The embryonic stage lasts eight weeks - Ninth week and the start of the fetal stage, major organs are established and the heart beats The fetus continues physical maturation and bulking up until birth
childrens drawing improvements come from
- refinement of fine motor skills realizing pictures serve as symbols improved planning and spacial understanding cultural emphasis
B.F. Skinner
- theory of operant conditioning - training pigeons and rats (reinforcment and punishment)
Brain Changes in Adolescence
-Amygdala develops before the prefrontal cortex (makes adolescenses emotional)
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development:
-Basic trust vs. Mistrust -Autonomy vs. shame and doubt -Initiative vs. guilt -Industry vs. inferiority -Identity vs. identity confusion -Intimacy vs. isolation -Generativity vs. stagnation -Integrity vs. despair
Conditioned taste aversions:
-Develop after only one trial -Can have very long delays (6-8 hours) -Show little stimulus generalization
Temperament: Three major styles:
-Easy (40 percent) (positive, and have routine) -Difficult (10 percent) (tend to be negative and cry, and take part in irregular routines. Don't adapt well, and don't like new experiences.) -Slow-to-warm up (15 percent) (start up fussy then warm up, don't adapt well but will adapt)
Contemporary theories
-General cognitive accounts -Sociocultural accounts -Modular accounts
Punishment has several disadvantages:
-Only tells what not to do -Creates anxiety -Encourages subversive behavior -May provide model for aggressive behavior
four ways that development can be disrupted:
-Premature birth -Low birth weight -Exposure to hazardous environmental influences -Genetic disorders/biological influences
Pavlov
-Russian physiologist and 1904 Nobel Prize winner -Most famous for work on digestion of the dog -This included the first work on classical conditioning.
(Strange situation task) Attachment styles:
-Secure attachment -Insecure/avoidant attachment -Insecure/anxious attachment -Disorganized attachment
Secondary Reinforcers
-become satisfying through experience -repeated association with a pre-existing reinforcer -token economy
Positive Punishment
-behavior followed by aversive consequence -aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is "added"
Negative Reinforcement
-behavior followed by rewarding consequence -aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is "removed"
Positive Reinforcement
-behavior followed by rewarding consequence -rewarding stimulus is "added" (doesn't have to have a positive addition to increase a behavior; Ex. Child trying to get his mothers attention by kicking back of her seat, she tells him to stop, and he gets rewarded with attention.)
adolescent brain
-frontal lobe social brain, low judgement, slow growth
self-conscious emotions
-humans are capable of a second, higher-order set of feelings. These include: guilt, shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride; -each involves injury to or enhancement of our sense of self -Occurs between 1.5 & 3 years - Requires awareness of self as separate & unique - adults instruct when to feel emotions
Memory is prone to errors
-memories are reconstructed rather than replayed like a video camera -leading questions can alter memory "smashed vs hit car" -accessing a memory changes it -traumatic experiences are rarely forgotten -discerning true vs false memories (unreliable eyewitness recall)
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
-sensorimotor (Permanence Peek-a-boo) -preoperational (3 mountain test cant understand different -perspectives) -concrete operational (conservation) -formal operational (3rd eye where would u put it)
How to improve encoding
-use mnemonics -use hierarchies (outline) -distributed practice (time between practice) -chunking -make material personally meaningful -test effect (retain longer and most effective)
10 months-1 year
1 noun words (doggie, car, hat)
Attachment Hierarchy
1. Primary Attachment (usually the mother) 2. Dad 3. Grandma 4. Older siblings
language acquisition stages
1. cooing (2-3 months) 2. babbling (4-6 months) 3. first word - holophrase (12 months) 3. telegraphic speech - two word stage (18 months)
bowlby attachment develops in 4 stages:
1. preattachment phase (birth to six weeks) babies recognize mothers smell and voice but are not yet attached to them 2. attachment in the making (6 weeks to 6-8 months)- infants respond differently to farmiliar caregiver than a stranger 3. clear cut attachment (6-8 months to -18-24) attachment is evident. now theyy display seperation anxiety 4. formation of a reciproal relationship 18-24mo) growth in representation and language permits toddlers to understand some factors that influence parents coming and going and returns.
difficult temperament
10%; frequently negative and cries, easily frustrated
The mean score for a person with an average IQ is ____
100
formal operations stage
12 years to adulthood; hypothetico-deductive reasoning
can tell gender by the ____ week
12th
Slow-to-warm-up Child
15% of the sample, is inactive, shows mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli, is negative in mood, and adjusts slowly to new experiences. Not the halfway point between easy and difficult children. It is a lot closer to difficult, but more adaptive and less intense.
slow-to-warm up temperament
15%; mildly negative responses, less intense emotional reactions
catagorial self
18-30 months, classify themselves on the bases of boy girl, etc
Male produces about __________ sperm during his lifetime; _______________ are released during ejaculation
2 trillion;500 million
Cattell
2 types of intelligence: fluid and crystallized intelligence
embryonic stage
2-8 weeks; 1st heartbeat, brain and spinal cord function, critical period
autonomy vs shame and doubt
2nd stage of eriksons theory of development. 18 month-2-3 years. focused on developing greater sense of self control
Tolman & Honzik's maze trials:
3 groups of rats taught a maze 1. always reinforced 2. never reinforced 3. reinforcement begins at day 11
at age six the average six year old is
3.5 feet tall and fourty five pounds
self esteem in early childhood
4 domains that make up self esteem: confidence at school ability of making friends ability of geyting along with parents ability of being kinds if kids WANT TO BE GOOD AT SOMETHING, THEY ARE
Sexual Response Cycle
4 stage cycle for sexual stimulation: Excitement phase Plateau phase Orgasmic phase Resolution phase
Piaget's theory
4 stages of cognitive development
Normal pregnancy is approximately __ weeks
40
In order to be classified as morbidly obese, an adult must have a BMI of ____
40 or more
Easy Child
40% of the sample, quickly established regular routines in infancy, is generally cheerful, and adapts easily to new experiences. Will have moderate activity level, high attention span/persistence, low fearful distress, low irritable distress, and high positive affect.
easy temperament
40%; positive mood, smiles easily, adapts easily to new experiences
Middle adulthood
40-65 years
between 2-6 there are how many growth centers
45
Low Birth Weight is defined as ______ lbs for full term babies
5 1⁄2 lbs
Blended, or reconstituted, families
60 % of divorced parents remarry or cohabit. Parent, stepparent, and children for a new family structure
Late adulthood
65 years and older - Shrink and gain weight. - Still can be sexually active.
piaget: the concrete operational stage
7-11 years old kids thoughts become more logical, flexible, and organized than they were before.
the concrete operational stage
7-12 years; understands world through logical thinking and categories
Define: Erikson
8 stages of psychological development Trust vs mistrust Autonomy vs shame and doubt Initiative vs guilt Industry vs inferiority Identity vs role confusion Intimacy vs isolation Ego integrity vs despair
fetal stage
8 weeks to birth
Cognitive View
A = stimuli - B = internal thought -C = reaction
Behaviorist Theory
A = stimuli ----> to B = reaction
Unconditioned response
A behavioral response that is innate an not learned (always stays the same) -e.g. dog salivates when food is present
Shame
A child is bad/stupid. This emotion is focused on the child and is focused on the individual. There is no fixing the situation because that is what he/she is. It is always negative.
easy child
A child whose temperament is characterized by establishment of regular routines in infancy, general cheerfulness, and easy adaptation to new experiences.
slow-to-warm-up child
A child whose temperament is characterized by inactivity; mild, low-key reactions to environmental stimuli; negative mood; and slow adjustment to new experiences.
difficult child
A child whose temperament is characterized by irregular daily routines, slow acceptance of new experiences, and a tendency to react negatively and intensely.
uninvolved child-rearing style
A child-rearing style that combines low acceptance and involvement with little control and general indifference to issues of autonomy; distinguished from "authoritative," "authoritarian," and "permissive child-rearing styles"
authoritative child-rearing style
A child-rearing style that is high in acceptance and involvement, emphasizes adaptive control techniques, and includes gradual, appropriate autonomy granting; distinguished from "authoritarian," "permissive," and "uninvolved child-rearing styles"
permissive child-rearing style
A child-rearing style that is high in acceptance but overindulging or inattentive, low in control, and lenient rather than appropriate in autonomy granting; distinguished form "authoritative," "authoritarian," and "uninvolved child-rearing styles"
authoritarian child-rearing style
A child-rearing style that is low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive and psychological control, and low in autonomy granting; distinguished from "authoritative," "permissive," and "uninvolved child-rearing styles"
Define: Retrieval Cue
A clue, prompt, or hint that helps trigger recall of a given piece of information stores in long-term memory
Collective Unconscious
A common reservoir of experiences and motives based on universal human experiences
Define: Emotions
A complex psychological state that involves a subjective experience, a physiological response, and behavior or expressive response
Immune System
A complex response system that protects the body from bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances
Relaxation Response
A condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical activity, heart rate, and blood pressure
Intrinsic learning
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake (studying to get an A)
Oedipus Conflict
A developmental experience in which a child's conflicting feelings towards the opposite-sex parent are (usually) resolved by identifying with the same-sex parent
Define: False Memory
A distorted or fabricated recollection of something that didn't happen
relational aggression
A form of aggression that damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation; distinguished from "physical aggression" and "verbal aggression"
physical aggression
A form of aggression that harms others through physical injury to themselves or their property; distinguished from "verbal aggression" and "relational aggression"
parallel play
A form of limited social participation in which a child plays near other children with similar materials but does not interact with them; distinguished from "nonsocial," "associative," and "cooperative play"
time out
A form of mild punishment that involves removing children from the immediate setting until the are ready to act appropriately
associative play
A form of social interaction in which children engage in separate activities but interact by exchanging toys and commenting on one another's behavior; distinguished from "nonsocial activity," "parallel play," and "cooperative play"
cooperative play
A form of social interaction in which children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make-believe theme; distinguished from "nonsocial activity," "parallel play," and "associative play"
gender constancy
A full understanding of the biologically based permanence of one's gender, including the realization that sex remains the same even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change
Define: Intelligence Quotient
A measure of general intelligence derived from comparing an individual's score with the scores of others in the same age group
Define: Misinformation Effect
A memory distorting phenomenon in which a person's existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information
attachment q-sort
A method for assessing the quality of attachment between ages 1 and 4 years through home observations of a variety of attachment-related behaviors.
Self-Report
A method in which people provide subjective information about their own thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, typically via questionnaire or interview
Avoidance Motivation
A motivation not to experience a negative outcome
Approach Motivation
A motivation to experience a positive outcome
Intrinsic Motivation
A motivation to take actions that are themselves rewarding
Extrinsic Motivation
A motivation to take actions that lead to a reward
Display Rule
A norm for the appropriate expression of emotion
Outcome Expectancies
A person's assumptions about the likely consequences of a future behavior
Self-Concept
A person's explicit knowledge of his or her own behaviors, traits, and other personal characteristics
Locus of Control
A person's tendency to perceive the control of rewards as internal to the self or external in the environment
Fixation
A phenomenon in which a person's pleasure-seeking drives become psychologically stuck, or arrested, at a particular psychosexual stage
Emotion
A positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity
Define: Heuristic
A problem-solving strategy that involves following a rule-of-thumb to reduce the possible solutions
Rorschach Inkblot test
A projective technique in which respondents' inner thoughts and feelings are believed to be revealed by analysis of their responses to a set of unstructured inkblots
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A projective technique in which respondents' underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world are believed to be revealed through analysis of the stories they make up about ambiguous pictures of people
Existential Approach
A school of thought that regards personality as governed by an individual's ongoing choices and decisions in the context of the realities of life and death
internal working model
A set of expectations about parents' availability and responsiveness, generally and in times of stress.
Which of the following findings was not a result of the Kinsey study ?
A sexual desire and sexual ability can be separate functions
Sick Role
A socially recognized set of rights and obligations linked with illness
Burnout
A state of physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion created by long-term involvement in an emotionally demanding situation and accompanied by lowered performance and motivation
Define: Availability Heuristic
A strategy in which the likelihood of an event is estimated on the basis of how readily available other instances or events are in memory
Define: Representative Heuristic
A strategy where the likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing how similar it is to the prototype of the event
Threat
A stressor you believe you might NOT be able to overcome
Terror Management theory
A theory about how people respond to knowledge of their own mortality
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
A three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered
Narcissism
A trait that reflects a grandoise view of the self combined with a tendency to seek admiration from and exploit others
proactive aggression
A type of aggression in which children act to fulfill a need or desire -- obtain an object, privilege, space, or social reward, such as adult attention -- and unemotionally attack a person to achieve their goal; also called "instrumental aggression;" distinguished from "reactive aggression"
verbal aggression
A type of aggression that harms others through threats of physical aggression, name-calling, or hostile teasing; distinguished from "physical aggression" and "relational aggression"
induction
A type of discipline in which an adult helps the child notice feelings by pointing out the effects of the child's misbehavior on others
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMP)
A well-researched, clinical questionnaire used to assess personality and psychological problems
Strange Situation
A widely used lab technique for assessing the quality of attachment between 1 and 2 years of age. In designing it, Mary Ainsworth and her colleagues reasoned that securely attached infants and toddlers should use the parent as a secure base from which to explore in an unfamiliar playroom. In addition, when the parent leaves, an unfamiliar adult should be less comforting than the parent. This lab technique take the baby through 8 short episodes in which brief situations from and reunions with the parents occur.
Define: Musical intelligence
Ability to create, synthesize, or preform music: musician, composer, or singer
Define: naturalist intelligence
Ability to discern patterns in nature: ecologist, zoologist, or botanist
Define: spatial intelligence
Ability to mentally visualize the relationships of object or movements: sculptor, painter, chess player, architect
____ propsed the hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow
______________ is a measure of the smallest amount of energy a person can reliably detect.
Absolute threshold
_____________________learning programs are not effective.
Accelerated
prosocial, or altruistic, behavior
Actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self
four basic qualities of motivation
Activating - stimulates motivation directive - focal point for motivation sustaining - maintaining the behavior to reach motivation strength differentiation - different individuals, different motivation
Gene expression
Activation or deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development
Define: Linguistic intelligence
Adept use of language: poet, writer, public speaker, etc.
Hypothetical deductive reasoning
Adolescents can think more like a scientist where they devise plans to solve problems
Need for ____ refers to maintaining positive relationships with others
Affiliation
strange situation
Ainsworth's method for assessing infant attachment to the mother, based on a series of brief separations and reunions with the mother in a playoom situation
Who proposed observational learning ?
Albert Bandura
Attachment Q-Sort
Alternative method, suitable for children 1 and 4 yeas, depends on home observations. Either the parent of a highly trained observed sorts 90 behaviors into 9 categories ranging from "highly descriptive" to "not at all descriptive" of the child. Then a score, ranging from high to low in security, is computed.
Which part of the brain is responsible for the formation, consolidation, and retrieval of emotional memories?
Amygdala
reactive aggression
An angry, defensive response to provocation or a blocked goal that is meant to hurt another person; also called "hostile aggression;" distinguished from "proactive aggression"
Psychodynamic Approach
An approach that regards personality as formed by needs, strivings, and desires largely operating outside of awareness - motives that can also produce emotional disorders
Social-Cognitive Approach
An approach that views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them
self-esteem
An aspect of self-concept that involves judgments about ones' own worth and the feelings associated with those judgments
Anorexia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of being fat and severe restriction of food intake
Bulimia Nervosa
An eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
Fight-or-Flight Response
An emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action
attachment
An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
Appraisal
An evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of a stimulus
gender identity
An image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics
Personality
An individual's characteristic style of behaving, thinking, and feeling
gender schema theory
An information -processing approach to gender typing that explains how environmental pressures and children's cognitions work together to shape gender-role development
Psychosomatic Illness
An interaction between the mind and body that can produce illness
Drive
An internal state that signals a physiological need
Emotional Expression
An observable sign of an emotional state
Define: Schema
An organized cluster of knowledge on a partial subject
gender typing
Any association of objects, roles, or traits with one sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes
Four steps of Observational Learning:
Attention (see) Retention (remember) Motor Reproduction (be able to perform) Reinforcement (motivated)
Projection
Attributing our own unacceptable behaviors to others
people are motivated to explain their own and others behavior by attributing causes of that behavior to a disposition or a situation
Attribution theory
Define: Parenting Styles
Authoritative, neglectful, permissive, and authoritarian
Repressive Coping
Avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint
Who discovered apparent learning?
B.F Skinner
Separation Anxiety
Babies display this type of anxiety and become upset when their trusted caregiver leaves.
Define: Retrograde Amnesia
Backward acting amnesia, loss of old memory, especially episodic memory
Define: Retroactive Interference
Backward acting memory; a new memory interferes with remembering an old memory
Observational learning
Bandura learning takes place by watching others
Anger
Basic emotion that develops around 4-6 months. Kids have to learn how to read and understand emotion first. This emotion is cognitive (learned) and the person expressing it has to have a reason to express it.
Fear
Basic emotion that develops between 6-12 months of age. This emotion in reference to strangers develops between 8-12 months of age.
Distress
Basic emotion that is present from birth.
Sadness
Basic emotion that occurs at around 2-7 months of age. This is a cognitive emotion. Still face- facial expressions are learned.
Resistant Attachment
Before separation, these infants seek closeness to the parent and often fail to explore. When the parent leaves, they are usually distressed, and on her return, they combine clinginess with angry, resistive behavior, struggling when held and sometimes hitting and pushing. Many continue to cry after being picked up and cannot be comforted easily.
Karen Horney (Neo-Freudian)
Believed personality developed from social struggles and rejected "penis envy" as sexist
Alfred Adler (Neo-Freudians)
Believed that personality develops from competition (inferiority complex)
Carl Jung
Believed that personality formed from personal experiences (Collective Unconscious)
Compliance
Between 12-18 months, toddlers first become capable of this term. They show clear awareness of caregivers' wishes and expectations and they can obey simple requests and demands.
Social Smile
Between 6-10 weeks, the parent's communication evokes a broad grin.
Who created the first IQ test?
Binet
______________ _______________ place limits on what kinds of behaviors we can train through reinforcement.
Biological influences
____ is characterized by episodes of binge eating followed by attempts to compensate for the excessive amount of food that was consumed
Bulimia nervosa
Contiguity
CS and US must appear close together in time
Forward Conditioning
CS then US (metronome then food), typical form of classical conditioning, "best" for getting excitatory response
Effortful Control
Capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response.
Telomeres
Caps at the end of each chromosome that protect the ends of the chromosomes and prevent them from sticking to each other
Define: Semantic Memory
Category of long term memory that contains information on: facts, general knowledge, concepts and names
Who theorized that intelligence is a mix of fluid intelligence and crystalized intelligence?
Cattle and Horn
compliance
Change of behavior in response to an explicit request from another person or group.
Reappraisal
Changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion-eliciting stimulus
Bandura and the Bobo doll experiment:
Children imitate both antisocial and prosocial behaviors
_________________ ____ is not a good predictor of measuring impact of changes in later life.
Chronological age
Who created the very first modern hospice ?
Cicely Saunders
__________________________ may also explain our disgust reactions to safe food and drink.
Classical conditioning
categorical self
Classification of the self according to prominent ways in which people differ, such as age, sex, physical characteristics, and goodness and badness. Develops between 18 and 30 months.
Define: Framing
Cognitive bias, when people react to certain things differently based on how they are presented
child-rearing styles
Combinations of parenting behaviors that occur over a wide range of situations, creating an enduring child-rearing climate
matters of personal choice
Concerns that do not involve rights or the welfare of others, and therefore, are up to the individual, such as choice of friends, hairstyle, and leisure activities; distinguished from "moral imperatives" and "social conventions"
three debates of developmental psychology
Continuity Mindset - Life stages just flow from one to another
Define: bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
Control of bodily motion and ability to handle objects skillfully: athlete, dancer, or crafts persons
Israel
Country where communal living arrangements are very strong. Similar parenting style to Japan. Strangers will scare these infants because they know and are taken care of by everyone in their community. More resistant attachment.
social conventions
Customs determined solely by consensus, such as table manners and politeness rituals; distinguished from "moral imperatives" and "matters of personal choice"
who argued that society tends to push children so rapidly that they begin to feel stressed and pressure at a young age ?
David Elkind
Who developed the IQ test most widely used today ?
David Wechsler
Kublar-Ross stages of grief
Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance
Which of the following is the order of stages in Kubler-Ross's five-stage model of grief?
Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
Resistant (Attached)
Describes 10% of North American infants. These infants do not explore, are highly upset at separation, and seek (but are resistant) to contact at reunion. Slow to calm down. Under the range of normal development.
Disorganized/Disoriented
Describes 15% of North American infants. Flat or inappropriate affect. These infants exhibit dazed/confused behavior (bizarre) not normal development. Can be a result of post part depression or a lack of mental health care.
Avoidant (Attached)
Describes 15% of North American infants. Infants mostly ignore the mom and play alone. They are significantly less upset at separation , and seek little contact with the mother at reunion. Under the range of normal development.
Securely Attached
Describes 60% of North American infants. These infants use the mom as a secure base, cry at separation, and are quickly comforted at reunion. Under the range of normal development.
Bi-directional
Describes a relationship between a parent and a child. It goes in 2 directions, what a baby does will effect the mom and what the mom does with the baby also matters.
Secondary Appraisal
Determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not - that is, whether you have control over the event
Interpreting Facial Expression
Develops around 7-10 months of age.
Social Referencing
Develops around 7/8-10 months of age. Related to Piaget's mental representation and attachment of infant to caregivers. If a toddler falls and has a sore arm, it is important for the parent to be calm and say that it is going to be okay because the toddler will look to them to determine whether or not this situation is serious.
Emotional contagion
Develops early. Whatever 1 child does, other children will follow suit and express that emotion, whether it is laughing or crying.
Jane has prepared three cups of coffee but can't recall how much sugar is in each. The cup with the smallest amount of sugar is easy to identify, but Jane can't taste any difference between the other two cups even though she knows one has more sugar. This describes which of the following concepts?
Difference threshold
Personal Contructs
Dimensions people use in making sense of their experiences
___________________ are punishments only if they decrease the chance of the behavior happening again.
Disciplinary actions
While stuck in a traffic jam, Yani notices a frustrated driver frequently honking his horn. Yani thinks to himself, "That driver is a real jerk!" This is an example of a _______________ attribution.
Dispositional
The tendency of people to increase their liking for something they have worked hard for or suffered to attain is an example of:
Dissonance reduction
Psychosexual Stages
Distinct early life stages through which personality is formed as children experience sexual pleasures from specific body areas and caregivers redirect or interfere with those pleasures
separation anxiety
Distress that is sometimes experienced by infants when they are separated from their primary caregivers (clear-cut attachment phase)
Displacement
Diverting unacceptable impulses toward unrelated objects
__________________may be affected by environment and classically conditioned.
Drug addiction
factors that affect attachment security
Early availability of consistent caregiver, quality of caregiving, infant characteristics, family circumstances, parents' internal working models
Temperament
Early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation.
temperament
Early-emerging and long-lasting individual differences in disposition and in the intensity and especially the quality of emotional reactions
Casey needs to learn the material for her next Introductory Psychology test. As she reads the concepts in the book, she associates them with the knowledge she has accrued from listening to her professor's lectures. This describes:
Elaborative rehearsal
the embryo is most vulnerable to environmental influences during the _____________ stage.
Embryonic
prenatal development stage 2
Embryonic period enclosed in amniotic sac where nourishment is recieved where cells begin to specialize (body systems, appendages, etc...)
_______ intelligence is the ability to identify your own and other people's emotions accurately, express your emotions clearly, and regulate emotions in yourself and others.
Emotional
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
Emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify
Discrete Emotions
Emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone
Universality Hypothesis
Emotional expressions have the same meaning for everyone
basic emotions
Emotions such as happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust that are universal in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival.
Alarm Phase of GAS
Equivalent to the fight-or-flight response in which the body rapidly mobilizes its resources to respond to the threat
Which theorist proposed that moral thinking proceeds through a series of stages?
Erik Erikson
basic trust versus mistrust
Erikson's stage: the psychological conflict of infancy, which is resolved positively when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving.
autonomy versus shame and doubt
Erikson's stage: toddlers attempt to control themselves and others.
lie detector test
Error rate is 1/3 innocent are more likely to be found guilty than vice versa; it can be hard to detect if someone is lying
Scale Errors
Errors that toddlers make because they lack an objective understanding of their own body dimensions. They attempt to do things that their body size makes impossible.
The belief that your own culture, nation, or religion is superior to all others is the definition of:
Ethnocentrism
Define: Set Point
Everybody has a genetically determined weight and temperature that it will try to maintain
What did Skinner believe about language acquisition?
Experience enables the ability to speak
Define: Extrinsic Motivation
External factors or influences on behavior, such as rewards, consequences, or social expectations
Carl mows the yard of his elderly neighbor each week for $20. What type of motivation is this ?
Extrinsic
Rational Coping
Facing the stressor and working ot overcome it
Fertilization occurs in the ___________ _______.
Fallopian tube
A sound arriving from the right reaches the right ear at the same time it reaches the left ear.
False
In order for a response to persist after it was learned, you must use continuous reinforcement.
False
Most intelligence tests developed using the psychometric approach assess emotional intelligence.
False
_________________ may be paired with relaxation to treat phobias.
Feared stimuli
sympathy
Feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight
prenatal development stage 3
Fetal period Growth continues becomes defined Circadian rhythm development
________________ seems to be partly due to classical conditioning.
Fetishism
selective attention elements
Filter theory - selectively attend to the most important information
Reframing
Finding a new or creative way to think about a stressor that reduces its threat
trial and error
Finding a solution through attempts
Heuristic
Finding the solution through a rule of thumb strategy (educated guess)
________ memory refers to a vivid, detailed recollection of an emotional event.
Flashbulb
Autogenic Relaxation
Focus on directing blood flow toward tense muscle groups to "warm" them
Define: Anterograde Amnesia
Forward acting amnesia, loss of memory caused by the inability to store new memories
Define: Proactive Interference
Forward acting memory interference, forgetting in which an old memory interferes with remembering a new memory
Define: Freud
Founder of psychoanalysis, a process by treating a patient through conversation
Three Stages of Prenatal Development:
Germinal period Embryonic period Fetal period
Define: Overregulation
Grammar errors in early childhood, language rules are applied to generally
Basic Emotions
Happiness, interest, surprise, fear, anger, sadness, and disgust are universe in humans and other primates and have a long evolutionary history of promoting survival.
Define: Teratogens
Harmful agents or substances that can cause malformation or defects in an embryo or fetus
three debates of developmental psychology
Hereditary or environment - Nature vs Nuture
Rosenzweig's rats
Highlighted environment and the developing brain
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the study of ____
Human thinking
Self-Conscious Emotions
Humans are capable to a second, higher-order set of feelings, including shame, embarrassment, envy, and pride. This type of emotions involve injury to or enhancement of our sense of self.
stern
IQ formula
Which of the following correctly describes the relationship between intelligence and IQ?
IQ is a measure of intelligence
A method of assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with others using numerical scores is...?
IQ test
equipotentiality
Idea that all conditioned stimuli can be classically conditioned equally to all unconditioned stimuli
empathy
Identification with and understanding of another's situation, feelings, and motives
triarchic theory of successful intelligence 310
Identifies three broad, interacting intelligences: (1) Analytical intelligence, (2) creative intelligence, (3) practical intelligence. Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three to succeed in life according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community.
Gene-environment interaction
Impact of genes on behavior depends on the environment where behavior develops
initiative versus guilt
In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of early childhood, which is resolved positively through play experiences that foster a healthy sense of initiative and through development of a superego, or conscience, that is not overly strict and guilt-ridden
Basic Trust Versus Mistrust
In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of infancy, which is resolved positively when the balance of care is sympathetic and loving.
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
In Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of toddlerhood, which is resolved favorably when parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices.
Conservation
In Piaget's theory, the understanding that two equal quantities remain equal even though the form or appearance is rearranged, as long as nothing is added or subtracted
Define: Temperament
Inborn predispositions to consistently behave and react in a certain way
Self-conscious Emotions
Include shame, embarrassment, guilt, envy, and pride. These emotions show up around 24 months. Kids need help in figuring out how to deal, babies do not try to push your buttons.
Social Referencing
Infants engage in this, actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation.
Secure Base
Infants use the familiar caregiver as this term, or point from which to explore, venturing it the environment and then returning for emotional support.
Bonding
Influenced by biological connection.
Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory - evolutionary programming (we're hard wired that motivation is in us) Drive Reduction Theory - desire to establish homeostasis (hunger) Arousal Theory - maintain a certain level of arousal (rollercoasters) Incentive Theory - motivated by the desire of external rewards
Repression
Intentionally forgetting anxiety-provoking memories
Who discovered classical conditioning with dog saliva experiment?
Ivan Pavlov
According to the ____ theory of emotion, emotional experiences arise from physiological arousal
James-Lange
Which of the following theories of emotion would suggest the polygraphs should be quite accurate at differentiating one emotion from another?
James-Lange theory
Who is credited for taste aversion?
John Garcia
Define: Belief Bias
Judge strengths or weakness of arguments based on how they line up with your bias
In Bandura's Bobo doll study, when the children who watched the aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys, they ____
Kicked and threw the doll
What did Chomsky believe about language acquisition?
Language is hardwired into mind Nature has preprogrammed brains to speak a language
Who criticized Piaget's theory?
Lev Vygotsky, as the individual grows more the teacher let's go
List Different Types of Intelligence
Linguistic Logical-mathematical Musical Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
Classical conditioning and phobias and addiction
Little Albert drug dens (overdose)
Post Hoc Fallacy
Logical error where you assume that A causes B just because B came after A.
Define: Logical-mathematical intelligence
Logical, mathematical, and scientific ability: scientist, mathematician, navigator surveyor
Stability of temperament
Low in infancy and toddlerhood, moderate preschool and on (3- pretty much stable)
divergent thinking
Many solutions to a problem Component of creative thinking
Define: Self-actualization
Maslow: a person's full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, and potentialities
Define: Iconic Memory
Memory that lasts for a very short time and then vanishes, causes by ocular cues
analogical representations
Mental representations that have some of the physical characteristics of objects (Drawing objects)
________ is the knowledge or awareness of one's own cognitive processes.
Metacognition
__________ is the knowledge or awareness of one's pwn cognitive processes
Metacognition
Not classified (Child)
Mixture of characteristics from an easy and difficult child. Id the halfway point between and easy and difficult child Represents 35 % of sample.
Stranger Anxiety
Most frequent expression of fear is a response to unfamiliar adults.
Protype Theory
Most typical concept (ex... CAR instead of Honda accord, ford f150 or FRUIT instead of apple or orange)
Define: Repression
Motivated forgetting that occurs unconsciously, a memory that is blocked and unavailable to the conscious
Conscious Motivations
Motivations of which people are aware
Unconscious Motivations
Motivations of which people are not aware
Which of the following is a true statement?
Much of our perception occurs without our conscious awareness.
how children learn language
Nature (biological): genetic talent for aquiring language Nurture (enviornment): develop order and syntax from social interaction
Skipped-Generation Families
Nearly 2.4 million U.S. children-4 to 5 % of the child population- live with their grandparents but apart from their parents. The number of grandparents rearing their grandchildren has increased over the past 20 years. Occurs in all ethnic groups, but more often in African American, Hispanic, and Native American families.
Timmy doesn't want to eat carrots but his parents keep trying to get him to eat them. At dinner time, if there are any carrots on his plate he will scream and shout until they are taken off his plate. His parents always take away the carrots because it's the easiest way to stop the tantrums. What is this an example of?
Negative reinforcement
Neil is seated in a dark room and asked to look at a screen. He watches as flashes of light, varying in brightness, are shown on the screen one at a time. Whenever he notices a flash, he informs the researchers. What are the researchers measuring?
Neil's absolute threshold for brightness
______________ can perceive differences between colors, odors, tastes, & sounds
Newborns
Define: Normal Distribution
Normal curve, a bell-shaped distribution of individual differences in a normal population in which most scores cluster around the average score
You get into an elevator, and stand facing the back wall and try to start a conversation with another person. Which of the following have you violated?
Norms
cognition
Obtaining, converting, and using knowledge
Missy watches as a group of children play in the sand box, building a sand castle. which catagory would best fit Missy
Onlooker
Interference
Other memories get in the way of retrieving a desired memory
psychological control
Parental behaviors that intrude on and manipulate children's verbal expressions, individuality, and attachments to parents
___________reinforcement occurs when we reinforce responses only some of the time.
Partial
classical conditioning
Pavlov -involves involuntary behaviors (blinking, flinching, drug craving)
Self-Serving Bias
People's tendency to take credit for their successes but downplay responsibility for their failures
Define: Embryo
Period in pregnancy that is between the third and eighth week, prenatal development
means-end analysis
Problem solving method where we envision end goal and determine best strategy to reach goal in current situation
________ is the study of the relationships among psychology, the nervous and endocrine systems, and the immune system
Psychoneuroimmunolgy
_______________ is any outcome that decreases the probability of a response.
Punishment
________________ must be consistent, or it wont work.
Punishment
Thorndike
Puzzle Box: Thorndike found no insight in cats. Instead they learned through trial and error.
Ethological Theory of Attachment
Recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival, most widely accepted view.
Self-Regualtion
Refers to strategies that modify reactivity.
Emotional Self-Regulation
Refers to the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals.
Basing your decision to purchase a new car on the evidence about its performance effectiveness is an example of which stage of reflective judgment?
Reflective
Fixed ratio
Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses -e.g. paid for every 5 phone calls
moral imperatives
Rules and expectations that protect people's rights and welfare; distinguished from "social conventions" and "matters of personal choice"
As an African American, Star is aware of the negative stereotypes regarding racial differences in intelligence, If she experiences stereotype threat while taking an intelligence test, it is likely that
Star's self-conscious awareness of the stereotype may worsen her test performance
While Janet is studying for an exam, she drinks a large cup of coffee. The next day, during the exam, she makes sure she is drinking a similar amount of coffee. This is because of:
State-dependent memory
Which theorist put forth the triarchic theory of intelligence ?
Sternberg
Piaget
Swiss psychologist who presented first complete account of cognitive development
Define: Assimilation
Take in new information or experiences and incorporate them into our existing one
Post Formal Operations(not discovered by Piaget)
Taking logic and applying it to pragmatic situations
Maladaptive Coping
Temporary or self-destructive ways of managing emotions
Projective tests
Tests designed to reveal inner aspects of individual's personalities by analysis of their responses to a standard series of ambiguous stimulus
Empathy
The ability to understand another's emotional state and feel with that person, or respond emotionally in a similar way.
Define: Short-term Memory
The active state of memory in which information is stored for up to 20 seconds
Define: Standardize
The administration of a test to a large, representative sample of people under uniform conditions for the purpose of establishing norms
Learned Helplessness
The belief that one has no control over one's situation based on past experience
Sex
The biological category of male or female as defined by physical difference in genetic composition and in reproductive anatomy and function The behavioral manifestation of the sexual urge; sexual intercourse
Define: Motivation
The biological, emotional, cognitive, or social forces that activate the direct behavior
Resistance Phase of GAS
The body tries to adapt and cope with its stressor by shutting down unnecessary processes such as digestion, growth, and the sex drive
Exhaustion Phase of GAS
The body's resistance collapses, creating damage that can include susceptibility to infection, tumor growth, aging, irreversible organ damage, or death
Ego
The component of personality, developed through contact with the external world, that enables us to deal with life's practical demands
Gender
The cultural, social, and psychological meanings that are associated with masculinity or femininity
Define: Intrinsic Motivation
The desire to engage in tasks that are inherently satisfying and enjoyable, novel, or optimally challenging; the desire to do something for its own sake
Define: Attachment
The emotional bond that forms between an infant and caregiver especially the parents
Self-Regulation
The exercise of voluntary control over the self to bring the self into line with preferred standards
Self-Esteem
The extent to which an individual likes, values, and accepts the self
Genital Stage
The fifth and final psychosexual stage, the time for the coming together of the mature adult personality with a capacity to love, work, and relate to others in a mutually satisfying and reciprocal manner
Irene swears that she was there the night her best friend got into a fight with her ex-boyfriend. It takes several of her friends to convince her that she was not. Which of the following likely made Irene's fake memory seem so real to her?
The fight was easy to imagine.
Oral Stage
The first psychosexual stage, in which experience centers on the pleasures and frustrations associated with the mouth, sucking, and being fed
Latency Stage
The fourth psychosexual stage, in which the primary focus is on the further development of intellectual, creative, interpersonal, and athletic skills
androgyny
The gender identity held by individuals who score high on both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine personality characteristics
Self-Actualization tendency
The human motive toward realizing our inner potential
Define: Object Permanence
The idea that na object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen
Define: Homeostasis
The idea that the body monitors and maintains internal states such as body temperature and energy supplies, at relatively constant levels. The tendency to reach or maintain equilibrium
Primary Appraisal
The interpretation of a stimulus as stressful or not
Homeostasis
The maintenance of a balanced system through self-regulation. Operates through negative feedback
Define: Cognition
The mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge
Superego
The mental system that reflects the internalization of cultural rules, mainly learned as parents exercise their authority
Scaffolding
The more highly skilled person gives the learner more help at the beginning of the learning process and then begins to withdraw help as the learner's skills improve beyond her zones of proximal development
Need for Achievement
The motivation to solve worthwhile problems
Id
The part of the mind containing the drives present at birth; it is the source of our bodily needs, needs, wants, desires, and impulses, particularly our sexual and aggressive drives
Stress
The physical and psychological response to internal or external stressors
Meditation
The practice of intentional contemplation
Retrieval
The process of bringing to mind information that has been previously encoded and stored
Define: Encoding
The process of translating information into a form that can be entered and retained in the memory system
Person-Situation Controversy
The question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or situational factors
Reactivity
The quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention and motor activity.
reactivity
The quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity. (Rothbart)
Metabolism
The rate at which energy is used by the body
Anal Stage
The second psychosexual stage, in which experience is dominated by the pleasures and frustrations associated with the anus, retention and expulsion of feces and urine, and toilet training
self-concept
The set of attributes, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is
Somatic Symptom Disorders
The set of psychological disorders in which a person with at least one bodily symptom displays significant health-related anxiety, expresses disproportionate concerns about symptoms, and devotes excessive time and energy to symptoms or health concerns
Define: Zygote
The single cell, formed at conception, of the egg and sperm cell
Define: Long-term Memory
The stage of memory that represents the long terms storage of information
Emotion Regulation
The strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience
Attachment
The strong affectionate tie we have for special people in our lives that leads us to experience pleasure and joy when we interact with them and to be comforted by their nearness in times of stress.
How is lifespan development defined ?
The study of how we grow and change from conception to death
Health Psychology
The subfield of psychology concerned with ways psychological factors influence the causes and treatments of physical illness and the maintenance of health
Instinctive Drift
The tendency for animals to return to innate behaviors following repeated reinforcement is called instinctive drift.
Self-Verification
The tendency to seek evidence to confirm the self-concept
Define: Functional Fixedness
The tendency to view objets as functioning only in their usual or customary way
Type A Behavior Pattern
The tendency toward easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings
Cannon-Bard Theory
The theory that a stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the body and emotional experience in the brain
James-Lange Theory
The theory that a stimulus triggers activity in the body, which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain
Two-Factor Theory
The theory that emotions are based on inferences about the causes of physiological arousal
Phallic Stage
The third psychosexual stage, in which experience is dominated by the pleasure, conflict, and frustration associated with the phallic-genital region as well as coping with powerful incestuous feelings of love, hate, jealousy, and conflict
Big Five
The traits of the five-factor personality model: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (O.C.E.A.N.)
Biofeedback
The use of an external monitoring device to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function
Define: Instinct Theory
The view that certain human behaviors are innate and due to evolutionary programming
Define: Drive Theory
The view that human behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension caused by unmet biological needs
Define: Incentive Theory
The view that human behavior is motivated by the pull of external goals, such as rewards
Define: Arousal Theory
The view that people are motivated to maintain a level of arousal that optimal, neither too high or too low
Uninhibited (Sociable) Children
These children display positive emotion and approach novel stimuli.
disorganized/disorientated attachment
These children exhibit fear of their caretakers confused facial expressions, and a variety of other disorganized attachment behaviors
Inhibited (Shy) Children
These children react negatively to and withdraw from novel stimuli
Avoidant Attachment
These infants seem unresponsive to the parent when she is present. When she leaves, they are usually not distressed, and they react to the stranger in much the the same way as to the parent. During reunion, they avoid or are slow to greet the parent, and when picked up, they often fail to cling.
Define: Fetus
Third and longest prenatal development, ninth week until birth
Germany
This country has the highest among to avoidant children. The culture dictates that children must be independent (shut up and deal). Children have to follow the rules.
Japan
This country has the opposite of German parenting style. For the first five years, the child is never out of the parent's eye sight. Could be related to the small spaces that inhabitants of this country live in. Much more common to be insecure/resistant or clingy.
Secure Attachment
This infants use the parent as a secure base. When separated, they may or may not cry, but if they do, it is because the parent is absent and they prefer her to the stranger. When the parent returns, they actively seek contact, and their crying is reduced immediately.
Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment
This pattern reflects the greatest insecurity. At reunion, these infants show confused, contradictory behaviors-for example, looking away while the parent is holding hem or approaching the parent with flat, depressed emotion. Most display a dazed facial expression, and a few cry out unexpectedly after having calmed down or display odd, frozen postures.
Goodness-of-fit Model
Thomas and Chess (1977) proposed this model to explain how the environment and temperament can together produce favorable outcomes. Goodness of fit involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize favorable outcomes. It involves creating child-rearing environments that recognize each child's temperament while simultaneously encouraging more adaptive functioning.
Animals can be taught to communicate in ways that resemble language.
True
One way to reduce prejudice is for authorities and institutions to endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral support for all groups.
True
Sometimes the sensation of pain can linger a long time after the pain inducing stimulus is removed.
True
True
True or False: Most old people that are healthy show little decline of memory, mostly just a decline in attention and stuff like that
Erickson's Psychosocial stages
Trust vs Mistrust (birth-1) Ego Identity vs role confusion (puberty-20s) Integrity despair (60s-death)
Defense Mechanisms
Unconscious coping mechanisms that reduce anxiety generated by threats from unacceptable impulses
Define: intapersonal intelligence
Understanding of one's own emotions, intentions, and motives: essayist or philosopher
Define: interpersonal intelligence
Understanding of other people's emotions, motives, intentions: politician, salespersons, clinical psychologist
nonsocial activity
Unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play; distinguished from "parallel," "associative," and "cooperative play"
Infants gain control over the _________ parts of their bodies, and then the _________.
Upper;lower
Strange Situation
Used to measure attachment. A structured observation that looks at three main points. -How the child reacts when the mom leaves (Separation) -How the child reacts when the mom comes back (Reunion)- Primary Measure of Attachment -If they use the mother as a secure which, from which to explore the environment. -Starts with the mom/baby together -Stranger enters the room with the mom still there -Baby is left alone with the stranger -Mom comes back
Who were the psychologists who worked with little Albert and white rats?
Watson and Rayner
Self-Handicapping
Way of protecting yourself from feeling failure by purposefully failing and using something to blame your performance on
Reflexes, Instinct, Fixed Action Patterns, and Learning
Ways in which we interact with the envirionment
Albert Vanduras Social Cognitive Theory
We observe others before the behavior. We pay attention and then remember.
Define: Overextension
When a categorical term is used to describe more groups than it actual does, usually in young kids
Define: Underextension
When a kid acquires a word for something but fails to use it for others in the same category
Dr. Colom is recording from a mirror neuron in a monkey's brain. When will the neuron fire?
When the monkey is performing a specific action, and also when it watches someone else perform the same action
Guilt
When used appropriately, this emotion can work in a productive way. A child did something bad/stupid, but it can be fixed. They are not a bad person.
4) They are necessarily representative (this is not true about psychological tests)
Which of the following is NOT true about Psychological Test? 1) They are a systematic procedure 2) They are used to measure individual differences 3) They are a sample of your behavior 4) They are necessarily representative
You have a hard time locating your red car at night, in the poorly lit mall parking lot. Why?
Your cones, which detect color, do not function well in dim light.
emotion
a "feeling" aspect of consciousness characterized by a certain level of arousal that's created by the sympathetic nervous system, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of the feelings
What is learning?
a change in an organism's actions, thoughts, or emotions as a result of an experience
Development
a change in human capabilities throughout the course of a person's life
Asthma
a chronic condition characterized by periodic attacks of wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath
What is a flashbulb memory?
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment of event
gender schema
a cognitive framework that organizes information relevant to gender
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
visual impairment
a difficulty in seeing that may include blindness or partial sightedness
intellectual disability
a disability characterized by significant limitations both in intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and practical skills
interactional synchrony
a form of communication in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion and both partners match emotional states, especially positive ones
multicultural education
a form of education in which the goal is to help minority students develop competence in the culture of the majority group while maintaining positive group identities that build on their original cultures
Coregulation
a form of supervision in which parents exercise general oversight while letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making
problem solving
a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways
Obesity
a greater than 20% increase over healthy weight, based on body mass index (bmi) - a ration of weight to height associated with body fat. (A BMI above the 85 percentile for a child's age and sex is considered overweigh, a BMI above the 95th percentile obese)
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a learning disability marked by inattention, impulsiveness, a low tolerance for frustration, and generally a great deal of inappropriate activity
cognitive maps
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
Concept
a mental representation that groups shared features of related objects, events, etc.
representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case (stereotyping)
goodness-of-fit model
a model that describes how favorable adjustment depends on an effective match between a child's temperament and the child-rearing environment
triarchic theory of intelligence
a model that states that intelligence consists of three aspects of information processing: the componential element, the experiential element, and the contextual element
Donald enters an elevator and stands in it, facing the back instead of turning around to face the elevator door. Donald is violating:
a norm.
self-concept
a person's identity, or set of beliefs about what one is like as an individual
individualistic orientation
a philosophy that emphasizes personal identity and the uniqueness of the individual
collectivistic orientation
a philosophy that promotes the notion of interdependence
Conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that produces a response when paired with unconditioned stimulus -e.g. bell after conditioning
reciprocal socialization
a process in which infants' behaviors invite further responses from parents and other caregivers, which in turn bring about further responses from the infants
In order for a test to be normed and standardized it must be tested on ____
a representative sample
Baddeley's Working Memory
a revision of STM, it is active memory, can handle multiple processes
Ainsworth Strange Situation
a sequence of staged episodes that illustrates the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother
Divorce mediation
a series of meetings between a divorcing adults and a trained professional aimed at reducing family conflict, including legal battles over property division and custody
Fixed Ratio
a set number of responses must occur (paid for every 10 sweaters)
Amnesia
a severe loss or deterioration of memory
Dementia
a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes (Alzheimer's disease)
social smile
a smile evoked by a human face, normally evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth
auditory impairment
a special need that involves the loss of hearing or some aspect of hearing
Dominance Hierarchy:
a stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises
androgynous
a state in which gender roles encompass characteristics thought typical of both sexes
Cannon-Barde Theory
a stimulus leads to activity in the brain, which sends signals to arouse the body and interpret the emotion at the same time
common-sense theory
a stimulus leads to an emotion of fear, which leads to bodily arousal
Schacter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory
a stimulus leads to bodily arousal and labeling of the arousal, which leads to experiencing emotional reaction
James-Lange theory
a stimulus leads to bodily arousal first, which is then interpreted as an emotion
ambivalent attachment pattern
a style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers; they show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her
avoidant attachment pattern
a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior
disorganized-disoriented attachment pattern
a style of attachment in which children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior, such as approaching the mother when she returns but not looking at her; they may be the least securely attached children of all
secure attachment pattern
a style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned (STAAR Test)
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
a test for children that provides, separate measures of verbal and performance (or nonverbal) skills, as well as a total score
Standford-Binet Intelligence Scale
a test that consists of a series of items that vary according to the age of the person being tested
peak experiences
a time when self-actualization is temporarily achieved
Assimilation
a way of modifying a schema when we learn new info but fit it into our schema
naturalistic frame
ability to recognize, identify, and understand animals, plants, and living things
Crystallized Intelligence
ability to retain and use knowledge that was acquired through experience (facts)
Fluid Intelligence
ability to see abstract differences and draw logical experiences (creativity and logic)
linguistic frame
ability to speak and write well
Declarative
ability to state a fact
intrapersonal frame
ability to understand and regulate own emotions
interpersonal frame
ability to understand and work effectively with others
conservation
ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object doesn't change it's nature
logical/mathematical frame
ability to use logic and math skills to solve problems
Age of viability
about 25 weeks
symbolic representation
abstract mental representations that consist of words or ideas (Writing the word of the object)
psychological maltreatment
abuse that occurs when parents or other caregivers harm children's behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or physical functioning
betty is tested at the gifted level and was allowed to skip from 6th to 8th grade. this approach to helping gifted students is called
acceleration
Belief Bias
accepting something if it sounds believable, belief over logic
psychosocial development
according to Erickson, development that encompasses changes both in the understandings individuals have of themselves as members of society and in their comprehension of the meaning of others' behavior
initiative-versus-guilt stage
according to Erikson, the period during which children aged 3 to 6 years experience conflict between independence of action and the sometimes negative results of that action
trust-versus-mistrust stage
according to Erikson, the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers
preoperational stage
according to Piaget, the stage from approximately age 2 to age 7 in which children's use of symbolic thinking grows, mental reasoning emerges, and the use of concepts increases
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
according to Vygotsky, the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, perform a task independently, but can do so with the assistance of someone more competent
When you are learning how to play the piano, the statement "Every good boy does fine" can help you remember the notes EGBDF for the lines of the treble clef. This is an example of a (an)
acrostic
parallel play
action in which children play with similar toys, in a similar manner, but do not interact with each other
onlooker play
action in which children simply watch others at play, but do not actually participate themselves
extrinsic matter
actions lead us to an outcome separate from us
short-term memory (STM)
activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten; about 7+- 2 items; lost in about 12-30 seconds
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten ("magic 7")
What is gene expression?
activation and deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development
working memory
active maintenance of information in short-term memory
Memory
active process of storage, retention, and recall of events, info, and procedures
Semantic Encoding
actively relating old knowledge to new info, meaning based (elaborative encoding)
social referencing
actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation. (How to act) the intentional search for information about others' feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events Caregivers model response
Elaborative Rehearsal
adding info while trying to work with it
positive reinforcement
addition of a rewarding stimulus e.g. father gives candy for kid practicing piano
emotional self regulation
adjusting ones own state of emotional intensity
Identity vs. identity confusion
adolescence; natural world is social influence: child try's to find their correct role.
personal fable
adolescents' belief that what happens to them is unique, exceptional, and shared by no one else; contributes to risk taking
Banduras doll experiment
adult hits doll so kid does too
Disequilibrium Principle
after disrupting a daily routine, people naturally try to return to that usual pattern, this return is reinforcing (doing all your work super early so you can get back to what you normally do)
instrumental aggression
aggression motivated by the desire to obtain a concrete goal
In the _____ of the general adaptation syndrome, the body mobilizes the sympathetic nervous system to meet an immediate threat
alarm phase
arousal
alertness, situational awareness, stress
A specific formula for solving a problem is called ____
algorithm
memory
an active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters information as it's being stored, and receives information from storage
enrichment
an approach through which students are kept at grade level but are enrolled in special programs and given individual activities to allow greater depth of study on a given topic
mainstreaming
an educational approach in which exceptional children are integrated to the extent possible into the traditional educational system and are provided with a broad range of educational alternatives
Priming
an enhanced ability to think of something, like a word or object, as a result to recent exposure to that word or object
As miranda looks at the grade scored in her final exam, he thinks, "I didn't do well on this exam, because my roommate was bringing on Netflix in our room all night." miranda's thoughts suggest that she has
an external locus of control
Dynamic assessment:
an innovation consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation to find out what the child can attain with social support
What is a learning disability ?
an intellectual disorder
Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (KABC-II)
an intelligence test that measures children's ability to integrate different stimuli simultaneously and step-by-step thinking
Metamemory
an understanding about the processes that underlie memory, which emerges and improves during middle childhood
metalinguistic awareness
an understanding of one's own use of language
Which learning style involves breaking problems down into different components?
analytical learning
Which type of bias involves becoming fixated on a single trait of a problem?
anchoring
all start out female, and if ______________ are produced, will develop into a male
androgens
Tawanda tells her husband that she thinks their dog is embarrassed to be walked around the neighborhood in the sweater that she knitted for him. This is almost certainly an example of ________
anthropomorphism
insecure-ambivalent attachment
anxiously clings to caregiver and refuses consolation
teratogen
any factor that can cause a birth defect
resistant/ambivelent infants
are unsure if their caregiver will respond
early self concepts
are usually concrete: name physical appearence, possesions, everyday behaviors
Self-care children
are without adult supervision for some period of time after school
whole-language approach
argued that from the beginning, children should be exposed to text in its complete from so that they can appreciate the communicative function of written language
Hormonal Stress Theory
argues that aging in the body's hormonal system lowers resistance to stress and increase the likelihood of disease.
Taste Aversion Learning
associating gestation with getting sick, normally only takes one shot to learn
According to the section in your textbook on lie detection...
at present there is no perfect way to detect lying
scale errors
attempting to do things that their body size makes impossible
Which is the correct order of steps in the modeling process?
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
which parenting style is most likely to promote a childs self esteme
attortaive
Baumrind's Parenting Styles
authoritarian- strict obedience, poor communication authoritative- strict obedience, communication of expectations uninvolved- lack of concern, detached permissive- lack of concern, little effort of control
Infants are born with a large set of _____________ _________ behaviors (reflexes).
automatic motor
major motor milestones
average ages for each, but wide range of "normal"
Chaining
behaviors reinforced by the opportunity to engage in the next behavior, learning a series of behaviors (like learning to brush teeth or make food), used during the acquisition phase
Human dicision making is more irrational then rational
better at judging frequency then probability
happiness
binds parents and baby into warm supportive relationship that fostors development
sensorimotor stage
birth to 2 years; uses senses and motor abilities to learn about the world
Cues
bits of associated info that help in retrieval
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is also known as ____
blocking
Motor behaviors
bodily motions that occur as a result of self-initiated force that moves the bones and muscles.
obesity
body weight more than 20% higher than the average weight for a person of a given age and height
gross motor development early childhood
bodys streamline, center of gravity shifts toward trunk can now balence: walking goes from wobbly to smooth/rhythmic can now concentrate on getting better control of upper body can coordinate and refine their movements
Information processing model
brain encodes, stores, and retrieves information much like a computer
Scripts
broad representations in memory of events and the order in which they occur
__________ is the portion of the frontal lobe of the brain that controls language production
broca's area
uninhibited children
children who display positive emotion to and approach novel stimuli
gifted and talented
children who show evidence of high performance capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, leadership capacity, or specific academic fields
Organizing items into familiar manageable units, often occurs automatically is called?
chunking ex. phone numbers
Differences between classical and operant conditioning?
classical conditioning - response is elicited - reward is independent of what it does - responses depend on autonomic nervous system operant conditioning - response is emitted (voluntary) - reward is contingent/dependent on what it does - responses depend on the skeletal muscles
What is conditioned taste aversion?
classical conditioning can lead us to develop avoidance reactions to the taste of food
Two forms of associative learning are ____ and ____
classical conditioning; operant conditioning
what else are operational children able to do?
classificatiton: organising thing along several different dimensions
baumarind did what
classified the child rearing styles
Exemplar theory
classify new objects by comparing them to all category members
Representative Jansen, a U.S. congresswoman, believes in the reproductive rights and welfare of women but voted to ban late-term abortions. Jansen feels very uneasy about the conflict between her beliefs and her behavior. She is most likely experiencing:
cognitive dissonance.
The rats had developed _____________ ______ that were only used once there was a reinforcer.
cognitive maps
Phil's mental representation of Thanksgiving includes associations about turkeys, attitudes toward the holiday, and expectations about the weight he would gain! These are all part of his____ for the holiday
cognitive schema
Peer group
collectives that generate unique values and standards for behavior and a social structure of leaders and followers
Popular-Prosocial children
combine academic and social competence, perform well and communicate well
chunking
combining bits of information into meaningful units so more information can be held in STM
Relearning
compares the rate of relearning materials as opposed to initial learning, if there is time savings=learning, aka savings learning, like learning to tie shoes
36+ months
complete sentences
Fixed Action Patterns
complex action, like chicks following the first moving object they see
On a trip to Australia, Caleb sees an ibis for the first time. Despite never having seen one before, he uses his ______________ for bird to quickly identify the ibis as a type of bird.
concept
according to Piaget, children in elementary school are in the cognative development stage of
concrete operational thought
Ivan Pavlov studied the reflexive flow of saliva in dogs. He used meat powder or other food to trigger the salivation. It was later observed that the salivation in the dog was triggered when the dog saw its dog dish, even before the food was placed in it. In this instance, the dog dish is the ________.
conditioned stimulus
Chad remembers the feeling of excitement in his house when his mother stepped through the door with his new baby sister. He can still picture the tiny little baby with a stocking cap on her head! His parents can't convince him that he actually stayed with his grandparents for two weeks after his sister was born and that his memory never happened! Chad's memory is an example of:
confabulation
When 6 year old Jason's parents overhear him describing his third birthday party, they look at each other in surprise. Jason appears to remember that the birthday cake his father was baking burned and his aunt had to run out and buy one from a bakery, even though Jason was not present when those events occurred. Jason's memory illustrates the concept of
confabulation
Reginald is a Green Part supporter. He goes out of his way to read articles about the achievements of the Green Part, but doesn't pay any attention to articles that are critical of the party and its candidates. Reginald is exhibiting___
confirmation bias
What term do psychologists use to describe our tendency to search for evidence that supports our belief and to ignore evidence that might disprove it?
confirmation bias
initiative vs. guilt
conflict? role of parents. parents who criticize too much have kids who dont want to try new things in fear of failure
Stimulus response theory (SR)
connection between the stimulus and response is needed for an individual to learn about the consequences of their behavior.
Reliability
consistency, dependable, similar results time after time
The formulation of new memories is sometimes called ____, and the process of bringing up old memories is called ____
construction; reconstruction
brain lateralization..
continues, different sides of the brain take on different functions
Simplest is ____________ reinforcement.
continuous
The view that development is a cumulative process, gradually adding to the same type of skills is know as ____
continuous development
Schedules of reinforcement can be ________________ or ____________.
continuous or partial
insecure-disorganized attachment
contradictory behaviors from child
betty and beth, both 4 yrs old, take turns playing a board game what type of play are they engaging in
cooperative
Criterion Related Validity
correlating a score on a test with their scores on an independent one (predictive ability)
standardization
creates a comparison group and establishes standard methods of test administration
Elaboration
creating a relationship, or shared meaning, between two or more pieces of information that do not belong to the same category (end of middle school)
The False Memory Effect
creating false events/memories from a long time ago
Mastery-oriented attributions
crediting their successes to ability-a characteristic they can improve through trying hard and can count on when facing new challenges. And they attribute failure to factors that can be changed or controlled, such as insufficient effort or a very difficult task
During her lecture, Professor Braddock referred to cognitive skills and specific knowledge that one acquires over a lifetime. She went on to explain that this is largely influenced by education and usually remains stable over time. Which term was she describing?
crystallized intelligence
Which occupation would be more likely to require emotion work as a job requirement?
customer service representative
Syllogistic Reasoning
determining a conclusion follows from two statements assumed to be true; if A & B, then C
Erickson's Theory
development occurs in 8 stages; crises must be successfully resolved for healthy psychological development
Generativity vs. stagnation
did they give back to future generations; did they live a stagnate life?
Framing Effects
different answers to the same question depends on how the problem is phrased
specific learning disorder
difficulties in the acquisition and use of listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or mathematical abilities
_____ are social and cultural rules that regulate when, how, and where a person may express emotions
display rules
Gifted
displaying exceptional intellectual strengths
According to attribution theory, the explanations we give for our behavior and the behavior of others generally fall into two categories:
dispositional and situational.
a healthy outcome during infancy according to erikson..
does not depend on the amount of food or oral stimualtion offered but the QUALITY of caregiving: relieving discomfort promptly and sensitively, holding the infant gently, waiting patiently until the baby has had enough milk and weaning when the infant doesnt show interest in breast/bottle
Neutral stimulus
does not initially trigger response -bell before conditioning
Extrinsic learning
doing something in order to gain a reward or avoid negative consequences
mylenation in other parts of the brain allows for
dramatic increase in motor function
What did Freud discover?
dream protection theory
a reading disability resulting in the misconception of letter during reading and writing, and difficulties in spelling is
dyslexia
Roberta tries to memorize her shopping list by constructing a story that involves each item on the list. Roberta is employing
elaborative rehearsal
Seena is extremely nervous about an exam that she is taking tomorrow. To relieve the stress, she decides to stop thinking about the exam, and she spends her evening watching television and thinking happy thoughts. Seena is using a(n) ___ coping method.
emotion focused
by the middle of the first year
emotional expressions are well-organized and specific and can tell us a lot about babys internal state
Amygdala
emotional memory
Conditioned emotional response (CER)
emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli
toddler show begining signs of
empathy. feeling and udnerstnading other people
Modular accounts
emphasize domain-specific learning
Sociocultural accounts
emphasize social context and interaction
Vygotsky's theory
emphasized the role of others and social/cultural influences in development -Scaffolding -Zone of proximal development
The three functions of memory are ____
encoding, storage, and retrieval
Memory's 3 basic tasks
encoding, storage, retrieval
transitive inference
encourages students to build their own knowledge. Approaches my vary but many are grounded in Piaget's theory, which views children as active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than absorbing those of others. Richly equipped learning centers, small groups and individuals solving self-chosen problems, and a teacher who guides and supports in response to children's needs. Students are evaluated by considering their progress in relation to their own prior development.
Piaget thought the _____ _______ of cognitive development is the ability to reason logically about hypotheticals
end point
The physical trace of memory is known as the ____
engram
josh, 7 yrs old, told his grandparents about his experience when his family moved from Arkansas to Tennesse 2 yrs ago. his memory of the move is called ______________ memory
episodic
What is a memory of one's personal experience?
episodic memory
We are ____________________ _____________________ to be more afraid of certain things than of others.
evolutionarily predisposed
Cross-sectional design
examine people of different ages at a single time
children are not developing new capalibilties, instead:
existing ones become more intentional streamlined powerful
Chunking
expanding how many pieces we memorize by grouping into larger meaningful units (like a phone number)
a trusting infant
expects the world to be good and gratifying so he feels confident about venturing out and exploring it.
mike has had to over come several obsticals and he developed what some people might call street smarts. he is practical and uses a great deal of common sense, according to sternburgs theory, he would be high in __________intelegence
experimental
Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or of an item of information is called
explicit memory
Construct Validity
extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct
around six months
face voice and posture form organized patterns that vary meaningfully with enviromental events
good parenting
facilitating a match metween childs temparement and the enviroment rerspect for individuality structuring the enviroment avoiding labels
decay
fading away of memory over time
encoding failure
failing to process information into memory
secure base
farmiliar caregiver, a point that they can come back to for emotional support after they venture into the enviroment
Heuristics
fast and efficient strategy that may facilitate decision, but NOT guarantee, a rule of thumb
detecting emotions in others
fear and anger are easy to detect abuse-see fear as anger
germinal stage
fertilization to 2 weeks; early development of support system structures
slow to warm up
few problems inearly years, excessive feafulness and slow constricted behaviour when expected to respond quickly (jacki bodyston)
imaginary audience
fictitious observers pay as much attention to adolescents' behavior as they do themselves
Practical Reasoning
figuring out what to do, or reasoning directly toward action
cutting with scissors is an example of a _______________ motor skill
fine
as the brain grows and mylenates
fine motor development increases. now kids can: put puzzles together build with small blocks dress/undress and use fork and tie shoes
Using scissors to cut out paper shapes is an example of ____
fine motor skills
Ratio schedules produce most responding
fixed: works only if reinforcement continues variable ratio: resists extinction
An exceptionally clear recollection of an important event is a (an) ____
flashbulb memory
physical development
flexibiltiy balence agility increase fforce
General cognitive accounts
focus on general cognitive abilities and acquired knowledge
centration
focusing on one aspect of a stimulus and neglecting others
What is the most common memory complaint?
forgetting peoples name (not faces) 83%
Source Monitoring Errors
forgetting the source of where you heard something (it's pretty much source amnesia)
Source Amnesia
forgetting where or from who (whom?) you heard something, part of suggestibility
Mirror neuros
found in frontal and parietal lobe as if we do the action ourselves
Rough and tumble play
friendly chasing and play fighting
anger and sadness
from 4-6 months into the second year, angry expressions increase in frequency and intensity
Prenatal Period
from conception to birth
Proximodistal development
from the spine to the extremities
brain development in early childhood
frontal lobe develops rapidly left hemisphere (seat of language) is more active than the right (supporting rapidly developing lanugage skills
Adolescent impulsivity
frontal lobes mature slowly, while limbic system becomes more active.
sally jumps from one end of the room to the other. this activity illustrates ____________ play
functional
If someone is uncomfortable identifying with the gender normally associated with their biological sex, then he could be classified as experiencing ____
gender dysphoria
Habituation
general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in gradual reduction in response (like how you stop noticing a sticky note)
what influences physical growth
genes and experience
Where does high intelligence come from ?
genetics and environment
Arthur Jensen believed that ____
genetics was solely responsible for intelligence
prenatal development stage 1
germinal period called zygote (2 week period) where egg and sperm pair
Variable Ratio
get a reward on average number of responses (slot machine), strongest responding rates
by age nine, development changes bc
girls develop more rapidly than boys so that they can concieve
framing
give different answers on the same problem depending on how something is asked -20% chance rain vs, 80% chance of no rain
accounding to gilligan, the second stage of moral development is
goodness as self sacrfice
Extinction
gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the conditioned stimuls is prepeatelly presneted without the unconditioned stimulus -e.g. elimination of salivating when bell rings without food
Joint custody
grants parents equal say in important decisions about the child's upbringing, is becoming increasingly common
Learning disabilities
great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading. As a result, their achievement is considerably behind what would be expected on the basis of their IQ
disorganized disoriented attachment
greatest insecutiry. show confused reactions upon reunion. 15%
Organization
grouping related items together - improves recall dramatically
cross-sectional study design
groups of people differing in age are studied at the same point in time
how do genes impact the kids growth
growth hormone (except for genitalia and CNS thyroid- stimulating hormone, stimulates release of thyroxine by thyroid which supports brain development and allows growth hormone to afect the body size
self-concious emotions
guilt, shame, embarassment, envy and pride. appear at the end of the second year, as the 18-24 mo becomes firmly aware that they are a seperate unique individual
Best use of lie detector
guilty knowledge test
Which of the following emotions is a protoypical emotion?
happiness
basic emotions
happiness, interest, surprise, fear anger, and disgust are universal in humans and other primates
a self confident secure child (autonomy)
has parents who do not criticize or attack him when he fails at new skills ex using the toilet and they meet his assertions of independance with tolerance and understanding (5 more minutes!)
cooperitive play
have a goal, have a lot of social skills bc u have to compromise
6 month olds
have become attached to people who tend to thei neesd
10-12 month olds
have several smiles. a broad cheek raised smile in response to a parents greeting. a reserved muted smile for a friendly stranger. and a mouth open smile during play
early printing why are kids letters backwards
havent learned to read they think it a picture
cephalocaudal development
head to foot
biological basis of inhibited temperament
heart rate, salvia concentration of cortisol, pupil dilation, blood pressure, skin surface temperature are all neurobiological correlates of shyness and sociability
prosocial behavior
helping behavior that benefits others
4-6 months the ability to shift attention
helps infants contol emotion
A mental shortcut in the form of a general problem-solving framework is called ____
heuristic
Marylou is making her famous chili. Instead of measuring the amount of chopped peppers to add, she knows that a handful is "usually about right." This illustrates the use of a(n):
heuristic.
authoritarian
high demand low warmth
authoritative
high warmth high demand
Advertisers also make extensive use of ______________________ conditioning.
higher-order
Individuals suffering from posttraumatic stress disorder have shown to have reduced volumes of the
hippocampus
role sleep plays in improving memory storage
hippocampus processes and stores memories during sleep for later retrieval
According to the concept of facial feedback, when Nate complies with instructions to smile and look happy, it is most likely that
his positive feelings will increase
Harlow's Monkeys
his research showed that monkeys preferred the warm, soft "mother" to the wire "monkey" that provided food
Which learning style involves viewing problems as a whole?
holistic learning
What is developmental psychology?
how behavior changes over the life span
goodness of fit model
how temperment and enviroment together can produce favorable outcomes. j
Behaviorists argue that punishment is much less effective than reinforcement in modifying ___________________.
human behavior
When you are under stress, the brain's _____ sends messages to the endocrine glands along two major pathways
hypothalamus
Cognitive Learning Theory
idea that internal processes and cognitions determine our behavior
Monozygotic twins
identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo
self recognition
identification of the self as a physically unique being
Recognition
identify the correct answer (multiple choice questions)
decision making
identifying, evaluating, and choosing among several alternatives
emma knows that she is a female and can say whether others are male or female too. this ability refers to as gender ______________
identity
Latent Inhibition
if the stimulus is familiar, you won't learn to respond to it as fast
vicarious reinforcement
imitate behaviors that we see others being rewarded for
children response to hypocrisy
imitate hypocrisy children do as you do and say what you say but do what you say
infant sadness comes from a disruption in caregiver and infant commmunication and
impairs all aspects of development. sadness less common
Partial reinforcement effect in extinction
implies that partial reinforcement is more successful than continuous reinforcement, meaning extinction won't happen as quickly
Inhibition of Delay
in delayed conditioning, when the subject learns to wait to respond
Morpheme
in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning (the word "dog" or "s" in the word dogs)
different types of amnesia (Retrograde)
inability to remember old memories
Extinction burst
increase in behavior when reinforcer is first removed
rapid development of the fromtal lobe of the cerebral cortex
increases babys tolerance for stimulation
exemplar theory
individuals make category judgments by comparing new stimuli with instances already stored in memory
Which of the following is an example of a reflex that occurs at some point in the development of a human being ?
infant sucking on a nipple
approach avoidance
infants behavior is a balence between the two
ethological theory of attachment
infants emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival
middle of first year
infants smile and laugh more when interacting with farmiliar people
by end of first month
infants smile at dynamic eye catching sites
a caregivers emotional expression
influences whether a 1 year old will be wary of strangers play with an unfarmiliar toy, or cross the visual cliff
Blocking
info is temporarily inaccessible, the "tip of the tongue" phenomena, retrieval induced forgetting
serial position effect
information at the beginning and end of a body of information are more accurately remembered than information in the middle
long-term memory (LTM)
information is retained indefinitely although some information may be difficult to retrieve
erickson on emotional development 3rd stage
initiative vs. guilt \
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
innately causes a response (food)
Primary Reinforcer
innately satisfying (food, water, sex)
Primary Reinforcers
innately satisfying (satisfies innate [biological] need)
association areas
integrate information 75% is uncommitted to sensory or muscular activity
The DSM-5 now uses ____ as a diagnostic label for what was once referred to as a mental retardation
intellectual disability
profound intellectual disability
intellectual disability in which IQ scores fall below 20 or 25
mild intellectual disability
intellectual disability in which IQ scores fall in the range of 50 or 55 to 70
Persistence
intrusive memories that we wish we could forget, often disturbing, emotional memories remembered better than non-emotional ones
Convergent thinking:
involves arriving at a single correct answer and is emphasized on intelligence tests
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:
involves inattention, impulsivity, and excessive motor activity resulting in academic and social problems
childs approach to world
is based on the experiences to which she is exposed
Emotion-centered coping
is internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome
Adolescent Egocentrism
is the belief by adolescents that others are as overly concerned with him or her as he or she is and that the adolescent is unique and invincible - Imaginary audience - Personal fable - Invincibility fable
Purpose of memory
it is not to record the past but to predict the future
Social comparisons
judgments of their appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others
tip of the tongue phenomenon
know something but can't quite remember it
Gardner's 8 frames of mind
logical, visual, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, kinesthetic, naturalistic, linguistic
Integrity vs. despair
look back and try to figure out if they lived a good life, or not
cognitive misers
look for ways to conserve cognitive energy
preschool friendship is marked by
lots of emotional expression, talking laughing, lots of looking, social support this also fosters academic confidence and social confidence
permissive
low demand high warmth
overall stability of temperate
low to moderate
secure attachment kids..
maintain their attachment status more than insecure babies
bicultural identity
maintaining one's original cultural identity while integrating oneself into the dominant culture
effort control is
major demension of temperment
availability heuristic
making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind
Which coping method is being used when a person says, "I"m devastated that our home was flooded, but at least it is still standing. Some of the houses closer to the river are gone
making social comparisons
The self-referencing effect refers to ____
making the material you are trying to memorize personally meaningful to you
recognition
matching incoming information with that already stored in long term memory
Animal research suggests that in male rats the ____ is critical for the ability to engage in sexual behavior, but not for the motivation to do so
medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus
Which of the following is not one of the seven universal emotions described in chpt 10?
melancholy
Family Resemblance Theory
members have features that are similar, but not all members share it
state-dependent
memories formed during a particular physiological state will be easier to recall while in a similar state
Nondeclarative
memories of skills, procedures, habits, conditioned responses, not conscious
According to the decay theory, forgetting occurs because
memories simply fade with time if they are not accessed now and then
non-declarative memory
memories that aren't conscious but their existence is implied because they affect conscious behavior (skills, procedures, habits)
Mnemonics
memory aid based on encoding each item in a special way (like PEMDAS for order of operations)
Decay
memory and memory strength fades away over time
Retrograde Amnesia
memory for events just prior (or earlier) to brain damage is lost
Define: Sensory Memory
memory from the five senses
encoding specifity
memory is improved if information available when memory was first formed is also available when memory is retrieved
Reconstruction
memory is reconstructed from info stored during encoding
Episodic
memory of events and details of life history (like a piano lesson you took once)
Procedural
memory of how to do something (like how to play piano)
Semantic
memory of knowledge (how to read music)
autobiographical memory
memory of particular events from one's own life
short term memory
memory system that retains information for limited durations -forgotten withough rehearsal
Puberty for females is marked by ____________ and ______________ for males
menarche; spermarche
Cognitive map
mental image of 3-dimensional space that you can navigate
Cognitive Maps:
mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces, such as their neighborhood or school
2 obstacles to problem solving
mental set and functional fixedness
Early adulthood
mid 20's through 30's
Memory aids that help organize info. for encoding are ____
mnemonic device
The person who performs a behavior that serves an example is called a ____
model
heretability
moderate role in temperment.
Which of the following is NOT an example of a primary reinforcer?
money
difficult kids
more agressive and anxious withdrawl in early/middle chjildhood
adults voice is
more effective than face alone
How can we improve storage?
-rehearsal and sleep
Kholberg's stages of moral development
1. Pre conventional- Focus on consequences & rewards of one's own self 2. Conventional- Focus on a societal viewpoint 3. Post Conventional- Focus on one's personal moral perspective
____ are the smallest unit of language that carry meaning
morpheme
a ________ is the smallest unit of meaning within a language
morpheme
Newborn Vision
most poorly developed system at birth
Prototype
most typical member of a categorie
benard weiner
motivation based on attribute
gardener
multiple theories of intelligence
Which of the following is NOT one of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences?
musical
What are Gardner's 8 abilities the meet intelligence criteria?
musical - rhythmic visual - spatial verbal - linguistic logical - mathematical bodily -kinesthetic interpersonal - relating to people interpersonal - self awareness naturalistic - one with nature
in the second stage of friendship, what is the main criterion for freindship?
mutual trust
kids start to lose what in early childhood
my teef
the corpus collosum
mylenates rapidly, encasement of axons in fatty sheath speeds neural communication
drive-reduction theory
needs requirement of some material essential for survival
____ is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a behavior
negative punishment
Uninvolved/Neglectful
neglectful and ignoring (worst parenting style)
long-term potentiation
neural basis for learning and memory mindset of information not rehearsed decays
How does the brain work when making financial decisions?
neuroeconomics
Mirror neurons
neurons that fire when we observe others perform a behavior
A stimulus that does not initially elicit a response in an organism is a(n)
neutral stimulus
What must be paired together for classical conditioning to occur?
neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
retroactive interference
newer information prevents or interferes with retrieval of older information
insecure-avoidant attachment
no distress when caregiver leaves and doesn't care when returns
long term memory
no know capacity limits but some info may be lost overtime
ill-defined
no one "correct" answer; path to solution often unclear
Misattribution
no recall or false recall, misidentification, false recognition
relational aggression
nonphysical aggression that is intended to hurt another person's psychological well-being
mental sets: functional fixation
not being able to look past the usual purpose of objects in order to solve problem (candle)
Still Deeper Processing
note the associations between items or parts of the material (semantic) (what it means (putting it in your own words))
Considering the study of Terman's high IQ children, you can asser that having a high iq guarantees
nothing
environmental influences on temperament
nutrition, quality of caregiving, cultural variations, gender stereotyping, quality of caregiving
enviromental influences
nutrition: after 15 montsht their appetite starts to slow because theyre growing less, this is when picky eating starts bc not using as much calories infectious disease: malnutrition and lack of vaccine childhood injuries: leading cause of death, bois at risk, having irritible and pessimistic attitude, stressed poverty stricken enviroment
carlos weighs 35 % more than peers his same age and height. he would be classified as
obese
The idea that even if something is out of sight, it still exists is called ____
object permanence
Latent inhibition
observation that a familiar stimulus takes longer to acquire meaning (as a signal or conditioned stimulus) than a new stimulus
Observational learning/Modeling
occurs when a person observes and imitates behavior
Conditioning
occurs when an association has been made among stimuli *Classical vs Operant conditioning*
Associative learning
occurs when an association is made between two events.
Observational Learning
occurs when an individual observes and then imitates another individual's behavior
Dizygotic twins
often called fraternal twins, occurring when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time
proactive interference
older information prevents or interferes with learning or retrieval of newer information
Variable Interval
on an average passage of time (catch a fish about every hour)
Variable
on average, it varies
well-defined
one "correct" answer; certain procedures will lead to the solution
Female produces _____ _______ per month
one egg
trial and error method
one possible solution after another is tried until success
Only ______ _______ can fertilize an egg
one sperm
Association
one stimuli must predict another (CS predicts US)
Nearly ____ of the adult population in the United States can be classified as obese
one third
Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement
only some responses are reinforced
seriation:
ordering items along a quantitive dimension (ex number, length, weight by ages 6-7 kids should be able too do this
interference theory
other information interferes with out ability to access memories
linguistic relativity hypothesis
our culture, environment, and beliefs influence communication (Saphir-Whorf hypothesis)
betty calls all men daddy, this is an example of
overextension
decay theory
overtime, if memory traces aren't used, they may decay or fade
The ____ model of memory represents the contents of memory as connections among a large number of interacting processing units.
parallel distributed processing
Diana Baumrind
parenting styles
autonomy vs shame and doubt is resolved favorably when
parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices
authoritarian parents
parents who are controlling, punitive, rigid, and cold, and whose word is law
Authoritative parents
parents who are firm, setting clear and consistent limits, but who try to reason with their children, giving explanations for why they should behave in a particular way
permissive parents
parents who provide lax and inconsistent feedback and require little of their children
uninvolved parents
parents who show almost no interest in their children and indifferent, rejecting behavior
biggest influencers on childhood friendhips
parents: direct: who they play with, where they play, what they do indirect: through attachment, effects come from modeling if parent is warm sensitive and caring child will be to skip formal play dates and go to the damn park for better social skills
language 0-4 months
passive master- understands
Ekman & Friesan (1971)
people across different cultures universally recognize facial expressions
Free-Radical Theory
people age because of unstable oxygen molecules develop in their cells
Sunk Cost Fallacy
people make decisions about a situation based on what they have previously invested in the situation
What is Galton's theory?
people with better senses acquire more knowledge
spatial frame
perceive, transform, and recreate spatial information
for drawing, what is needed
perception ability to describe and rearticulate in details memory fine motor control
Yerkes-Dodson Law
performance is related to arousal
sunk cost bias
person makes decision based on how much they have invested
chronological age
person's age according to a calendar
Zone of proximal development
phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
Conditioning and stimulus generalization can explain how we acquire ____________
phobias
____ is (are) the basic sound units of a spoken language
phoneme
Reassuring ___________ ___________ plays a huge role in developing attachment.
physical contact
associative play
play in which two or more children actually interact with one another by sharing or borrowing toys or materials, although they do not do the same thing
functional play
play that involves simple, repetitive activities typical of 3 year olds
where does motor development take place
playtime nowadays kids arent getting enough play time do not force new skills
Plasticity
pliability; condition of being able to be shaped or formed
self-actualization
point at which we have satisfied lower needs and achieved full potential
Thorndike's Law of Effect
positive consequences strengthen behavior and negative consequences weaken behavior
Advertisers repeatedly pair their products with stimuli that elicit __________________.
positive emotions
What type of punishment is it if you wear a baseball cap to class and you are scolded by the teacher?
positive punishment
according to the triarchic theory of intelligence, ______ intelligence refers to the application of intelligence in different situations and environments
practical
What type of intelligence is often required for every tasks, according to Sternberg?
practical intelligence, street smarts
ann has gotten much better at taking turns and maintaining topics within conversation. she has improved her
pragmatics
a child who said its not worth stealing candy from a store because if you are caught you would get punished dimnstrates ____________ level of morality
preconventional
Premack Principle
preferred behaviors can be used to reinforce less-preferred behavior (like if study for an hour, then I can watch Netflix)
Parts of the ________ are involved in the regulation of emotion, keeping us on an even keel and responding appropriately to others.
prefrontal cortex
Postive
presenting something
A ____________ __________ is one that is born prior to thirty-six weeks after conception
preterm infant
Encoding Specificity
principle that retrieval cues are effective when they help recreate the way the memory was first encoded; external cues
at first
printing= drawing because they havent learned that letters serve for symbols
After their home in California is damaged during an earthquake, a couple researches the federal loan program to help them rebuild their house. Their behavior is an example of:
problem-focused coping
Cerebellum
procedural memory
Which of the following is considered to be an implicit memory
procedural memory
Means-End Analysis
process of searching for steps (means) to meet a goal (end) (analyze goal state, analyze goal state, then list and reduce the differences)
A unit of meaning that is made up of concepts and expresses a single idea is called a:
proposition.
Confabulation
pulling pieces together to make a whole
what is erik eriksons psychosocial therapy
quality of care a child recieves 8 stages of childs development
Puberty
rapid sexual and skeletal maturation that occurs during adolescence
Availability Bias
readily available items in memory are judged as having occurred more frequently (or are thought to be true
Theoretical (Discursive) Reasoning
reasoning directed toward arriving at a belief, humans aren't very good at this
After you witnessed an accident on campus, you are asked to describe what happened. Which test of memory is being used?
recall
State Dependent Retrieval
recall is improved by being in the same "state" during encoding and retrieval, inner state cues
ethological theory of attachment
recognizes the infant's emotional tie to the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival
intermodal perception
reconize that they are distinct from their surroundings.
What is the three stage processing model of memory and who invented it?
record memory process encode created by Atkinson and Shiffrin
Flooding
reduce fear to a stimuli by exposing the subject to the stimuli until the fear is no longer present (afraid of flying? Just go on the plane)
Crystalized Intelligence
refers to an individuals accumulated information and verbal skills, which increase in middle and late adulthood
Emotional intelligence
refers to asset of emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information. To measure it, researchers have devised items, tapping emotional skills that enable people to manage their own emotions and interact competently with others
Cognitive development
refers to how intelligence, thought, and language processes change as a person grows
Approximately ___ percent of children may be behaviorally inhibited.
10
Difficult Child
10% of the sample, is irregular in daily routine, is slow to accept new experiences, and tends to react negatively and intensely. Will have a really low or really high activity level, low attention span/persistence, high fearful distress, high irritable distress, and low positive affect.
The frontal lobes become fully developed ____
25 years old
____% of developing organisms don't survive the germinal stage
58%
Peer acceptance
refers to likeability - the extent to which a child is viewed by a group of agemates, such as classmates, as a worthy social partner
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforce every time a behavior occurs
Latent Learning implies that ______________ is not necessary for learning to occur.
reinforcement
Variable interval
reinforcement after an average time interval (causes consistent and steady rate of responding with no pauses)
Fixed interval
reinforcement after specific amount of time
Variable ratio
reinforcement after specific number of responses, on average
variable ratio
reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses -gambling
base rates
relative proportion of different classes of the population
Newborn Hearing
relatively well-developed at birth
baby comes to rely in the caregiver to provide
relief from distress and pleasure in social interactions
Phonemic Encoding
remembering how it sounds (forgetting tends to begin in seconds)
Prospective
remembering to do something in the future
Retrospective
remembering what has occurred
Recall
remembering without help (fill-in-the-blank test.)
What is negative reinforcement?
removal of a stimulus that strengthens the probability of the behavior
Rehearsal
repeating information to yourself. First appears in early grade school
Which type of bias involves relying on a false stereotype to make a decision?
representative
Trait
A relatively stable disposition to behave in a particular and consistent way
Challenge
A stressor you feel fairly confident you can control
Relaxation Therapy
A technique for reducing tension by consciously relaxing muscles of the body
kids respond best to
resonable control
Sensitization
responding more strongly to a stimuli over time (cant deal with a stimuli, think you can deal with it but get aggravated over time. )
sensitive caregiving
responding promptly, consistently, and appropriattely to infants correlates moderately to attachment security
genetic influences on temperament
responsible for half of individual differences, varies by trait and individual studied
Learning is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that
results from experience
Proactive Interference
retain old info interferes with getting new info
Blake is asked a question during a game of Trivial Pursuit. The answer is on the tip of his tongue, but he can't come up with it. Which of the following memory processes failed him?
retrieval
addition and subtration math problems involve and understanting of the Piagetian concept called
reversability
fixed interval
reward on a regular basis -e.g. paycheck every 2 weeks
variable interval
reward presented after random amount of time -e.g. waiting to see a shooting star
Shaping
rewarding approximations of a desired behavior
negative punishment
rewarding stimulus is removed e.g. phone taken away for talking in class
cognitive and motor development contribute to
rise in angry reactions
Babinski reflex
rub sole of foot, toes will fan out.
conditioned response
same as unconditioned response but is produced by conditioned stimulus -e.g. salivating with ringing of bell
longitudinal study design
same participants studied repeatedly at different ages
The use of heuristics rather than algorithms is most likely to
save time in arriving at solutions to problems
Maintenance Rehearsal
saying something over and over again
providing cues to children and helping them to frame a task is
scaffolding
norms
scores from standardization groups used for comparison
sequence of childrens drawings
scribbling, then first representational forms then greater realism
An event scheme is also known as a cognitive ____
script
Gene
section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements
The child uses the parent as a base from which to explore her world in which attachment style ?
secure
secure attachment
secure base parent. cry when they leave but is resolved when they come back 60% of american babies
Vicarious Reinforcement/Punishment
seeing someone else get reinforced/punished can change your behavior; reinforcement works better
disorganized attachment styles
seem confused about their caregiver (may indicate abuse)
7 year old connor is riding his bike to the park to meet some friends. He stops at a stop sign and signals his intention to turn left into the park. Connor's memory of the laws of the road is an example of _____ memory, whereas his ability to ride the bike shows _____ memory
semantic; procedural
The meaning of words and phrases is determined by applying the rules of ____
semantics
musical frame
sensitive aspects of sound; create and perform with sounds and musical patterns
Which memory system provides us with a very brief representation of all the stimuli present at a particular moment
sensory memory
information processing model
sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory
types of memory
sensory, short term/working, and long term memory
The fact that it is easier to recall items at the beginning and end of a list of unrelated items is known as the
serial position effect
digit-span test
series of numbers read to subjects who are asked to recall the numbers in order
Fixed Interval
set amount of time must pass between responses (patient controlled painkiller meds)
Cohort effects
sets of people who lived during one period may differ from sets of people who lived during a different period.
self concious emotions
shame guilt pride envy embarrassment. emerge in the middle of second year
________ is an operant-conditioning procedure in which successive approximations of a desired response are reinforced.
shaping
Both nature and nurture play large roles in ______________ ________________.
shaping development
Given the current research on recovered memories, one should be skeptical if a person says that:
she now has memories of experiences as an infant, thanks to therapy.
What is gene-environment interaction?
situtation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed
which individual explains language in terms for reinforcement, generalization, and discrimination
skinner
body growth after infancy
slows, height add 2-3 inch per year and add 5 pounds
Desensitization
small exposures to the fear inducing stimuli until it is extinguished
Cooperative learning:
small groups of classmates work toward common goals
Successive Approximations
small steps that get something closer to a desired goal
Rejected-withdrawn children
smaller subtype, are passive and socially awkward
Phonemes
smallest distinctive sound chat- ch, a, t 40 in english
8-10 months
smile becomes a deliberate social signal
peg, 10 yrs old, viewing herself in relations to significant others in her life relates to her ________ self concept
social
what is necessary for attachment
social cognitive advnces: baby has to have some sort of idea about how the caregiver is gonna be can sense quality of relationship, positive or negative baby learns to read face, voice, and other features
advocates of which of the following approaches would me most likley to be concerned about the influence of television programing on children
social learning
8-10 months, babies engage in
social referencing actively seeking emotional information from a trusted person in an uncertain situation
between 6-10 weeks the parents communication evokes a broad grin called
social smile. these changes parellel development of infant perceptual capacities.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
something that doesn't initially cause a response (metronome), will later be the CS
Unconditioned stimulus
something that reliably produces a naturally occurring reaction -e.g. dog food, blowing in eye
Positive punishment
something unpleasant is administered e.g. given extra hw for talking in class
Acoustic (Echoic) Memory
sounds and words memory, lasts longer than visual
Every week, Jade spends her allowance on ½ pound of sour lemon gummy candies and they always make her mouth water. One day, as she is walking down the street, Jade sees a girl carrying a little white bag that looks like a candy shop bag.Jade notices that her mouth is watering. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the:
sour lemon gummy candy
The inability to distinguish an actual memory of an event from information you learned about the event elsewhere is called ________.
source misattribution
Which learning style involves visualizing problems in their head?
spatial learning
Accelration
special programs that allow gifted students to move ahead at their own pace, even if this means skipping to higher grade levels
private speech
speech by children that is spoken and directed to themselves
social speech
speech directed toward another person and meant to be understood by that person
speech impairment
speech that deviates so much from the speech of others that it calls attention to itself, interferes with communication, or produces maladjustment in the speaker
Martha trains her cat Whiskers to salivate to the sound of a bell. She rings the bell every fifteen minutes and doesn't follow it with food for Whiskers. Whiskers salivates less and less and finally stops salivating at the sound of the ringing bell. A week later, she finds Whiskers salivating to the sound of a ringing bell. Which of the following terms explains this response?
spontaneous recovery
Kenneth daymond
stages of friendship
NON SOCIAL ACTIVITY
start off in solitary play world, entertaining themselves, playing blocks together in the corner, vrooming cars in the rug, doing their own things but are aware of other kids in the room
adolescent egocentrism
state of self absorption in which the world is viewed from one's own point of view
Latasha hears a spicy rumor one night when she is drunk at a bar. Latasha can't remember the rumor the next day when she is sober, but she does recall it after consuming a few glasses of wine that evening, This example best illustrates _____ memory
state-dependent
judy is popular in school and has a good scense of humor, she volunters to help read to younger peers, and understands how others feel. she is high in social
status
retrieval cues
stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory
Negative reinforcement is best thought of as:
stimuli whose termination or removal increases the behavior that precedes it.
facial feedback hypothesis
stimulus causes arousal and a facial expression, which provides feedback to the brain about the emotion, and the brain interprets the emotion
In Watson and Rayner's experiments, Little Albert was conditioned to fear a white rat, and then he began to be afraid of other furry white objects. This demonstrates ____
stimulus generalization
Law of Exercise
stimulus response connections are strengthened by practice/repetition
What is retention of encoded information overtime?
storage
Visual Imagery Encoding
storing new info as mental pictures
self-regulation
strategies that modify reactivity (controlling emotional responses). (Rothbart)
emotional self-regulation
strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable lebel of intenstity so we ca accomplish our goals. tell urself "its will be over soon!" is voluntary
What is positive reinforcement?
strengthens a response by presenting a typically pleasurable stimulus after a response
attachment:
strong affectionate tie we have with special people in our lives that leads us to feel pleasure when we interact with them and comforted by them in times of stress
Flashbulb memory
stronger emotional experiences form stronger memories (first kiss, graduation, 9/11)
Inclusive classrooms
students with learning difficulties are placed in regular classrooms for all or part of the school day, a practice designed to prepare them for participation in society and to combat prejudices against individuals with disabilities
human development
study of changes in people from conception until death (physical, cognitive, and socioemotional)
Developmental Psychology
study of how behavior changes over the lifespan
When Maxwell was learning to drive, he couldn't imagine how he could ever remember to steet the whell, flip on the turn signal, step on the accelerator, and still manage to turn the car! After driving for three years, Maxwell's reactions have become automatic. Now, when he drives a car
subconscious processes are involved
Childhood-Onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering)
substantial disruption in the rhythm and fluency of speech; the most common speech impairment
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
suggests that older adults are aware of their limited time on earth and seek out meaningful, positive relationships to maximize their experiences; They are more selective in their social relationships as a result.
Authoritative
supportive but set firm limits (best parenting style)
Midlife crisis
supposed phase of adulthood characterized by emotional distress about the aging process and an attempt to regain youth
suppression vs affect labeling
suppression doesn't work affect labeling is effective
primary drive
survival needs
language
symbols used to think and communicate
state dependent retrieval
tendency for info to be better recalled when a person is in the same state during both encoding and retrieval
Functional Fixedness
tendency to perceive the functions of objects as fixed
mental set
tendency to persist in using a problem solving pattern that has worked in the past
Prototype
the "best" or most "typical" member
Attention, Memory, Motivation, Imitation
the 4 processes of social learning, must be in this order
Backward Conditioning
the CS follows the after the US (food then metronome), produces an inhibitory response
Conditioned Inhibition
the CS represents an absence of the US
Seriation
the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight
resilience
the ability to overcome circumstances that place a child at high risk for psychological or physical damage
Creativity:
the ability to produce work that is original yet appropriate - something others have not though of that is useful in some way
Decentering
the ability to take multiple aspects of a situation into account
crystallized intelligence
the accumulation of information, skills, and strategies that people have learned through experience and that they can apply in problem-solving situations
Explicit Memory
the act of consciously remembering something
Implicit Memory
the act of unconsciously remembering something and that influencing your behavior and stuff
chronological (or physical) age
the actual age of the child taking the intelligence test
Ken has the tendency to embrace his emotions when he is looking for a new car rather than actually examining the overall costs and performance reports. In this instances, it is likely that Ken is relying upon
the affect heuristic
pragmatics
the aspect of language that relates to communicating effectively and appropriately with others
A single, memorable case of welfare fraud can have a greater impact on people's estimates of welfare abuse than do statistics showing that this case is actually the exception to the rule. This illustrates that judgments are influenced by
the availability heuristic
gender constancy
the belief that people are permanently males or females, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors
emotional self-regulation
the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity
Perspective taking
the capacity to imagine what other people may be thinking and feeling
Reversibility
the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point
intelligence
the capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges
effortful control
the capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant response in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response; the self-regulatory dimension of temperment
moral development
the changes in people's sense of justice and of what is right and wrong, and in their behavior related to moral issues
pluralistic society model
the concept that American society is made up of diverse, coequal cultural groups that should preserve their individual cultural features
Generalization
the controlled response is still observed if though the conditioned stimulus is slightly different
this capacity for effortful control improves gradually as a result of
the development of the cerebral cortex and the assistance of caregivers, which help children manage intense emotions and teach them strategies for doing so.
synaptic pruning
the elimination of neurons as the result of nonuse or lack of stimulation
Conditioned Emotional Response
the experience of emotion due to the presence of a stimuli, Little Albert
Stereotype threat
the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype - can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance
Acquisition
the first phase of learning, present both stimuli so many numbers of times, then test for learning (aka trial phase) (aka learning phase)
Consolidation
the formation of long-term memories
_______ is defined as a general intellectual ability assumed by many theorists to underlie specific mental abilities and talents
the g factor
Divergent thinking:
the generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a task or problem. Divergent thinking contrasts with Convergent Thinking
irreversibility
the inability of a young child to mentally reverse an action
Source amnesia
the inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired
forgetting
the inability to retrieve memory from long-term storage
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
the innate response to the UCS (salivate), must say what the response is to
Define: Memory
the mental processes that enable you to collect and retrieve information over time
mutual regulation model
the model in which infants and parents learn to communicate emotional states to one another and to respond appropriately
harlow's work on attachment
the monkey experiment guy feeding is not the crucial half were raised with that rachet ass metal mom, and the others were the soft one, and they flocked to the comfy one because CONTACT COMFORT MATTERS
facial expressions are
the most reliable clues to understanding an infants feelings
goodness-of-fit
the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children's temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised
Sensory store, Short Term Memory, Long Term Memory
the order in which your brain processes information
when parents are over controling or undercontrolling..
the outcome is a child who feels forced and shamed or who doubts his ability to control his impulses or act competently on his own
Basic trust vs. mistrust
the parents were the social influences in the child's trust or mistrust of the world
gender identity
the perception of oneself as male or female
autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
the period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (aged 18 months to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected
Embryonic Period
the period from three to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop
identification
the process in which children attempt to be similar to their same-sex parent, incorporating the parent's attitudes and values
abstract modeling
the process in which modeling paves the way for the development of more general rules and principles
fast mapping
the process in which new words are associated with their meaning after only a brief encounter
Transformation
the process in which one state is changed into another
Centration
the process of concentrating on one limited aspect of a stimulus and ignoring other aspects
Cognitive self-regulation:
the process of continuously monitoring progress toward a goal, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts
retrieval
the process of getting formation out of memory.
Define: Chunking
the process of taking individual pieces of information and grouping them together
negative reinforcement
the removal of something unpleasant -e.g. kid does what he told so parent stops nagging wake up so alarm stops
Genetics
the science of inherited traits
gender
the sense of being male or female
Least Restrictive Environment
the setting that is most similar to that of children without special needs
emotional self-regulation
the strategies we use to adjust our emotional state to a comfortable level of intensity so we can accomplish our goals. Requires effortful control Caregivers help form child's self-regulation style by teaching socially approved ways to express emotions.
personality
the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another
freud believed that morality was linked to
the super ego
grammar
the system of rules that determines how our thoughts can be expressed
traditional classroom
the teacher is the sole authority for knowledge, rules, and decision making. Students are relatively passive listening, responding when called on, and completing teacher-assigned tasks. Their progress is evaluated by how well they keep pace with a uniform set of standards for their grade
Which of the following is an example of a prototype for the concept of leadership on an athletic team ?
the team captain
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
the theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others' and their own behavior
cycle of violence hypothesis
the theory that the abuse and neglect that children suffer predispose them as adults to abuse and neglect their own children
Fetal Period
the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child
Extinction occurs when ____
the unconditioned stimulus is presented repeatedly without being paired with a conditioned stimulus
empathy
the understanding of what another individual feels
Bilingualism
the use of more than one language
Placenta
the vascular organ that unites the fetus to the mother's uterus
Syntax
the way in which an individual combines words and phrases to form sentences
Wear and Tear Theory of Aging
theory of aging stating mechanical functions of the body stop working
Behaviorism
theory of learning that involves observable behavior.
Which of the following statements is true ?
there are many factors working together to influence an individual's intelligence level
Temporal Conditioning
there is no explicit CS, rather the US is presented at a regular time interval, so the time is kind of the CS
IQ tests
these measure general mental ability compared to other people your age
Problem-centered coping
they appraise the situation as changeable, identify the difficulty, and decide what to do about it
Standardization of Tests
they are always done the same way (like administration, scoring, and interpretation)
Although the human senses are very sensitive
they respond only to a narrow band of physical energy
incentives
things that lure or attract people into action
Secondary Reinforcer
things you learn to want (money, a trophy, grades)
Deeper Processing
think about each item or parts of the material individually (phonemic) (what it sounds like (writing verbatim))
The rat research challenged radical behaviorism and implied that _____________ plays a role in some forms of learning.
thinking
functional fixedness
thinking about objects in terms of only their typical function
Analogical Problem Solving
thinking of a similar problem to help you solve a current one (how did I do this last time?)
egocentric thought
thinking that does not take into account the viewpoints of others
egocentrism
thinking that doesn't take into account viewpoints of others
intuitive thought
thinking that reflects preschoolers' use of primitive reasoning and their avid acquisition of knowledge about the world
9-28 month olds self awareness
those under 20 month olds laughed and touched the mirror as if the red mark had nothing to do with them, but the older ones touched and rubbed their noses bc they reconize themselves
Popular-antisocial children
tough boys-athletically skilled but poor students who cause trouble and defy adult authority-and relationally aggressive boys and girls who enhance their own status by ignoring, excluding, and spreading rumors about other children
Longitudinal design
track the development of the same group of participants over time
Encoding
transforming perception into memories -initial information
Adolescence
transitional period between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage years
Language is most fundamental cognitive ability
transmit accumulated knowledge through generations
Flashbulb Memory
traumatic events memorized in great detail (9/11)
According to a study by Yogo and Fujihara, if you want to improve your short-term memory, you should spend time writing about ____
traumatic life experience
sternberg
triarchic theory of intelligence
Research suggests that the best way to encourage truthful testimony by children is to:
try to avoid asking the child leading questions.
Motivated Forgetting
tucking away memories so that they are not easily retrieved, either intentional or unintentional, repressed memories
18-24 months
two word telegraphic (read book? go park!, see bird.)
About ________ of all participants in Milgram's study administered the highest level of shock to the learner
two-thirds
mental age
typical intelligence level for people of a given chronological age
avoidant attachment
unresponsive to parent when she is present. when she leaves they arent destressed and react the same way to the stranger. during reuinion they are slow to greet parent (15%)
Catherine's grandmother says that if Catherine follows the family's traditional recipe for Irish soda bread exactly, then she is sure to have very good results. Catherine's grandmother is encouraging her granddaughter to:
use an algorithm.
Summation Test
used to determine if learning has occurred in higher order conditioning, the second CS should yield a smaller response than the first CS
bodily-kinesthetic frame
using body to solve problems
Charisse is pretending that she is feeling sad. According to research, she is probably
using different facial muscles she would use if she were really feeling sad
elaborative rehearsal
using new information and how it relates to ourselves
example of autonomy vs shame and doubt
walking and talking babies: "no! do it myself!"
Rational Choice Theory
we make decisions by determining 1) how likely something is to happen 2) judging value of the outcome 3) multiply the two
Frequency vs. Probability in Judgment
we make judgments based on frequency better than on probability
Self-Efficancy
we perceive ourselves as being able to perform a task successfully, can reduce fear through social learning
Serial Order Effect/Serial Position Effect
we remember the beginning and end of a list better than the middle
facial feedback
we smile bc we are happy and vice versa botox depression treatment
Prospect Theory
we take MORE risk to avoid loss, we avoid risk when there is potential gain
multiple intelligence theories
we vary our ability levels across different domains of intellectual skills
Optimal Foraging Theory
we will spend the last energy for the most gain
What does WAIS stand for?
wechsler adult intelligence scale
age two self reconition..
well under way
Algorithim
well-defined procedures or rules that guarantee a solution
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
what is paired with the US to be learned (metronome)
zone of proximal development
what is reasonable for the child for their age group
Example of a flashbulb memory
when Jim thought his parents won the lottery
Menopause
when menstruation stops in women (around late 40's)
Transgender
when one's gender identity doesn't match their biological sex
contingent caregiver communication
when parents selectively mirror aspects of the babies diffuse emotional behavior helps the babys construct emotional expressions that resemble those of adults
Speed of Processing
when speed of processing is involved in a task, older adults do more poorly in most areas of memory than younger adults
Stereotype Threat
when worry about conforming to a negative stereotype leads to underperformance on a test or other task by a member of the stereotyped group
Accommodation
when you change the schema to fit the new info.
Neglected children
who are seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively
Controversial children
who get a large number of positive and negative votes (both liked and disliked)
Rejected children
who get many negative votes (are disliked)
Popular children
who get many positive votes (are well liked)
shy kids vs social children
withdraw and react negitively vs positive emotion and approach stimuli
The part of your memory system that allows you to manipulate the information held in your short-term memory is known as _____ memory
working
____ is another name for short-term memory
working memory
prefrontal cortex
working memory
What did Baddeley discover?
working memory includes a verbal and visual component ex. driving and talking at the same time
rise in fear after 6 months keeps newly moble babies enthusiasm for exploration in check
yes
Free Recall
you produce the memory with minimal cues (essay, short answers)
Lev Vygotsky
zone of proximal develpoment
A _____________ is formed when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg.
zygote
What begins as a single-cell structure that is created when a sperm and egg merge at conception?
zygote
Which of the following is the correct order of prenatal development ?
zygote, embryo, fetus
Life Transitions in Adulthood
• Careers and job satisfaction • Love and commitment • Parenthood • Midlife crisis and empty nest syndrome
Instead of chronological age, consider others that may be more indicative:
▪ Biological ▪ Psychological ▪ Functional ▪ Social
Causes of Gender Differences:
▪ Biological (genetic and hormonal influence) ▪ Socialization/Environmental Influences
Concrete operations (7-11 years)
▪ Can perform mental operations, but only for actual physical events ▪ Conservation
Formal operations (11-adulthood)
▪ Can understand hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now ▪ Also understand logical concepts and abstract questions ▪ Hypothetical deductive reasoning
Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)
▪ Children coordinate sensory experiences with motor actions ▪ Focus on the here and now ▪ Lack object permanence
Problems with longitudinal designs:
▪ Costly and time consuming ▪ Attrition ▪ Usually cannot state cause and effect
Preoperational stage (2-7 years)
▪ Marked by an ability to construct mental representations of experience and the use of language as a means of exploring the world ▪ Hampered by egocentrism and inability to perform mental operations
Sublimation
Channeling unacceptable impulses in acceptable outlets
different types of amnesia (Anterograde)
Inability to create new memories
Thinking
More involved type of cognition Involves "doing" cognition Thinking involves activity
Secure
Most common form of attachment across all cultures.
How nature and nurture play a role in intelligence
Nature =Genes Nurture = Environment
Classical conditioning five primary components:
Neutral stimulus (NS) Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned response (UCR) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR)
What helped us to understand how we all cognitively development from womb to tomb?
Plaget's theory
_____________________ and ___________can be conditioned
Positive emotions and feelings
When you take a multiple-choice exam, which type of explicit memory do you use?
Recognition
regency effect
Remembering items at the end of a list.
Sensitive Caregiving
Responding promptly, consistently, and appropriately to infants and holding them tenderly and carefully.
Regression
Retreating to an earlier stage of development
stranger anxiety
The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
Define: Accommodation
The process by which the lens changes size to direct incoming light towards the retina
Define: Overconfidence
Too confident
Define: Rehearsal
Type of psychology where information is remembered by repeating it over and over
Simultaneous Conditioning
US and CS presented at the same time, ineffective in producing conditioned anticipatory behavior due to overshadowing
Delay of Gratification
Waiting for an appropriate time and place to engage in a tempting act. Between ages 1.5 to 3 years, children show an increased capacity to wait before eating a treat, opening a present, or playing with a toy.
Punishment
a decrease in behavior
intelligence quotient (IQ)
a measure of intelligence that takes into account a student's mental and chronological age
Fixed
a set number
Algorithm
a step-by-step procedure for solving a problem
Fluid intelligence is characterized by ____
ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
What is crystalized intelligence?
accumulative knowledge of world overtime
definition of learning
acquiring new information or behavior through an experience
Talia is looking for her cat by methodically searching each room and then closing the door. She is using what type of problem solving strategy?
algorithm
Piaget's stage theory
all children moved through a series of changes in the same order and at about the same time and actively construct their cognitive worlds as they go through the stages
Empty nest syndrome
alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from the home
3 year old Lee sees his dad dressed up as a gorilla and Lee screams in fear. What brain structure is probably involved in his reaction?
amygdala
Reinforcement
an increase in behavior
When you are examining data to look for trends, which type of intelligence are you using most ?
analytical
What are the four different learning styles?
analytical holistic verbal Spatial
Novel Stimulus
any stimulus that has not been reinforced yet, you can learn to respond to these faster (this is what the internet said, I couldn't find this in my notes)
Reinforcements
are outcomes that increase the probability of a response.
the two earliest emotional life things
attraction to pleasant stimulation and withdrawn from unpleasant stimulation
Learned helplessness
attributes their failures, not their successes, to ability. When they succeed, they conclude that external factors, such as luck, are responsible. Unlike their mastery-oriented counterparts, they believe that ability is fixed and cannot be improved by trying hard
Mental processes occurring outside of conscious awareness but accessible to consciousness when necessary is the definition of:
Subconscious processes
Insight Learning
Suggests humans and some other animals may learn through sudden understanding.
Define: Serial Position Effect
Tendency for a person to recall the first and last item in a series best
Define: Confirmation Bias
Tendency to search for information that confirms one's bias
Electra Complex
The Oedipus Complex, but, in this case, girls are attracted to their fathers
Social Support
The aid gained through interacting with others
phoneme
basic unit of sound ("ch" choir/chef)
10 months
babbling reflects house hold language
from five months on
babies percieve facial expressions as organized patterns and can match the emotion in a voice with the face of whose speaking
responsive vs unresponsive parent
babies respond with happy face pleasant babling and good posture whereas unresponsive have a angry face, crying and pick me up gestures
during first weeks
babies smile when full, during rem sleep, and in response to gentle touches and sounds
slow-to-warm babies
babies who are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment; their moods are generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly
easy babies
babies who have a positive disposition; their body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptable
difficult babies
babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation, they tend to withdraw
when the is sympathetic and loving, the psycological conflict of the first year is resolved on the positive side
balence of care in basic mistrist and trust
Cellular Clock Theory
based on the fact that cells can divide a maximum of one hundred times and that as a person ages their cells become less capable of dividing
securely attached infants seem to
be certain that their caregiver will respond sensitively to need
critical period for learning
before 7 years old
resistant attachment
before leaving , these babies seek closeness to parents, after they leave they are distressed and after they are angry and hit mom and cant be comforted (10%)
Diffusion Chain
behavior modeled by one, then another, then another
Thorndikes Law of effects
behaviors followed by "satisfying state of affairs" are more likely to be repeated and those that produce "unpleasant state of affairs" are less likely to be repeated
Law of Effect
behaviors followed by positive outcomes will be strengthened and those behaviors followed by negative outcomes will be weakened.
____ is an individual's belief in her capability to complete some task
Self-efficacy
"I got a bad grade because the teacher wrote tricky questions that had nothing to do with what we talked about in class." Which of the following does this describe?
Self-serving bias
What kind of memory is your memory for the fact that the earth is round?
Semantic memory
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation is the detection of sensory stimuli and perception is the interpretation of sensory information.
3-4 Month Response to emotions of others
Sensitivity to structure and timing of face-to-face interactions
Define: Piaget's Stages
Sensorimotor (birth to 18-24 months) Pre-operational (18-24 months to 7) Concrete operational (7-12) Formal operational (adolescent through adulthood)
What are the four stages of Plaget's theory?
Sensorimotor stage Preoperational Stage Concrete Operation Formal Operations
Piaget's four stages:
Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years) Preoperational stage (2-7 years) Concrete operations (7-11 years) Formal operations (11-adulthood)
According to the information-processing model, information must pass through ______ in order to be firmly implanted in memory
Sensory, short-term, and then long-term memory
Interactional Synchrony
Separated by the experiences of secure from insecure babies. It is best described as a sensitively tuned "emotional dance", in which the caregiver responds to infant signals in a well-timed, rhythmic, appropriate fashion.
Internal Working Model
Set of expectations about the availability of attachment figures, their likelihood of providing support during times of stress, and the self's interaction with those figures. Becomes a vital part of personality, serving as a guide for all future close relationships.
______refers to biological status; gender to psychological characteristics.
Sex
Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior is ____
Shaping
_________ ___________ consequence will trump long term consequences
Short term
Weakest Sense in Newborns
Sight (can only see 8 - 14in)
Deceptive Emotions
Sincere and insincere emotions may "leak out"
A friend is walking toward you but does not seem to be growing in size. This is called:
Size constancy
Research on ______________-______________ ________________ shows that benefits actually reflect participants waking up.
Sleep-assisted learning
8-10 Month Response to emotions of others
Social referencing
The inability to distinguish what you originally experienced from what you heard or were told later about an event is the definition of:
Source misattribution
Chronic Stressors
Sources of stress that occur continuously or repeatedly
DNA
Special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism
S.M.A.R.T. Goal Setting
Specific (clear and unambiguous), Measurable (concrete criteria for determining progress), Achievable (realistic, but can be ambitious), Relevant ( matches your needs), Time-Bound (deadline for success)
Stressors
Specific events or chronic pressures that place demands on a person or threaten the person's well-being
three debates of developmental psychology
Stability or change - Relates to a change or a stableness in personality
Temperament
Stable individual differences in quality and intensity of behavior. Has some genetic bases and some link to adult personality. A home observational questionnaire can be used to measure this.
4 months
babbling (da-da, ma-ma)
Children's memory
can be accurate eywitnesses if questioned in neutral words and if no one discussed situation with them ahead of time
Noncontingent/Accidental reinforcement
can occur when response is strengthened but not as a result of the response
a mistrusting infant
cannot count on the kindness and compassion of others, so she protects herself by withdrawing from people and things around her
effort control
capacity to voluntarily suppress a dominant respponse in order to plan and execute a more adaptive response (the baby kickin)
Organizational Encoding
categorizing info to relationships among items in a series
Blastocyst
cell mass from the splitting of the zygote that implants in to the uterine wall
Zygote
cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; eventually divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby
In his work with reabbits, Richard Thompson showed that classical conditioning of the eyeblink response depends on activity in the
cerebellum
Peer victimization
certain children become the targets of verbal and physical attacks or other forms of abuse
Long-term Potentiation
changes in number and sensitivity of receptor sites/synapses through repeated stimulation
Operant Conditioning
changing behavior by following a response with a consequence, a cyclic relationship, aka instrumental conditioning
reflexes
check the health of an infants nervous system; absent or abnormal may indicate brain damage or neurological problem
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
child becomes more independent; parents will either approve or restrain child in this situation.
parellel play
child plays near other kids, play with similar materials, not attempting to influence anothers behavior
mirror test
child recognizes self in mirror which happens around the self concious emotions which they now see themselves so they get self recognition
Initiative vs. guilt
child wants to undertake adult activities and responsibilities; if they do so they have a sense of initiative; if parents don't allow the child feels guilt.
Industry vs. inferiority
child's education system has most influence; child looks at peers and compares their self.
The inability to remember events and experiences that occurred during the first two or three years of life is termed
childhood amnesia
Education Self-fulfilling prophecies
children may adopt teachers' positive or negative views and start to live up to them
Social constructivist classroom
children participate in a wide range of challenging activities with teachers and peers, with whom they jointly construct understandings. As children acquire knowledge and strategies from working together, they become competent, contributing members of their classroom community and advance in cognitive and social development
Phonics approach
children should first be coached on phonics - the basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds. Only after mastering these skills should they be get complex reading material
Teratogens
damaging agents which pass from mother's blood through placenta into developing embryo/fetus
what makes conservation possible
decentration: ability to focus on several aspects of a problem, not just one reversability: thinking through a series of steps and mentally reversing direction and go back to starting point
semantic memory
declarative memory containing facts and general knowledge (language, information learned in formal education)
episodic memory
declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others (personal experiences, daily activities and events)
which of the following is not necessarly for a child to remember a peice of information
decoding
A long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic responsiveness is called
deep processing
theory of multiple intelligences
defines intelligence in terms of distinct sets of processing operations that permit individuals to engage in a wide range of culturally valued activities. Dismissing the idea of general intelligence, Gardner proposes at lease eight independent intelligences
Validity
degree to which a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure
Content Validity
degree to which the content of a test is representative of what was covered
Forgetting
delay between memorization & recall
Most dramatic changes occur during ___________ _________________ development
early prenatal
temperment
early-appearing, stable individual differences in reactvity and self regulation. reactivity- quickness and intensity of emotional arousal, attention, and motor activity. self regulation: modifys reactivity.
Biological constraints in conditioning
easier to train an animal based off their natural tendencies
thomas and chess's nine demensions (model of temperment).
easy child (40%) quickly establishes routine, cheerful, adapts easily to new experiences difficult child (10%)- irregular in daily routine, slow to accept new experiences, tends to react negatively and intensely slow to warm up (15%)- inactive, shows low key reaction to enviromental stimuli, negative, eventually adjusts tho 35% unique blends of temparement
heuristic
educated guess based on prior experience that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem
developmentally appropriate educational practice
education that is based on both typical development and the unique characteristics of a given child
____ is when our recollections of the past are done in a self-enhancing manner
egocentric bias