Psychology Chapter 12 Compilation Set

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Explicit Attitudes

Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can easily report

_____ refers to feeling drawn to other people and having positive thoughts and feelings about them

Attraction

Rhonda has just learned that her neighbor Patricia was involved in a car accident at a nearby intersection. The tendency to make the fundamental attribution error may lead Rhonda to conclude

"Patricia's recklessness has finally gotten her into trouble."

Halo Effect

"What is beautiful is good." •Attractive people are perceived as more intelligent, happier, and better adjusted •Attractive people also tend to be higher in self-esteem, and other desirable personality traits than people of more average appearance •Beginning in infancy and continuing throughout their lives, attractive people receive more attention and more favorable treatment from other people, such as parents, teachers, employers, and peers

The _____ effect refers to the fact that when people feel good, successful, happy, or fortunate, they are more likely to help others.

"feel-good, do-good"

"feel-good, do-good" effect.

social norms

"rules" or expectations, for appropriate behavior in a particular social situation

social psychology

(1) branch of psychology that studies how a person's thoughts, feelings & behavior are influenced by the presence of other people & by social & physical environment (2) Branch of psychology that studies how people think, feel, and behave in social situations

The tendency for people to yield to real or imagined social pressure. (do whenever others do)

(Asch conformity experiments) Conformity

Concept/prototype of love

(Beverly Fehr) trust; caring; honesty; friendship; respect

A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority.

(Milgram's obedience studies) Obedience

Triangular theory of love

(Robert Stenberg) Passionate love (strong romantic feelings); + Compassionate love (deep friendship, deep commitment); + Fatuous love (hot, sexual but very short); = Consummate love.

Describe how animals (including human animals) have been found react to pain.

-(Rats) As soon as the rats felt the pain, they attacked each other, before the experimenter could switch off the shock. The greater the shock (and the pain), the more violent the attack. The same effect occurred across a long list of species. -Researchers also found that not only shocks induced attack; intense heat and psychological pain-for example, suddenly not rewarding hungry pigeons that have been trained to expect a grain reward after pecking at a disk-brough the same reaction as shocks. This psychological pain is frustration. -Pain heightens aggressive in humans also. Berkowitz demonstrated this by having students hold one hand in either lukewarm water or painfully cold water. Those whose hands were submerged in the cold water reported feeling more irritable and more annoyed, and they were more willing to blast another person with unpleasant noise. Berkowitz proposed that aversive stimulation rather than frustration is the biggest trigger of hostile aggression. Any aversive event, whether a dashed expectation, a personal insult, or physical pain, can incite an emotional outburst. Even the torment of a depressed state increases the likelihood of hostile, aggressive behavior.

Central Route (Systematic) Persuasion

-A change in attitude brought about by an appeal to reason and logic -Strong evidence and arguments are presented -Works when people are analytical or involved in the issue

Peripheral Route (Heuristic) Persuasion

-A change in attitude brought about by appeals to habit and emotion -Incidental cues, such as celebrity endorsements are used -Used when issues don't engage systematic thinking -People rely on shortcuts (heuristics) to make a decision

Stereotypes

-A cluster of characteristics associated with all members of a specific group of people -Belief held by members of one group about members of another -Typically include qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria -The tendency to stereotype is a natural cognitive process to simplify social information -Social categories can be defined by relatively objective characteristics: age, language, religion, national or regional origin, tribe, ethnic group, sexual orientation, and skin color

stereotype

-A cluster of characteristics associated with all members of a specific group of people. -A belief held by members of one group about members of another group.

Describe research on the effects of arousal on emotion and summarize what we can conclude from it.

-A given state of bodily arousal feeds one emotion or another, depending on how the person interprets and labels the arousal. -Being physically stirred up does intensify just about any emotion. Biner reports that people find radio static unpleasant, especially when they are aroused by bright lighting. -Zillmann found that people who have just pumped an exercise bike or watched a film of a rock concert find it easy to misattribute their arousal to a provocation. They then retaliate with heightened aggression. Arousal fuels emotion. -Sexual arousal and other forms of arousal, such as anger, can amplify one another. Love is never so passionate as after a fight or a fright. In the lab, erotic stimuli are more arousing to people who have just been frightened. Similarly, the arousal of a roller-coaster ride may spill over into romantic feeling for one's partner. -Sensation seekers (people who crave being in a heightened state of arousal) are more likely to be aggressive. -A frustrating or insulting situation heightens arousal. When it does, the arousal, combined with hostile thoughts and feelings, may form a recipe for aggressive behavior.

Give examples of rewards of aggression.

-Aggressive hockey players-the ones sent most often to the penalty box for rough play-score more goals than nonaggressive players. -Canadian teenage hockey players whose fathers applaud physically aggressive play show the most aggressive attitudes and style of play. -A child who aggressive acts successfully intimidate other children will likely become increasingly aggressive. -In the waters off Somalia, paying ransom to hijackers of ships-a reported $150 million in 2008-rewarded the pirates, thus fueling further hijackings. In such cases, aggression is instrumental in achieving certain rewards. -Terrorism's purpose is, with the help of media amplification, to terrorize. (Kill one, frighten ten thousand)

Prosocial behavior

-Any behavior that helps another, whether the underlying motive is self-serving or selfless. -Described any behavior that helps another person, including altruistic acts - whatever the motive

Implicit personality theory

-Assumption that people share traits and behaviors Network of assumptions or beliefs about the relationship among various types of people, traits, and behaviors; leads to use of cognitive schemas

Cognitive Component Attitude

-Beliefs, thoughts, ideas about the attitude object -"The easy availability of fast food discourages people from eating healthy foods"

What American ideas for protecting ourselves does Myers think are not such good ideas, and why?

-Buy a gun for self-protection. -Build more prisons. -Impose a "three strikes and you're out" requirement of lifetime incarceration for those convicted of three violent crimes. -Deter brutal crime and eliminate the worst offenders as some countries do-by executing the offenders. Because most homicide is impulsive or under the influence of drugs or alcohol, murderers rarely calculate consequences.

4 Principles of Personal Perception

-Characteristics for the person you are trying to evaluate -Your own self-perception -Your goals in the situation -Specific situation in which the process occurs

Describe research on the effects of seeing a gun or other weapon. What does Berkowitz conclude about triggers and fingers?

-Children who had just played with toy guns became more willing to knock down another child's blocks. -Angered University of Wisconsin men gave more electric shocks to their tormenter when a rifle and a revolver (supposedly left over from a previous experiment) were nearby than when badminton rackets had been left behind. Guns prime hostile thoughts and punitive judgments. This is especially so when a weapon is perceived as an instrument of violence rather than a recreational item (hunters). "Guns not only permit violence, they can stimulate it as well. The finger pulls the trigger, but the trigger may also be pulling the finger." - Berkowitz

How does TV watching affect energy and moods? Why does Myers suggest that TV's biggest effect may relate not to its quality but its quantity?

-Compared with more active recreation, TV watching sucks people's energy and dampens their moods. Moreover, TV annually replaces in people's lives a thousand or more hours of other activities. -Every added hour a day spent watching TV competes with civic participation. Television steals time from club meetings, volunteering, congregational activities, and political engagement.

Explicit cognition

-Conscious process -Deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning

Aggression & Gender

-Direct physical, aggression was more common in males than females at all ages sampled, was consistent across cultures, and occurred from early childhood on, showing a peak between 20 and 30 years. Correlation with lower education levels. (Archer) -Girls and women are just as aggressive as boy in indirect aggression, which refers to aggression related to interactions, such as gossiping and spreading rumors (archer and others)

Describe how testosterone has been linked to aggression in research. What experiences have been found to affect testosterone levels?

-Drugs that diminish testosterone levels in violent human males will subdue their aggressive tendencies. -After men reach age 25, their testosterone levels and rates of violent crime decrease together. -Testosterone levels tend to be higher among prisoners convicted of planned and unprovoked violent crimes than of nonviolent crimes. -Among the normal range of teen boys and adult men, those with high testosterone levels are more prone to delinquency, hard drug use, and aggressive responses to provocation. -After handling a gun, men's testosterone levels rise. -In men, testosterone increases the facial width-to-height ratio. Sure enough, in the laboratory, men with relatively wider faces display more aggression. Hockey rink - penalty box.

How is pornography related to aggression in correlational and experimental research? How is pornography related to rape rates?

-Even after taking gender into account, those who had viewed porn more frequently were also more likely to physically assault friends and romantic partners over the next three weeks, and were more aggressive toward another student in the lab. -When given the chance to stick pins into a doll representing their relationship partner, those who viewed more Internet porn symbolically stabbed their partner with more pins. -Among 1,000 10-15 year old boys and girls, those who saw movies, magazines, or websites with violent sexual content were 6 times more likely to be sexually aggressive toward others. -Rapists, serial killers, and child molesters report using pornography at unusually high rates. -Exposure to violent pornography increases punitive behavior toward women. -In a nationally representative survey of 9,684 American adults, 11 percent of women reported experiencing forced sex at some time in their lives. Surveys in other industrialized countries offer similar results. Three in four stranger rapes and nearly all acquaintance rapes went unreported to the police. Thus, the official rape rate greatly underestimates the actual rape rate. Women are more at risk when encountering men who exhibit the promiscuous behavior and hostile attitudes pornography cultivates.

Behaviors of Groupthink

-Examining few alternatives -Selective gathering of information -Pressure to conform within the group -Pressure to withhold criticism -Collective rationalization

Asch's reasons that promote conformity

-Facing a unanimous group -Giving your response in front of a group -Doubting your abilities or knowledge

Increase likelihood of Bystander Helping

-Feel good, do good effect -Feeling guilty -Seeing others who are willing to help -Perceiving the other person as deserving help -Knowing how to help -A personalized relationship -A dangerous situation

Emotional Component of Attitude

-Feelings and emotions about the attitude object -"Fast food is disgusting, I hate their greasy fried and their fake milkshakes"

Foot in the door

-First ask for something small. -Later, make a larger request. -Small requests pave the way for compliance with the larger request.

Kitty Genovese Case

-Friday, March 13, 1964: killed in NYC -No one ran to help -City apathy too simplistic -Now called the Bystander Effect

Underlying Motives of Prosocial Behavior

-Guilt -In order to gain something -recognition -rewards -having the favor returned -Increase self-esteem

What outcomes are linked with having guns in the home, and what outcomes are linked with banning handguns?

-Handguns in homes are far more likely kill household members than intruders. Those who kept a gun in the home (often for protection) were 2.7 times as likely to be murdered-nearly always by a family member or a close acquaintance. The risk of suicide in homes with guns was 5 times as high as homes without them. Compared with others, people with guns at home were 41 percent more likely to be homicide victims and 3.4 times as likely to die of suicide. -Britain has one-fourth as many people as the U.S. and one-sixteenth as many murders. The United Staets has 10,000 handgun homicides a year; Australia has about a dozen, Britain two dozen, and Canada 100.

Factors that decrease conformity

-Having an ally -Any dissent lessens conformity, even if some dissent is incorrect

Factors Influencing Conforming

-Hedonic Motive: Personal rewards (food, sex, and attention) -Normative social influence: the desire to be accepted as part of a group leads to that group having an influence -Informational social influence: other people can provide useful and crucial information

Altruism

-Helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit -Fundamentally selfless -The individual is motivated purely by the desire to help someone in need. No expectation of personal benefit

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

-If our behavior and attitudes are in conflict then we usually change our attitudes -Insufficient reward leads to dissonance

Rule of Reciprocity

-If someone gives you something or does you a favor, you feel obligated to return the favor -You figuratively "slam the door in his face" by quickly turning him down -Appears to back off and makes a much smaller request

Describe what research has found about the effects of playing violent vs. nonviolent video games.

-Increases in aggressive behaviors: After violent game play, children and youth play more aggressively with their peers, get into more arguments with their teachers, and participate in more fights. After playing violent video games, previously non-hostile kids became more likely to have fights. -Increases in aggressive thoughts: After playing a violent game, students became more likely to guess that a man whose car was just rear-ended would respond aggressively by using abusive language, kicking out a window, or starting a fight. -Increases in aggressive feelings: including hostility, anger, or revenge. -Decreases in helping others and in empathy for others: Students who had just played a violent game took more than 1 minute on average to come to a person's aid, almost 4 times as long as those who had played a nonviolent game.

Attitude

-Learned tendency to evaluate objects, people, or issues in a particular way -Can be positive or negative

How has research found that exposure to pornography affects viewers' beliefs and attitudes?

-Malamuth and Check showed University of Manitoba men either two nonsexual movies or two movies depicting a man sexually overcoming a woman. A week later, when surveyed by a different experimenter, those who saw the films with mild sexual violence were more accepting of violence against women. -Other studies confirm that exposure to pornography increases acceptance of the rape myth. For example, while spending three evenings watching sexually violent movies, men became progressively less bothered by the raping and slashing. Compared with men not exposed to the films, three days later they expressed less sympathy for domestic violence victims, and they rated the victims' injuries as less severe.

Summarize what factors predict increased aggression both in the lab and in the everyday world.

-Male actors -Aggressive or anger-prone personalities -Alcohol use -Violence viewing -Anonymity -Provocation -The presence of weapons -Group interaction

Social Comparison

-Once we identify our group membership we then begin comparing our group to others -In order to maintain self-esteem we need to compare favorably to other group members sometimes by reducing the status of other groups when compared to our group.

Informational Social Influence

-Other people can provide useful and crucial information -Subjects reported having doubted their own perceptual abilities, which led to their conformance -They did not report seeing the lines the way the confederates had -Subjects conformed because they had less information and wanted to be right

social loafing

-People tend to expend less effort on collective tasks than they do when performing the same task alone -Diffusion of responsibility occurs among group members working on a collective task

Feel good, do good effect

-People who feel good, successful, happy, or fortunate are more likely to decide to help others -Those good feelings can be due to virtually any positive event, such as receiving a gift, succeeding at a task, or even just enjoying a warm, sunny day.

Behavioral Component of Attitude

-Predispositions to act in a particular way -"When a big hamburger chain tried to build a new restaurant, I organized a petition to oppose it"

Diffusion of Responsibility (Bystander Intervention)

-Presence of other people -Being in a big city or very small town -Vague or ambiguous situations -When personal costs outweight the benefits of helping

attribution

-Process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own -The explanation given for a particular behavior

Aggression & Culture

-Regional and national differences in culture of honor-base aggression -In Americas -Southern U.S. and Latin American: Emphasis on masculinity and male toughness -Cultures with income inequality: Higher rate of aggression

How can desensitization affect people?

-Regular viewers of violence on TV and movies showed a lessened response, compared to the infrequent viewers, reacting to violence with a shrug rather than concern. -Today's teens appear to have become considerably more desensitized to graphic depictions of violence and sex than their parents were at their age. Media portrayals desensitize.

Evaluate the strength of the evidence that playing violent video games causes increased aggression.

-Research showed a "direct casual link between playing violent video games and actual harm to minors." -People pointed out that from 1996-2006, when violent game sales were increasing, real-life youth violence was decreasing. They also argue that the effects of violent video games on aggression were small-only some people who play violent video games will act aggressively in real life. -Research linking violent video games and aggression was determined to be "contested and inconclusive."

Aggression & Frustration

-Temperature -Stressful or annoying situation

Implicit cognition

-Unconscious or automatic process -Automatic, nonconscious, mental processes that influence perceptions, judgement , decisions, and reasoning (love at first sight)

Describe evidence that intoxication can affect aggressiveness. How does alcohol have this effect?

-The Australian city of Melbourne saw a marked upswing in assaults during the 2000s, fueled primarily by alcohol consumption late at night. -When asked to think back on relationship conflicts, intoxicated people administer stronger shocks and feel angrier than do sober people during lab experiments. -4/10 prisoners convicted of a violent crime were drinking when they committed murder, assault, robbery, or sexual assault. -Heavy men who drank alcohol were significantly more aggressive after drinking alcohol, but alcohol had little effect on women's or smaller men's aggression. Alcohol enhances aggressiveness by reducing people's self-awareness, by focusing their attention on a provocation, and by people's mentally associating alcohol with aggression. Alcohol also predisposes people to interpret ambiguous acts (such as a bump in a crowd) as provocations. Alcohol deindividuates, and it disinhibts.

Why does TV viewing affect behavior?

-The arousal it produces. Arousal tends to spill over: One type of arousal energizes other behaviors. -Other research shows that viewing violence disinhibits. In Bandura's experiment, the adult's punching of the Bobo doll seemed to make outburst legitimate and to lower the children's inhibitions. Viewing violence primes the viewer for aggressive behavior by activating violence-related thoughts. -Media portrayals also evoke imitation. The children in Bandura's experiments reenacted the specific behaviors they had witnessed.

What two characteristics of the game produce bigger aggression effects?

-The bloodier the game, the greater the gamer's after-game hostility and arousal. -More-realistic games-showing violence more likely to happen in real life-also produced more aggressive feelings than less-realistic games.

social loafing reduced when:

-The group is composed of people we know -We are members of a highly valued group -Task is meaningful or unique -Women are generally less likely to engage in social loafing than are men

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

-The most widely used test to measure implicit attitudes and preference -Computer-based test that measures the degree to which you associate particular groups of people with specific characteristics or attributes -Based on the assumption that people can sort images and words more easily when concepts seem to "match" or go together -Developed by psychologist Anthony Greenwald and his colleagues

In-group bias

-The social group to which you belong -Tendency to make favorable attributions to members of your group -Ethnocentrism is one type of in-group bias

Out-group (homogeneity) bias

-The social group to which you do not belong -Tendency to see members of the out-group as more similar to one another

social facilitation

-The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance -When a task is relatively simple or well-rehearsed, the presence of other people tends to enhance individual performance (opposite when task is poorly rehearsed or complex) -The presence of others tends to increase our level of arousal and motivation

Describe the aspects of subculture or culture that increase the likelihood of aggression.

-The violent subculture of teenage gangs, for instance, provides its junior members with aggressive models. -Show social psychologists a man from a non-democratic culture that has great economic inequality, that prepares men to be warriors, and that has engaged in war, and they will show you someone who is predisposed to aggressive behavior. -The American South has a "culture of honor," which maintains that insults deserve retaliation. American cities populated by southerners have higher than average White homicide rates.

Zimbardo's Prison Study

-Twenty-four male college students were randomly assigned to be either prisoners or prison guards -After just six days, the situation was spinning out of control -Within a few days, [those] assigned to the guard role became abusive, red-necked prison guards.... Within 36 hours the first prisoner had an emotional breakdown, crying, screaming, and thinking irrationally -Milgram's showed direct authority pressure, the Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated the powerful influence of situational roles and conformity to implied social rules and norms.

Social Identification

-We adopt the identity of the group which we belong and then follow the norms of that group -The more emotionally bound we are to the group the more your self-esteem is tied to group membership

Social Categorization

-We categorize people in order to understand them and to predict their behavior -We then define behaviors appropriate to the group based on norms we believe define a groups attitudes and behaviors

How does Myers suggest we might counteract the factors that influence aggression?

-We must prevent aggression before it happens. -Avoid physical punishment. -Reduce brutal, dehumanizing portrayals in films and on television. -We can inoculate children against the effects of media violence.

deindividuation

-When group members feel anonymous. -Reduction of self-awareness and inhibitions when person is part of a group in which members feel anonymous Example: Wearing hoods in the Ku Klux Klan, large riots

Describe how experiments have demonstrated a causal link between exposure to violent tv and violent behavior.

-Zillmann and Weaver exposed men and women, on four consecutive days, to violent or nonviolent feature films. When participating in a different project on the fifth day, those exposed to the violent films were more hostile to the research assistant.

sour grapes, sweet lemons

-after you make the choice, you emphasize the negative features of the choice you've rejected = ___ ____ rationalization -you also emphasize positive features of the choice to which you have committed yourself = ____ ____ rationalization

social cognition

-mental processes people use to make sense of their social environments -refers to how we form impressions of other people, how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior & how our behavior is affected by our attitudes

According to a recent survey, what percent of American women reported experiencing forced sex at some point in their lives?

11 percent

Describe Donnerstein's (1980) experiment on pornography and violence behavior.

120 University of Wisconsin men watched a neutral, erotic, or aggressive-erotic (rape) film. Then the men, supposedly as part of another experiment, "taught" a male or female confederate some nonsense syllables by choosing how much shock to administer for incorrect answers. The men who had watched the rape film administered markedly stronger shocks especially when angered and with a female victim. A consensus statement by 21 leading social scientists summed up the results of the experiments in this area: Exposure to violent pornography increases punitive behavior toward women.

1. diffusion of responsibility 2. each of us is motivated to some extent by the desire to behave in socially acceptable way & to appear correct -we rely on actions of others to help us define a situation & guide our response to it

2 major reasons for the bystander effect:

1. our desire to be liked 2. our desire to be right

2 reasons why we find ourselves conforming to the larger group:

Describe evidence that poor diet contributes to aggression.

231 inmates signed on to receive nutritional supplements or a placebo. Prisoners who got the extra nutrition were involved in 35 percent fewer violent incidents. Such programs may help people outside of prison as well, because many people have diets deficient in important nutrients, such as omega-3 fatty acids (found in fish and important for brain function) and calcium (which guards against impulsivity).

person being perceived, your own characteristics, specific situation in which the process occurs

3 components of the interpersonal context:

1. group is composed of people we know 2. we're members of highly valued group 3. the task is meaningful or unique

3 factors that reduces/eliminates social loafing

1. presence of other people 2. being in a big city or very small town 3. vague or ambiguous situations -"lover's quarrel" 4. when the personal costs for helping outweigh the benefits

4 factors that decrease likelihood of helping behavior

1. your reactions to others are determined by your perceptions of them, not by who they really are 2. your self-perception also influences how you perceive others & how you act on your perceptions 3. your goals in a particular situation determine the amount & kinds of info you collect about others 4. in every situation, you evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act

4 principles that guide person perception:

How does parental (particularly father) absence relate to outcome for children?

???

1. previously well-established mental framework to obey -subjects arrived at lab w/ mental expectation that they'd obediently follow directions of experimenter & made commitment to cooperate 2. the situation or context, in which the obedience occurred -all certain factors predisposed subjects to trust & respect the experimenter's authority 3. the gradual, repetitive escalation of the task -the shocks, like the learner's protests, escalated only gradually 4. the experimenter's behavior & reassurances -subjects could believe that they were NOT responsible for the consequences of their actions 5. physical & psychological separation from the learner -separate rooms -punishment was depersonalized -learner never appealed directly to teacher to stop shocking him

5 forces that influenced subjects to continue obeying the experimenter's orders in Milgram's experiment:

What percent of participants in the most effective treatment condition remained depressed at the end of 8 weeks?

58%

1. "feel good do good" effect 2. feeling guilty 3. seeing other who are willing to help 4. perceiving the other person as deserving help 5. knowing how to help 6. personalized relationship

6 factors that increase likelihood of helping behavior:

glad

84% of Milgram's experiment indicated that they were _____ to have taken part in the experiment

A term that refers to the mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics and motives of others is _____. A) person perception B) social norms C) social influence D) cognitive schemas

According to psychologist Martin Seligman, people who have a(n) _____ explanatory style use internal, stable, and global explanations for negative events. A) pessimistic B) problem-focused C) optimistic D) Type B

Because the anxiety can be attached to virtually any object or to none at all, generalized anxiety is sometimes referred to as: A) free-floating anxiety. B) dissociative anxiety. C) phobophobia. D) hypochondriasis.

Depression that repeatedly occurs with onset of autumn and winter is to _____ as chronic, low-grade depression is to _____. A) seasonal affective disorder; dysthymic disorder B) cyclothymic disorder; seasonal affective disorder C) bipolar disorder; cyclothymic disorder D) rapid cycling; flat affect

During their third year at college, Tammy and Timothy both lost their part-time jobs in the library due to funding cutbacks. Tammy was mildly disturbed, shrugged her shoulders, and said she'd soon get another job. Timothy was distraught and believed he might have to quit college. Their different reactions to the same stressful event emphasizes the importance of: A) their respective cognitive appraisals of the event. B) gender differences in response to stressors. C) cultural differences in response to stressors. D) quantifying major life events in terms of life change units.

Every year in the United States, approximately _____ Americans are treated for schizophrenia. A) 1 million B) 7 million C) 15 million D) 25 million

Howard is a 27-year-old man who lives in San Francisco. He has been fired from numerous jobs, usually because he got caught lying or repeatedly failed to show up for work. Howard has also been arrested twice for running various "con" games in which he swindles money out of unsuspecting tourists. He has been in and out of drug rehab for alcohol abuse several times. Howard's pattern of behaviors seems to fit which of the following disorders? A) antisocial personality disorder B) dissociative identity disorder C) borderline personality disorder D) paranoid personality disorder

If Jerome takes part in a replication of Milgram's obedience experiments that involves observing two other "teachers" refusing to continue, it is very likely that Jerome: A) will also refuse to continue administering shock at the highest level. B) will give more shocks at the highest level to compensate for the two teachers who quit. C) will demand to be paid more money for continuing with the experiment. D) will report their noncompliance to the experimenter.

In contrast to normal anxiety, pathological anxiety: A) is unreasonably intense, irrational, uncontrollable, and disruptive. B) is focused on relationship problems rather than work or academic concerns. C) alerts people to realistic problems that need to be addressed or solved. D) is intense but typically short-lived, often lasting less than an hour.

In obsessive-compulsive disorder, _____ are among the most common obsessions. A) worries about germs, dirt, or other forms of contamination B) delusions of grandeur C) fear of snakes and spiders D) delusions of being controlled

In the disorder called dissociative identity disorder, the "alters," or distinct personalities: A) can be of different ages and gender. B) are typically all the same age. C) are typically all the same gender. D) may all be present simultaneously.

In their research, Dr. Grayson and his colleagues discovered there was a link between the number of daily hassles people experienced and psychological distress and physical ailments, such as headaches and backaches. One explanation for this phenomenon is that: A) while each minor stressor may be relatively unimportant in itself, the effect of daily hassles can be cumulative. B) even a minor daily hassle produces more stress than a major life event. C) daily hassles tend to stimulate immune system responses and increase their effectiveness. D) people who are illness-prone are more likely to experience daily hassles.

Lacey has reviewed the literature on conformity and obedience for a term paper. If her conclusions are similar to those presented in the textbook, she is likely to suggest that: A) conformity and obedience are not necessarily bad in and of themselves and are important for an orderly society. B) human beings are genetically predisposed to conform to group norms and obey authority figures even if it means hurting or killing other people. C) normative social influence has little or no effect on the degree of conformity and obedience in ambiguous situations. D) conformity and obedience are bad because they inhibit the creative and innovative initiatives necessary for a progressive society.

Lisa and her husband John have both had a very stressful day at work. According to psychological research: A) John is more likely to withdraw from contact with other family members. B) Lisa is more likely to withdraw from contact with other family members. C) both Lisa and John are likely to withdraw from contact with other family members. D) both Lisa and John are likely to seek out contact with other family members, including their teenage children.

Severely restricted eating and an intense fear of weight gain is to _____ as binge eating followed by self-induced vomiting is to _____. A) anorexia nervosa; bulimia nervosa B) bulimia nervosa; anorexia nervosa C) body dysmorphic disorder; anorexia nervosa D) bulimia nervosa; body dysmorphic disorder

Stress can directly undermine health and physical well-being by: A) altering body functions in a way that leads to physical symptoms or illness. B) disrupting attention and concentration. C) making people more likely to use tobacco, alcohol, or other drugs. D) making people less likely to meet deadlines and commitments.

Sylvester was thrilled when he received a large bonus from his company. Later that day, when he was asked if he could volunteer a few hours to help at the Food Bank, he readily agreed. This example best illustrates: A) the "feel good, do good" effect. B) the bystander effect. C) the self-serving bias. D) hindsight bias.

The tendency to attribute successful behavior to internal, personal characteristics is to _____ as the tendency to blame ourselves for our failures while downplaying our successes is to _____. A) self-serving bias; self-effacing bias B) fundamental attribution bias; just-world hypothesis C) self-effacing bias; self-serving bias D) hindsight bias; blaming the victim

Walter Cannon is to _____ as Hans Selye is to _____. A) the fight-or-flight response; the general adaptation syndrome B) psychoneuroimmunology; biopsychosocial psychology C) the general adaptation syndrome; the fight-or-flight response D) biopsychosocial psychology; psychoneuroimmunology

When Arnell and his friends go to the local mall they are sometimes perceived as dangerous because of their race. If they are similar to three-quarters of other African American adolescents who reported being treated as incompetent or dangerous, or both, because of their race, they may be experiencing a subtle form of racism called: A) microaggressions. B) acculturative stressors. C) the stress contagion effect. D) daily hassles.

Which of the following is NOT a symptom of posttraumatic stress disorder? A) multiple personalities B) intrusive, frequent memories of the traumatic event C) extreme anxiety and increased physical arousal D) avoiding stimuli that trigger memories of the traumatic event

Private Acceptance

A personal attitude change which may or may not be expressed in words or deeds publicly -Commonly a result of Informational Social Influence

24. The Stanford Prison Experiment was conducted by psychologist: A) Philip Zimbardo. B) Stanley Milgram. C) Solomon Asch. D) Muzafer Sherif.

A) Philip Zimbardo.

20. Conformity is defined as: A) adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that it matches the opinions, judgments or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation. B) the performance of a behavior in response to a direct command. C) any behavior that helps another, whether the underlying motive is self-serving or selfless. D) helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit.

A) adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that it matches the opinions, judgments or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation.

Conformity is defined as:

A) adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that it matches the opinions, judgments or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation.

14. Before Jackie left for college, she told her friend Lisa that she thought sororities were filled with snobs and that she would never consider joining one. But during Jackie's first week on campus, she was approached by a sorority member who invited her to a social function and encouraged her to pledge. After Jackie attended the party, she told Lisa, "Sororities do a lot of good things for the community. They're really service organizations." Jackie's change in attitude to match her behavior reflects which of the following concepts?

A) cognitive dissonance

10. Collectivistic cultures differ from individualistic cultures in that: A) collectivists are more likely to attribute causes of another person's behavior to external, situational factors rather than to internal, personal factors. B) collectivists are more likely to commit the fundamental attribution error. C) individualists are more likely to commit the modesty bias. D) individualists are more likely to attribute the causes of their own behavior to internal, personal factors rather than external, situational factors.

A) collectivists are more likely to attribute causes of another person's behavior to external, situational factors rather than to internal, personal factors.

The social group to which a person belongs is called the _____, and the social group to which a person does not belong is called the _____.

A) in-group; out-group

1. An important social psychology concept is your sense of _____, which is an individual's unique sense of identity that has been influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences. A) self B) reciprocity C) direction D) humor

A) self

4. The tendency to attribute successful behavior to internal, personal characteristics is to _____ as the tendency to blame ourselves for our failures while downplaying our successes is to _____.

A) self-serving bias; self-effacing bias

4. The study of the mental processes people use to make sense of their social environment is called: A) social cognition. B) prosocial behavior. C) social influence. D) social categorization.

A) social cognition.

7. Psychologists use the term implicit cognition to refer to: A) the automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning. B) the cognitive schemas or mental frameworks we hold about traits and behaviors associated with different types of people. C) the deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning. D) the tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome of an event.

A) the automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning.

30. The phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present means the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress is called: A) the bystander effect. B) the self-serving bias. C) the rule of reciprocity. D) the "feel good, do good" effect.

A) the bystander effect.

The phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present means the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress is called:

A) the bystander effect.

Being aware that your social group is associated with a particular stereotype can negatively impact your performance on tests or tasks that measure abilities thought to be associated with that stereotype. This is a description of:

A) the stereotype threat.

22. If you were a subject in Milgram's original obedience experiment, it is very likely that: A) you would play the role of the teacher and get to "shock" the learner. B) you would play the role of the learner and get "shocked" by the teacher. C) you would have an equal chance of being assigned to the role of either teacher or learner. D) you would be given a battery of psychological tests to determine whether you were high or low in altruism.

A) you would play the role of the teacher and get to "shock" the learner.

Inferences that people draw about the causes of events, others' behavior, and their own behavior.

Attributions (personal; external)

When behaviors have negative consequences we tend to attribute our own behavior to external, situational causes, whereas we attribute the behavior we observe in others to internal, personal causes (I slipped on some ice; but...that girl is so clumsy!). What attribution tendency is this?

Actor-Observer discrepancy

Conformity

Adjusting your opinions, judgment, or behavior so that it matched the of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation

Which of the following is an example of the development of a phobia through classical conditioning?

After being attacked by a man in an elevator, Evelyn developed a phobia of elevators and other small, confined spaces.

_____ is any verbal or physical behavior intended to cause harm to other people.

Aggression

Define aggression, hostile aggression, and instrumental aggression.

Aggression - Physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm. Hostile Aggression - Aggression that springs from anger; its goal is to injure. Instrumental Aggression - Aggression that aims to injure, but only as a means to some other end.

What is aggression?

Aggression is the physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm. This definition excludes unintentional harm, such as auto accidents or sidewalk collisions; it also excludes actions that may involve pain as an unavoidable side effect of helping someone, such as dental treatments or-in the extreme-assisted suicide. It includes kicks and slaps, threats and insults, even gossip or snide "digs" (as in online bullying). It includes decisions during experiments about how much to hurt someone, such as how much electric shock to impose. It also includes destroying property, lying, and other behavior whose goal is to hurt.

According to the discussion in your text, which of the following is TRUE about the effect of attitudes on behavior?

Attitudes do influence behavior in many instances.

1. subjects more likely to go against the majority view if just one other participant did so 2. if the other dissenter's competence is questionable

Asch discovered that conformity decreased when:

Asch's Experiment

Asch found that 76% participants conformed to at least one wrong choice Subjects gave wrong answer (conformed) on 37% of the critical trials

Just-world hypothesis

Assumption that the world is fair and that therefor people get what they deserve and deserve what they get -Leads to blaming the victim

Orientations that locate objects of thought on dimensions of judgment.

Attitudes

Implicit Attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and at times unconscious

implicit cognition

Automatic, nonconscious, mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning

Which of the following involves the development of a phobia through operant conditioning?

Avoiding the feared object or situation is negatively reinforcing, so the person is more likely to avoid the feared object or situation again in the future.

1. According to your textbook, an important social psychology concept is your sense of self, which involves: A) deliberate, conscious mental processes that enable you to perceive, judge, decide, and reason. B) your sense of identity that has been influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences. C) automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence how you perceive, judge, decide, and reason. D) you as a social being in an interpersonal context that influences the cognitive, behavioral, and affective components of your attitudes and values.

12. Social psychologists have found that we are most likely to behave in accordance with our attitudes when: A) attitudes are only occasionally expressed. B) attitudes are formed through experience, and we have a vested interest in the subject. C) we have no idea what the response of others will be. D) we have very little knowledge about the subject.

A(n) _____ is a learned tendency to evaluate some object, person, or issue in a particular way that may be either positive, negative, or ambivalent. A) Attribution B) Attitude C) self-effacing bias D) prosocial behavior

Altruism is to _____ as prosocial behavior is to _____. A) expectation of reward; selfishness B) helping another person with no expectation of reward; either selfless or self-serving behavior C) the rule of commitment; the rule of reciprocity D) either selfless or self-serving behavior; helping another person with no expectation of reward

Borderline personality disorder is characterized by: A) rigid preoccupation with orderliness, personal control, rules, or schedules that interfere with completing tasks. B) erratic, unstable relationships, emotions, and self-image, and desperate efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment. C) extreme social inhibition due to feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to criticism or disapproval. D) pervasive but unwarranted distrust and suspiciousness and assumptions that other people intend to deceive, exploit, or harm them.

Frank, who is an engineering student, thinks that his fellow engineering students are really a very diverse bunch of individuals. It appears that Frank views his in-group as being quite: A) ethnocentric. B) heterogeneous. C) Altruistic D) homogeneous.

Health psychology is guided by the _____ model of health, illness, and well-being. A) stress and coping B) biopsychosocial C) psychoneuroimmunology D) general adaptation

In the movie The Aviator, actor Leonardo DiCaprio portrayed the life of legendary director and aviator Howard Hughes. During his lifetime, Hughes became enormously wealthy. But despite his wealth, Hughes couldn't escape the mental illness that gripped and tormented the last years of his life. In one scene, Hughes walks into the men's room but then is unable to leave because of the germs on the doorknob. In another scene, Hughes is shown unable to eat his meal because the different foods on the plate have shifted and are touching each other. If Hughes were alive today, he would be diagnosed with: A) schizophrenia. B) obsessive-compulsive disorder. C) posttraumatic stress disorder. D) cyclothymic disorder.

Kitty Genovese was murdered outside her New York City apartment. This tragic event led to intense psychological research on: A) attribution and attitudes. B) altruism and prosocial behavior. C) ethnocentrism and the stereotype threat. D) blaming the victim and the just-world hypothesis.

People have a strong tendency to perceive others in terms of two basic social categories, which social psychologists call: A) the prosocial group and the altruistic group. B) the in-group and the out-group. C) conformists and nonconformists. D) collectivists and individualists,

Rates of completed suicide by those diagnosed with major depression: A) range from 1 to 10 percent. B) range from 7 to 22 percent. C) range from 90 to 100 percent. D) range from 1 to 7 percent.

Regarding the difference between normal and abnormal behavior, which of the following statements is TRUE? A) Abnormal behavior is unusual, whereas normal behavior is not. B) The difference between normal and abnormal is often a matter of degree. C) Normal behavior is not "crazy," but abnormal behavior is. D) Abnormal behavior is usually frightening and disturbing, but normal behavior is not.

Shortly after getting over the shock of losing her job as managing director of the Electra Company, Morgan started to actively search for a new job. At this point in time, Morgan had passed through the _____ stage and is now in the _____ stage of the general adaptation syndrome. A) exhaustion; denial B) alarm; resistance C) denial; resistance D) alarm; exhaustion

Susan was treated for an episode of schizophrenia before she was married. In recent weeks, her husband has noticed that Susan's speech and facial expressions have become flat and expressionless and that she seems to have little motivation. Assuming that Susan is on the verge of another episode of schizophrenia, these symptoms are referred to as _____ symptoms of schizophrenia. A) secondary B) negative C) positive D) Primary

The resources provided by other people in times of need, including emotional, tangible, and informational support, are referred to as: A) social contagion. B) social support. C) the general adaptation syndrome. D) problem-focused coping support.

There is a cognitive basis to prejudice and often an emotional component as well. When prejudice is displayed behaviorally it is called: A) ethnocentrism. B) discrimination. C) the stereotype threat. D) altruism.

Whenever any of her friends or relatives have problems and are upset, Gilda gets upset too. This example illustrates: A) the tend-and-befriend response. B) the stress contagion effect. C) the distancing coping strategy. D) escape-avoidance.

Which is NOT one of the three basic clusters of personality disorders? A) the dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster B) the delusional, dissociative cluster C) the anxious, fearful cluster D) the odd, eccentric cluster

Which of the following is NOT one of the factors that increases the likelihood of bystanders helping? A) feeling good, successful, happy, or fortunate B) the presence of other bystanders in the situation C) knowing what to do or how to help in the situation D) perceiving the other person as deserving of help

Which of the following statements about phobias is FALSE? A) About 13 percent of the general population will experience a specific phobia at some point in their lives. B) More than twice as many men as women suffer from specific phobia. C) Many people have mild phobias of certain animals, such as dogs or snakes, or certain situations, such as flying or being in enclosed places. D) Even though people with specific phobias know their fear is excessive and irrational, they will go to great lengths to avoid the feared object or situation.

_____ are everyday, minor events that annoy and upset people. A) Life change units B) Daily hassles C) Catastrophes D) Type A events

_____ is defined as the mental process of classifying people into groups on the basis of common characteristics. A) Implicit cognition B) Social categorization C) The bystander effect D) Explicit cognition

33. The textbook provides several practical suggestions to defend against being manipulated by various persuasion techniques. Which of the following is NOT one of the practical suggestions you can use in making important decisions? A) List all of the reasons why you should not make a particular commitment. B) Always go with your first impulse and don't look back. C) Wait a day and sleep on it before making a final commitment to the decision. D) If you have feelings of hesitancy about a particular decision, take the conservative course of action and do nothing.

B) Always go with your first impulse and don't look back.

Your textbook discusses a number of problems associated with stereotyped thinking. Which of the following is one of those problems?

B) Once formed, stereotypes are very hard to change.

15. _____ is defined as a negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific group. A) Ethnocentrism B) Prejudice C) The rule of reciprocity D) The self-effacing bias

B) Prejudice

_____ is defined as a negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific group.

B) Prejudice

5. _____ is defined as the mental process of classifying people into groups on the basis of common characteristics. A) Implicit cognition B) Social categorization C) The bystander effect D) Explicit cognition

B) Social categorization

26. Philip Zimbardo made the claim that "the value of the _____ experiment resides in demonstrating the evil that good people can be readily induced into doing to other good people within the context of socially approved roles, rules, and norms." A) Jigsaw Classroom B) Stanford Prison C) Robbers Cave D) Asch Conformity

B) Stanford Prison

B) attitudes are formed through experience, and we have a vested interest in the subject.

Social psychologists have found that we are most likely to behave in accordance with our attitudes when:

B) attitudes are formed through experience, and we have a vested interest in the subject.

14. Denise went on a diet to lose some weight. When she went to lunch with some co-workers, she hesitated when it was her turn to order. Finally, she ordered the burger and fries instead of the salad and yogurt. She then justified her choice by telling herself that some protein every day is important for good health. Denise's tendency to focus on the positive aspects of her choice and minimize the negative aspects illustrates which of the following concepts in action? A) informational social influence B) cognitive dissonance C) the self-effacing bias D) the fundamental attribution error

B) cognitive dissonance

31. A middle-aged woman is sitting on a bench in the busy shopping mall, holding her head in her hands, visibly upset and crying. Nobody stops to see if she needs assistance. Based on what you read in the text, the most likely explanation for why nobody helps in this situation is: A) the in-group homogeneity effect. B) diffusion of responsibility. C) the rule of reciprocity. D) the just-world hypothesis.

B) diffusion of responsibility.

19. There is a cognitive basis to prejudice and often an emotional component as well. When prejudice is displayed behaviorally it is called: A) ethnocentrism. B) discrimination. C) the stereotype threat. D) altruism.

B) discrimination.

There is a cognitive basis to prejudice and often an emotional component as well. When prejudice is displayed behaviorally it is called:

B) discrimination.

While they were shopping, 6-year-old Elliot came running around one of the store aisles and excitedly asked his mother if she would buy him a $299 Microsoft Xbox 360 game console to use with their television at home. When his mother immediately refused, Elliot looked very dejected but apologized for asking. A few moments later, Elliot asked, "Well, can I get a new basket for my bicycle?" Clever Elliot appears to be using the _____ technique to persuade his mother.

B) door-in-the-face

18. During Nick's first trip abroad he was surprised to find that people in other cultures ate such foods as snails, squid, insects, lizards, earthworms, seaweed, and rotten-looking cheeses. "One day they will become civilized like us and eat normal foods like Krispy Kreme donuts, pizza, hot dogs, and hamburgers and cheese fries," he wrote to his parents. Nick's beliefs about other cultures illustrate a bias called: A) discrimination. B) ethnocentrism. C) the bystander effect. D) informational social influence.

B) ethnocentrism.

Frank, who is an engineering student, thinks that his fellow engineering students are really a very diverse bunch of individuals. It appears that Frank views his in-group as being quite:

B) heterogeneous.

When Eileen told her father that someone had stolen her new cell phone at school, he said that she should have known better than to take her phone to school. "It was bound to happen," he said. This example most clearly illustrates:

B) hindsight bias.

27. Psychological research has shown that resisting the direct orders of an authority figure: A) is virtually impossible. B) is more likely if two or more people join in resisting or disagreeing with the authority's orders. C) is easier for people who are low in levels of ethnocentrism. D) is more likely to occur in individualistic cultures than in collectivistic cultures.

B) is more likely if two or more people join in resisting or disagreeing with the authority's orders.

Psychological research has shown that resisting the direct orders of an authority figure:

B) is more likely if two or more people join in resisting or disagreeing with the authority's orders.

The performance of a behavior in response to a direct command is called:

B) obedience

8. Psychologists use the term explicit cognition to refer to: A) the cognitive schemas or mental frameworks we hold about traits and behaviors associated with different types of people. B) the deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning. C) the tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome of an event. D) the automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning.

B) the deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning.

Aggression & Learning

Bandura Bushman & others Hald & others Willoughby & others

When is aggression most likely, according to Bandura?

Bandura contended that aggressive acts are motivated by a variety of aversive experiences-frustation, pain, insults. Such experiences arouse us emotionally. But whether we act aggressively depends on the consequences we anticipate. Aggression is most likely when we are aroused and it seems safe and rewarding to aggress.

Bystander Intervention

Before helping, we must first notice the incident, then interpret it as such, and then feel responsible..

Leslie is concerned about the environment and consistently sorts her garbage by placing paper, plastic, metal, and glass in their respective recycling containers. This example best illustrates the _____ component of attitudes.

Behavioral

Based on the information in your textbook, which of the following drivers is most likely to be the aggressor in a road rage situation?

Ben, a 21 year-old male.

Describe the revised frustration-aggression theory.

Berkowitz theorized that frustration produces anger, an emotional readiness to aggress. Anger arises when someone who frustrates us could have chosen to act otherwise.

Discuss the role of the amygdala and other brain systems that are linked to emotion

Biological

Blaming the victim

Jane Elliot Study

Blue eye / brown eyes study on stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination

Bob is head of his department at work. Lately, he's noticed that the older workers and the younger workers have separated into two groups (older versus younger), and the two groups are becoming increasingly hostile toward one another. Based on the famous study by Muzafer Sherif, what should Bob do to reduce conflict and hostility between the older and younger workers?

Bob should give them a project that will require the two groups to work together toward a common goal.

Robbers Cave Experiment - Sherif

Boys were divided into 2 groups and kept separate from one another, rivalry quickly developed, harmony between the groups was established by having two groups cooperate to achieve a common goal

3. _____ is to how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior as _____ is to how our behavior is affected by situational factors and other people. A) Social influence; social cognition B) Normative social influence; informational social influence C) Social cognition; social influence D) Informational social influence; normative social influence

A(n) _____ disorder is diagnosed when disruptions in personal identity, awareness, or memory are extreme, frequent, and seriously impair the ability to function in everyday life. A) Anxiety B) Mood C) dissociative D) personality

According to the Critical Thinking section on the media and mental illness, which of the following is FALSE? A) Most violent individuals are not psychotic and most psychotic individuals are not violent. B) The incidence of violent behavior among current or former mental patients is exaggerated in media portrayals. C) Most violent individuals are psychotic, and most psychotic individuals are violent. D) The overall contribution of mental disorders to the total level of violence in society is exceptionally small.

Antidepressant medications are often used in the treatment of major depression. In general, these medications work by: A) increasing brain levels of lithium. B) decreasing brain levels of lithium. C) increasing brain levels of serotonin and norepinephrine. D) decreasing brain levels of serotonin and norepinephrine.

As compared to men, women are more likely to _____ under stressful circumstances. A) exercise B) eat chocolate C) seek out social support D) engage in confrontive coping

Every year in the United States, approximately _____ people require emergency room treatment for attempted suicide. A) 5,000 B) 50,000 C) 500,000 D) 5,000,000

In terms of lifetime prevalence, _____ of Americans will be affected by the symptoms of major depression at some point in their life. A) approximately 25 percent B) approximately 46 percent C) approximately 15 percent D) less than 5 percent

Jason has periods when he feels extremely despondent for no apparent reason. During these periods, he finds it very difficult to be productive in his college classes or at his job. Jason's symptoms are characteristics of the DSM-IV-TR category of: A) anxiety disorders. B) dissociative disorders. C) mood disorders. D) schizophrenia.

Milgram, along with other researchers, identified several aspects of his original obedience experiment that had a strong impact on the subjects' willingness to obey the experimenter. Which of the following is NOT a factor that increased the subjects' willingness to obey? A) the gradual, repetitive escalation of the task B) the physical and psychological separation from the learner C) the freedom of the teacher to choose the level of shock D) a previously well-established mental framework to obey

People in the _____ socioeconomic levels of society tend to have the _____ levels of psychological distress, illness, and death. A) lowest; lowest B) highest; highest C) lowest; highest D) highest and lowest; same

Philip has been hospitalized for an episode of schizophrenia. He believes that secret agents are bombarding his brain with gamma rays, and he sometimes sees grotesque creatures climbing on the wall of his hospital room. Philip's symptoms are referred to as: A) atypical symptoms of schizophrenia. B) negative symptoms of schizophrenia. C) positive symptoms of schizophrenia. D) primary symptoms of schizophrenia.

The mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own, is called: A) altruism. B) ethnocentrism. C) attribution. D) prejudice.

When people experience an unpleasant state of psychological tension resulting from two inconsistent thoughts or perceptions, they are said to be experiencing: A) diffusion of responsibility. B) normative social influence. C) cognitive dissonance. D) the stereotype threat.

When we want to be correct but are uncertain or doubt our own judgment, we may look to the group as a source of accurate information. This is referred to as: A) normative social influence. B) prosocial behavior. C) informational social influence. D) diffusion of responsibility.

Which of the following was NOT a factor that contributed to the abuse of prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq? A) prejudice against and dehumanization of out-group members B) conformity to implied social roles C) the rule of reciprocity D) normative social influence

Which one of the following people is most likely to be classified as exhibiting a Type A behavior pattern? A) Charlie, a very outgoing, sociable, and fun-loving music major B) Brenda, a quiet, book-loving, introverted librarian C) Bill, a very ambitious, competitive, hostile, time-conscious real estate developer D) Clarissa, a hardworking, friendly, and caring psychiatric nurse

21. The social psychologist who is best known for his controversial series of studies investigating destructive obedience to an authority is: A) Solomon Asch. B) Bibb Latanй. C) Stanley Milgram. D) Muzafer Sherif.

C) Stanley Milgram.

23. Which of the following factors made it easier for the Army Reserve guards to mistreat detainees at Abu Ghraib? A) The guards were outnumbered and frequently physically threatened by the detainees, who had hidden makeshift weapons throughout the prison. B) The detainees refused to obey prison rules. C) The detainees were members of a different cultural and ethnic group, which made it easier to perceive them as members of a despised and threatening out-group. D) There had been numerous rebellions and fights at the prison in the past, one of which had resulted in the death of two prison guards.

C) The detainees were members of a different cultural and ethnic group, which made it easier to perceive them as members of a despised and threatening out-group.

28. Helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit is the definition of: A) attribution. B) ethnocentrism. C) altruism. D) persuasion.

C) altruism.

9. The mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own, is called: A) altruism. B) ethnocentrism. C) attribution. D) prejudice.

C) attribution.

In a seminar discussion on the death penalty, Bertha said she believed that the ultimate penalty should be applied to the ultimate crime of murder. Bertha's statement best reflects the _____ component of attitudes.

C) cognitive

When people experience an unpleasant state of psychological tension resulting from two inconsistent thoughts or perceptions, they are said to be experiencing:

C) cognitive dissonance.

11. During a discussion about junk food with her two adolescent children, Mrs. Kozena made it very clear that she thought junk food was disgusting and that it upset her to see her children eat it. Mrs. Kozena's negative feeling about junk food best illustrates the _____ component of attitudes.

C) emotional

The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one's own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures is called:

C) ethnocentrism.

13. Steve frequently expresses his extreme attitude about gun control legislation. He is very knowledgeable about the topic, and he has a vested interest in the subject. According to your textbook, Steve: A) is likely to privately behave in a way that is just the opposite of the attitudes he has publicly expressed. B) will tend to talk a lot about this topic but is not likely to take any concrete action. C) is very likely to behave in accordance with his attitudes. D) is likely to behave only in ways that will gain him social acceptance and approval.

C) is very likely to behave in accordance with his attitudes.

25. According to the Critical Thinking box "Abuse at Abu Ghraib," the Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrated that _____ is more likely in confusing or ambiguous situations. A) hindsight bias B) bystander intervention C) normative social influence D) prosocial behavior

C) normative social influence

29. Peggy worked very hard as an unpaid volunteer at an animal shelter because she hoped to get hired as a full-time staff member after she finished school. Peggy's helping behavior best illustrates: A) altruism. B) conformity. C) prosocial behavior. D) obedience.

C) prosocial behavior.

6. The "rules," or expectations, for appropriate behavior in a particular social situation are called: A) the rules of commitment. B) interpersonal context rules. C) social norms. D) the rules of reciprocity.

C) social norms.

32. Professional persuaders use a number of techniques to influence attitudes and behaviors. Which of the following is NOT one of those techniques? A) the door-in-the-face technique B) the foot-in-the-door technique C) the foot-in-the-mouth technique D) the that's-not-all technique

C) the foot-in-the-mouth technique

The tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome is called:

C) the hindsight bias.

In which of the following scenarios is the person MOST likely to be helped by other people?

Carla's car won't restart and partially blocks the exit drive as her fellow employees are walking to their own cars.

The above graph represents the results of a study investigating the change in scores on an explanatory style self-report questionnaire over time for a group of depressed patients and a group of non-depressed control participants. Which of the following is a correct way to describe these results?

Changes in explanatory style depend on if you're depressed: if you are depressed, you're more likely to become pessimistic over time.

Discuss how the patient's tendency to pay attention to negative events or think about situations negatively contributes to their problem.

Cognitive

3 Components of Attitude

Cognitive Component Emotional Component Behavioral Component

A psychological state that exists when related cognitions are inconsistent.

Cognitive dissonance = Contrasting attitudes

Self-Effacing/Modesty Bias

Collectivistic Cultures -Involves blaming failure on internal, personal factors, while attributing success to external, situational factors -Reflects the emphasis that interdependent cultures place on fitting in with other members of the group -In individualistic cultures we see this valued in team sports -"The nail that sticks up gets pounded down." Japanese proverb

Carl spends his work day sitting at a computer. When he goes home, he spends several hours playing sedentary video games and then goes to bed. In contrast, Carl's roommate, Ben, works as a waiter in a restaurant for 8 hours every day, then goes for a 5 mile run every night after dinner. Which of the following statements about Carl versus Ben is most likely to be true?

Compared to Carl, Ben produces lower levels of stress hormones.

Stanley Milgram's critical question

Could a person be pressured by others into committing an immoral action that violated his or her own conscience, such as hurting a stranger?

Ways to Reduce Dissonance

Confirmation Bias & Self-Justification •Attend to information that supports our existing views, rather than information that doesn't support them •Once we've made a choice to do something, lingering doubts about our actions would cause dissonance, so we are motivated to set them aside

Milgram was influenced by Asch's conformity research but he posed a more critical question, namely:

Could people be pressured by others into committing an immoral act or taking an action that violated their conscience, such as hurting a stranger?

The class was voting on what they wanted to eat for their party their choices was between pizza and sandwiches, Almost all the class raised their hand for pizza right away; Sam saw that the majority raised their hand for pizza and raised her hand for pizza as well.

Conformity

2 atts that don't match

Contrasting attitudes - Cognitive dissonance

Milgram was influenced by Asch's conformity research, but he wanted to take Asch's research a step further and investigate a more important question. What was the question that Milgram wanted to study?

Could people be pressured by others into committing an immoral act or taking an action that violated their conscience, such as hurting a stranger?

Determine if the sadness is abnormal in the context of social norms

Cross-cultural

2. The branch of psychology that studies how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the presence of other people and by the social and physical environment is called: A) cognitive psychology. B) personality psychology. C) evolutionary psychology. D) social psychology.

_____ refers to the phenomenon in which the presence of other people makes it less likely that any individual will help someone in distress because the obligation to intervene is shared among all the onlookers.

D) Diffusion of responsibility

7. The term schemas refers to: A) the automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning. B) the tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome of an event. C) the deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning. D) the mental frameworks we hold about traits and behaviors associated with different types of people.

Adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that they match the opinions, judgments or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation is called: A) obedience. B) prosocial behaviors. C) altruism. D) conformity.

As a new immigrant to the United States, Yangtse was faced with two fundamental questions: "Should I seek positive relations with the dominant society?" and "Is my original cultural identity of value to me, and should I try to maintain it?" Yangtse answered "yes" to both. Yangtse chose: A) marginalization. B) separation. C) assimilation. D) integration.

Bipolar disorder used to be officially called _____ and is still often referred to by that term. A) multiple personality disorder B) dysthymic disorder C) seasonal affective disorder D) manic depression

In contrast to the conclusions reached by early stress researchers Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe, contemporary health psychologists now believe that: A) to improve its predictive power, the Social Readjustment Rating Scale needs to be expanded from 43 life events to 125 life events. B) positive life events, such as vacations or marriage, have a worse impact on physical health than negative life events. C) the impact of major life events is more damaging than originally thought and high scores on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale are invariably associated with severe illness or disease. D) most people weather major life events without developing severe physical or psychological problems.

On the final exam, Hubert was faced with a question about whose research helped establish a new interdisciplinary field called psychoneuroimmunology. The correct answer is: A) Janice Kiecolt-Glaser and Ron Glaser. B) Hans Selye. C) Walter Cannon. D) Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen.

Present in virtually all cases of dissociative identity disorder are symptoms of: A) hallucinations and delusions. B) substance abuse and anorexia. C) obsessions and compulsions. D) amnesia, memory lapses, and memory problems.

Psychological research has consistently shown that having a sense of control over a stressful situation _____ the impact of stressors and _____ feelings of anxiety and depression. A) increases; increases B) reduces; increases C) increases; reduces D) reduces; decreases

Ryan was disappointed when he was rejected in his first attempt to get admitted to a very prestigious engineering program. Despite this setback, he told his friends that he thought he would have a better chance next time, especially if he took some additional qualifying courses and raised his GPA. Martin Seligman would say that Ryan has a(n): A) confrontive coping style. B) Type A behavior pattern. C) pessimistic explanatory style. D) optimistic explanatory style.

The common tendency in individualistic cultures to attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the effects of external, situational factors is called: A) altruism. B) diffusion of responsibility. C) the bystander effect. D) the fundamental attribution error.

When stress is prolonged, the hypothalamus signals the: A) brain to release catecholamines. B) thymus to release corticosteroids. C) immune system to release lymphocytes. D) pituitary gland to release ACTH.

Which of the following is a basic principle involved in person perception? A) Your reactions to others are determined by your perception of them, not by who or what they "really" are. B) In every situation, you evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to react in that situation. C) Your self-perception influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions. D) All of these are involved in person perception.

Yvette knew that Vicky had been feeling very down lately but she was stunned when Vicky told her that she was planning to kill herself. According to your textbook, which of the following would be the most helpful way for Yvette to respond to Vicky? A) "Pull yourself together!" B) "Things always look better the next day!" C) "Things may seem dreary right now but remember, every cloud has a silver lining." D) "Tell me what's going on and why you feel this way."

_____ is primarily aimed at relieving or regulating the emotional impact of a stressful situation. A) Problem-focused coping B) Confrontive coping C) Planful problem solving D) Emotion-focused coping

The textbook defines _____ as a cluster of characteristics that are associated with all members of a specific social group, often including qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define the group

D) Stereotype

5. _____ is the tendency of people to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

D) The just-world hypothesis

7. According to your textbook, an attitude is formally defined as:

D) a learned tendency to evaluate some object, person, or issue in a particular way that may be either positive, negative, or mixed.

9. Leslie is concerned about the environment and consistently sorts her garbage by placing paper, plastic, metal, and glass in their respective recycling containers. This example best illustrates the _____ component of attitudes.

D) behavioral

11. Attitudes: A) tend to be strongest in members of individualistic cultures. B) are primarily cognitive in nature. C) are primarily behavioral in nature. D) can have cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components.

D) can have cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components.

Attitudes:

D) can have cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components.

2. The perspective in psychology that is based on the premise that certain psychological processes and behavioral patterns evolved over hundreds of thousands of years because of their adaptive and survival value is called: A) personality psychology. B) social psychology. C) cognitive psychology. D) evolutionary psychology.

D) evolutionary psychology.

The tendency to judge the behavior of the members of your group more favorably than the behavior of members of other groups is called:

D) in-group bias.

3. The branch of psychology that studies how a person's thoughts, feelings, and behavior are influenced by the presence of other people and by the social and physical environment is called: A) cognitive psychology. B) personality psychology. C) evolutionary psychology. D) social psychology.

D) social psychology.

16. The textbook defines _____ as a cluster of characteristics that are associated with all members of a specific social group, often including qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define the group. A) social norms B) the self-serving bias C) implicit personality theory D) stereotype

D) stereotype

17. Sixty-five-year-old Bernice is taking courses at the university with the intention of completing a bachelor's degree. Some members of her family think she is not likely to succeed because she is much too old to learn new information. These family members are demonstrating: A) hindsight bias. B) the rule of commitment. C) cognitive dissonance. D) stereotyped thinking.

D) stereotyped thinking.

The tendency to see members of out-groups as very similar to each other is called:

D) the out-group homogeneity effect.

When Ainslie did poorly on the physics midterm exam, she blamed her low score on the unfair exam and the lousy professor. But when the final grades in the course were curved and she received an A-, she concluded that she had a real talent and mental capacity for logical scientific thinking. This example illustrates:

D) the self-serving bias.

explicit cognition

Deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning

What were the basic results of psychologist Stanley Milgram's original obedience study?

Despite hearing protests from the learner in another room, two-thirds of the subjects continued to administer shocks all the way to the full 450-volt level.

Goals in the situation

Determine the amount and kinds of information you collect about others

Diffusion of responsibility

Describe when displacement is most likely to occur.

Displacement - The redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target. In experiments and in real life, displacement is most likely to occur when the target shares some similarity to the instigator and does some minor irritating act that unleashes the displaced aggression.

Which criterion of abnormal behavior most closely matches a college student who must withdraw because his alcoholism prevents him from attending class or completing homework?

Dysfunction

First Impression

Evaluating the other person's attractiveness, likeability, competence, trustworthiness, and aggressiveness

Bushman & others

Exposure to media violence may increase aggressive behavior

Your friend always looks forward to going out. When she enters a crowded room of strangers, she manages to make friends with everyone. What big five factor would she have scored high on with this information?

Extraversion

The Focus on Neuroscience box, "Brain Reward When Making Eye Contact with Attractive People," described an fMRI study in which participants were scanned while looking at photographs of different faces. What were the results of the study?

Faces of attractive people looking directly at the viewer activated the ventral striatum, a brain area associated with the expectation of rewards.

Attraction

Feeling drawn to other people - having positive thoughts and feelings about them

Door in the face

First, the persuader makes a large request that you're certain to refuse

Social Influence

Focuses on how our behavior is affected by other people and by situational factors

Social Behavior

Focuses on how we relate and communicate with each other

Which of the following examples reflects a symptom of an anxiety disorder rather than normal anxiety?

For the past several weeks, Mavis has been unable to concentrate at work because she keeps thinking that something terrible might happen to her son at school, even though she knows that he's safe.

When are we likely to experience strong frustration?

Frustration - The blocking of goal-directed behavior. Frustration grows when our motivation to achieve a goal is very strong, when we expected gratification, and when the blocking is complete.

The common tendency to attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the effects of external, situational factors is called:

Fundamental Attribution Error

Observers' bias in favor of internal attributions in explaining others' behavior. (focuses on personal attribution when we are looking into someone behavior).

Fundamental attribution error

According to the textbook, what helped John Gacy escape detection as a ruthless murderer for so many years?

Gacy's behavior in many situations contradicted the implicit personality theory that people have for a mass murderer.

Originations of Attitudes

Genetic Component Social Experience Some are more cognitive, affective or emotion Operant & Classical Conditioning

Gillian's club is planning a 5-mile race as a fundraiser. Because Gillian had never run in a race before, she was certain that she would not be able to complete the 5 miles and instead volunteered to screen and register the runners. How might the social cognitive theory be used to explain Gillian's behavior?

Gillian has a strong sense of self-efficacy when it comes to talking to people and writing down information, but she has a weak sense of self-efficacy when it comes to running in a race.

The purpose of going to the coffee shop is to find a nice quiet place to sit and do homework. Sitting next to people having a business meeting would be distracting and you would rather sit in a corner or by other people doing homework. What type of person perception does this illustrate?

Goals in a situation

Andrew volunteered to take part in a psychology experiment to earn extra credit for his psychology class. The experiment was one that studied obedience, and Andrew was asked to deliver aversive consequences to another student. Based upon what you know about the forces that influence a subject to continue obeying an experimenter's orders, which of the following reactions is most likely?

Having volunteered to participate in the experiment for which he will receive extra credit, it is likely that Andrew will have the mental expectation that he should obey the experimenter.

Stanley Milgram

He's best known for his experimental investigations of obedience -posed question: "could a person be pressured by others into committing an immoral act, some action that violated his or her own conscience, such as hurting a stranger?" -tried to determine how & why people obey the destructive dictates of an authoritative figure

How does heavy TV viewing affect perceptions of the violence of the world?

Heavy viewers are indeed more violent because of their TV exposure. A survey of both adolescents and adults showed that heavy viewers (four hours a day or more) are more likely than light viewers (two hours or fewer) to exaggerate the frequency of violence in the world around them and to fear being personally assaulted. Media portrayals shape perceptions of reality.

Luwanda's son has really started enjoying basketball and attends practice three times a week. Luwanda tries to further encourage her son by taking him out for ice cream after each practice. Based on research findings, which of the following should Luwanda expect to see?

Her son may begin to lose interest in basketball.

Riley's boss asks him to write up a speech in a large group of people to present at their company's Christmas party this year. How would Riley, being an extremely introverted person, react to this request?

Hesitant, as he feels more stimulated in quiet environments.

Aggression Biology

Higher levels of testosterone linked to aggression

Self-Justification

If you can rationalize or explain your behavior, the conflict (and the tension) is eliminated or avoided

Cognitive Consistency

If you can't explain your behavior, you may change your attitude so that it is in harmony with your behavior

How much TV do people watch? How does TV portray violence?

In the average U.S. home, the TV is on eight hours a day, with individual teens averaging about four hours and adults three hours.

Self-Serving Bias

Individualistic Cultures -People tend to credit themselves for their successes (internal attributions) and to blame their failures on external circumstances (external attributions). -Cross-cultured psychologists report that it is not universal

Self-perception

Influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions

Sometimes we conform because we are motivated by wanting to be right. This conforming behavior is in response to what kind of social influence?

Informational social influence

Positive feelings toward another. (Similarity in backgrounds; values; finance; education; religions; race). Physical attractiveness - Symmetry.

Interpersonal attraction

Although she cannot remember ever being harmed by a cockroach, Kate has an extreme fear of cockroaches. Which of the following ideas might be used to help explain her specific phobia of cockroaches?

Kate is biologically prepared to develop phobias toward creatures that arouse disgust and are associated with disease, filth, and contamination.

Influence of Psychosocial influences on Aggression

Learning Frustration Gender Culture

Lenore has been feeling very sad since her husband died 12 days ago. She has eaten very little, and has difficulty sleeping. She is weepy most of the time. Lenore is preoccupied with thoughts of her dead husband and does not want to do much other than thinking about him. She has declined all invitations by friends and spends most of her time alone. Which of the following best describes Lenore?

Lenore is probably not suffering from a mental illness.

What is a recipe for aggressive behavior, according to studies on several hundred New Zealand children?

Long-term studies following several hundred New Zealand children reveal that a recipe for aggressive behavior combines a gene that alters neurotransmitter balance with childhood maltreatment. Neither "bad" genes nor a "bad" environment alone predispose later aggressiveness and antisocial behavior; rather, genes predispose some children to be more sensitive and responsive to maltreatment. Nature and nurture interact.

The idea that males and females of approximately equal physical attractiveness are likely to select each other as partners.

Matching hypothesis

Which of the following is an example of the development of a phobia through observational learning?

Matilda develops a fear of spiders after years of seeing her mother and older sister react with extreme fear whenever they see a spider.

(Scenario I) In a simple correlational design, how would these data be collected?

Measure each participant's score on Variables A and B

social categorization

Mental process of categorizing people into groups (or social categories) on the basis of their shared characteristics -conscious processes -unconscious or automatic processes -assumption that people share traits and behaviors

Social Categorization

Mental process of categorizing people into groups on the basis of their shared characteristics. Once you put someone in a category it's hard to see them outside of that category

person perception

Mental process we use to form judgments about other people Four main components: -Characteristics of the person -your own self perception -your goals in the situation -situation in which the process occurs

What are two common characteristics of men who sexually coerce women?

More aggressive and more likely to accept the rape myth; promiscuous behavior and hostile attitudes.

What do most social psychologists think about the catharsis hypothesis, and what evidence supports their position?

Most social psychologists do not think that catharsis is helpful. They believe that instead, it rationalizes further aggression. -Brad Bushman invited angered participants to hit a punching bag while either ruminating about someone who angered them or thinking about becoming physically fit. A third group did not hit the punching bag. When given a chance to administer loud blasts of noise to the person who angered them, people in the punching bag plus rumination condition felt angrier and were most aggressive. Moreover, doing nothing at all effectively reduced aggression than did blowing off steam by hitting the bag.

Explain what type of aggression terrorism, wars, and murders are.

Most terrorism is instrumental aggression. Terrorists seek personal significance, through, for example, attaining hero or martyr status. Terrorism is also a strategic tool used during conflict. Most wars are instrumental aggression. American and British leaders justified attacking Iraq not as a hostile effort to kill Iraqis but as an instrumental act of liberation and of self-defense against presumed weapons of mass destruction. Adolescents who bully others-either verbally or physically-are also engaged in instrumental aggression because they often seek to demonstrate their dominance and high status. Most murders are hostile aggression. Such murders are impulsive, emotional outbursts, which help explain why data from 110 nations show that a death penalty has not resulted in fewer homicides. Some murders and many other violent acts of retribution and sexual coercion, however, are instrumental.

Prejudice

Negative attitude towards people who belong to a specific social group

implicit personality theory

Network of assumptions or beliefs about the relationship among various types of people, traits, and behaviors; leads to use of cognitive schemas

What brain difference has been observed in murderers?

No one spot in the brain controls it. But researchers have found brain neural systems in both animals and humans that facilitate aggression. When the scientists activate these brain areas, hostility increases; when they deactivate them, hostility decreases. Researchers found that the prefrontal cortex, which acts like an emergency brake on deeper brain areas involved in aggressive behavior, was 14 percent less active than normal in murderers.

Social Experience of Attitudes

Observational learning - television, influential people, religion etc.

What temporary climate variations have been linked with aggressive behavior? Describe evidence linking heat and aggression.

Offensive odors, cigarette smoke, and air pollution have all been linked with aggressive behavior. The most-studied environmental irritant is heat. Griffitt found that compared with students who answered questionnaires in a room with a normal temperature, those who did so in an uncomfortable hot room reported feeling more tired and aggressive and expressed more hostility toward a stranger. -In heat-stricken Phoenix, Arizona, the drivers of cars without air-conditioning were more likely to honk at a stalled car. -Batters were more likely to be hit by a pitch during hot weather. -Studies in six cities have found that when the weather is hot, violent crimes are more likely. -Across the Northern Hemisphere, it is not only hotter days that have more violent crimes, but also hotter seasons of the year, hotter summers, hotter years, hotter cities, and hotter regions.

Your textbook discusses a number of problems associated with stereotyped thinking. Which of the following is one of those problems?

Once formed, stereotypes are very hard to change.

Rule of Commitment

Once you make a public commitment, there is psychological and interpersonal pressure on you to behave consistently with your earlier commitment. -First, the persuader makes a small request that you're likely to agree to -Next, the persuader asks you to comply with a second, larger request -Because of your earlier commitment, you feel psychologically pressured to behave consistently by now agreeing to the larger commitment

How do we know that the effect is not due to a third variable, such as having a hostile personality?

Participants were randomly assigned to groups.

Rule of Liking

People are more likely to say "yes" to the people they know and like

Attribution Theory

People as motivated to discover underlying causes of behavior to make sense of behavior •We explain other's or our own behavior by crediting the -Situation (situational attribution) -Person's disposition (dispositional attribution) •Internal/External Causes •Stable/Unstable Causes •Controllable/Uncontrollable Causes

Hedonic Motive

Personal rewards (food, sex, and attention)

Rule of Consensus

Requires everyone at the table to agree on all decisions

The Stanford Prison Experiment was conducted by psychologist

Philip Zimbardo

How does being abused as a child affect the likelihood of later abusing one's own children?

Physically aggressive children tend to have had physically punitive parents, who disciplined them by modeling aggression with screaming, slapping, and beating. These parents often had parents themselves who were physically punitive. Such punitive behavior may escalate into abuse, and although most abused children do not become criminals or abusive parents, 30 percent do later abuse their own children. Even more mild physical punishment, such as spanking, is linked to later aggression. Violence often begets violence.

Aggression Evolution

Points to differences in parts of brain that regulate emotion (amygdala, prefrontal cortex, limbic system)

How big a business is pornography in the US?

Pornography is now a bigger business in the United States than professional football, basketball, and baseball combined, thanks to some $13 billion a year spent on the industry's cable and satellite networks, theaters and pay-per-view movies, and in-room hotel services, phone sex, sex magazines, and Internet sites.

Hald & others

Pornography viewing linked to aggression attitudes toward women

Negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific group.

Prejudice

_____ is defined as a negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific group.

Prejudice

_____ is any behavior that helps another person, whether the underlying motive is self-serving or selfless

Prosocial behavior

_____ is any behavior that helps another person, whether the underlying motive is self-serving or selfless.

Prosocial behavior

The sadness is viewed as being leftover from early childhood trauma, the memories of which have been repressed.

Psychoanalytic

Psychologist Margaret Shih and her colleagues conducted a study where mathematically gifted Asian-American female college students were randomly assigned to three groups. Group 1 filled out a questionnaire about their Asian background, designed to remind them of their Asian identity. Group 2 filled out a questionnaire designed to remind them of their female identity. Group 3 was the control group and filled out a neutral questionnaire. Why did Dr. Shih use random assignment?

Random assignment ensures that the three groups are approximately equal at the start of the study.

Social Cognition

Refers to how we form impressions of other people, how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior, and how our behavior is affected by our attitudes

Explain how frustration and aggression relate to deprivation and to relative deprivation, and note supporting evidence.

Relative Deprivation - The perception that one is less well off than others with whom one compares oneself. Frustration is often compounded when we compare ourselves with others. Workers' feelings of well-being depend on whether their compensation compares favorably with that of others in their line of work.

You've been having a lot of difficulty at your job, but continue to come to work every day. What stage of the general adaption syndrome are you in?

Resistance stage

Gender differences in Milgram's Study

Results were identical for both the men and women studies of obedience to an authority figure

How does retaliation affect people?

Retaliation, may, in the short run, reduce tension and even provide pleasure. But in the long run it fuels more negative feelings. When people who have been provoked hit a punching bag, even when they believe it will be cathartic, the effect is the opposite-leading them to exhibit more cruelty.

Rose was given a new computer by her children on her birthday. However, she has never turned it on, because she doesn't think she will be able to learn how to use it. How would the social cognitive theory explain Rose's behavior?

Rose's beliefs of self-efficacy are very weak in regards to learning how to use a computer.

What effects have been found for rumination?

Rumination only increases negative feelings/aggression.

In the research described above, which of the following is a valid conclusion from the information presented in the passage and graph?

SSRI worked better than placebo for test anxiety.

When John landed a big contract for his company, he felt that his hard work and ability were responsible for the outcome. Yet when he failed to get the contract in another situation, he felt it was not his fault because he was sick and had no extra help campaign. What attribution tendency is this?

Self serving bias

Which of the following statements about research concerned with sexual orientation is FALSE?

Sexual orientation depends on a person's gender identity.

competitive

Sherif demonstrated how easily hostility & distrust could be created b/w 2 groups - _____ situations increased tension b/w Rattlers & Eagles

Describe Bandura's social learning theory of aggression and his Bobo doll experiment.

Social Learning Theory - The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished. Bobo Doll Experiment - Children who were not exposed to the aggressive adult model rarely displayed any aggressive play or talk. Although frustrated (the children were told that the child must save "the best toys" for the other children), they nevertheless played calmly. Those who had observed the aggressive adult were many times more likely to pick up the mallet and lash out at the doll. Watching the adult's aggressive behavior lowered their inhibitions. Moreover, the children often reproduced the model's specific acts and said her words. Observing aggressive behavior had both lowered their inhibitions and taught them ways to aggress.

What social scripts may young people learn from TV? How does viewing sexual content on TV affect adolescents' ideas?

Social Scripts - Culturally provided mental instructions for how to act in various situations. After so many action films, youngsters may acquire a script that is played when they face real-life conflicts. Challenged, they may "act like a man" by intimidating or eliminating the threat. Likewise, after witnessing innumerable sexual innuendoes and acts on TV and in music lyrics-mostly involving impulsive or short-term relationships-youths may acquire sexual scripts they later enact in real-life relationships. Thus, the more sexual content that adolescents view, the more likely they are to perceive their peers as sexually active, to develop sexually permissive attitudes, and to experience early intercourse. Media portrayals implant social scripts.

the mental process of classifying people into groups on the basis of certain characteristics.

Social categorization

_____ is to how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior as _____ is to how our behavior is affected by situational factors and other people.

Social cognition; social influence

Dr. Krane studies questions such as why we conform to group norms, what compels us to obey authority figures, and the conditions under which people will help a stranger. Dr. Krane's research focuses on an area of social psychology called:

Social influence

The branch of psychology concerned with the way individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are inuenced by others.

Social psychology

The study of human interactions; of thoughts, feeling, behavior in company of others

Social psychology

In some cultures, individuals tend to work harder when they are in groups than when they are alone, a phenomenon called:

Social striving

_____ is an American social psychologist who is best known for his pioneering studies of conformity.

Solomon Asch

Festinger Experiment

Someone encountering an obnoxious experimenter is much more likely to hold a more positive attitude toward eating fried grasshoppers than you -experiment underscores the importance of cognitive dissonance

The American social psychologist who is best known for his controversial series of studies investigating destructive obedience to an authority is:

Stanley Milgram.

Social Identity Theory

States that when you're assigned to a group, you automatically think of that group as an in-group for you

Widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group.

Stereotypes

Steve frequently expresses his extreme attitude about gun control legislation. He is very knowledgeable about the topic, and he has a vested interest in the subject. How might these affect Steve's tendency to act in accordance with his values?:

Steve is likely to act in accordance with his attitudes

Observations Learning & Attitudes

Television, influential people, religion etc.

Actor-observer bias

Tendency to attribute our own behavior to external, situational characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the effects of internal, personal factors

Blaming the victim

Tendency to blame an innocent victim of misfortune for having somehow caused the problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it -"She deserved to be raped. What was she doing in that neighborhood anyway?" "Their lower social status is their own fault." -This bias is reinforced by hindsight bias

Hindsight bias

Tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome of an event

Out-group homogeneity theory

Tendency to see members of the out-group as more similar to one another

Fundamental attribution error

Tendency to spontaneously attribute the behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating the role of external, situational factors

What does the evidence suggest regarding whether games rated "M" are being kept out of the hands of underaged children?

The Federal Trade Commission found that in four out of five attempts, underage children could easily purchase "M" (mature) games, supposedly intended for sale only to those 17 and older.

just-world hypothesis

The assumption that life is fair; for example, it seems horrible to think that you can be a good person and bad things could happen to you anyway.

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to all others and the related tendency to use one's own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures

Frustration

The blocking of some goal -generates aggression

What effects did boys randomly assigned to receive a game system experience, according to Weis and Cerankowsky (2010)?

The boys spent an average of 40 minutes a day on it over the next few months. The downside: They spent less time on schoolwork, resulting in lower reading and writing scores than the control group that did not get a game system.

How does Myers characterize reacting to crime after it happens?

The crime and disorder which flow from hopeless poverty, unloved children, and drug abuse can't be solved merely by bottomless prisons, mandatory sentencing, and more police. Reacting to crime after it happens is the social equivalent of Band-Aids on bullet wounds.

Normative Social Influence

The desire to be accepted as part of a group leads to that group having an influence

Which of the following statements is TRUE?

The dividing line between normal and abnormal behavior is often determined by the social or cultural context in which a particular behavior occurs.

What is one of the main draws of violent video games for angry people, and why is this ironic?

The idea that games might relieve angry feelings is one of the main draws of violent video games for angry people. However, critics say that this strategy is likely to backfire, leading to more anger and aggression.

Internal Attribution

The inference that a person is behaving in a certain way because of something about the person, such as attitude, character, or personality "she helped me because she's such a nice person"

_____ is the tendency of people to believe that the world is fair and that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

The just-world hypothesis

Proximity

The mere exposure effect - repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking for them, or, we like people we see often

Rule of Authority

The mere symbols of titles, clothes, and trappings are often enough to gain instant compliance

Describe correlational evidence linking violent TV viewing with aggressive behavior. How does this research try to address the limitations of correlational data to suggest cause and effect?

The more violent the content of the child's TV viewing, the more aggressive the child. Researchers have developed two ways to test these alternative explanations. They test the "hidden third factor" explanation by statistically pulling out the influence of some of these possible factors (underlying factors, such as lower intelligence or hostility, that may predispose children to prefer both aggressive programs and aggressive behavior). The experimental method can control these extraneous factors. If we randomly assign some children to watch a violent film and others a nonviolent film, any later aggression difference between the two groups will be due to the only factor that distinguishes them: what they watched. -Correlating 8-year olds' violence viewing with their later likelihood of adult spouse abuse. -Correlating adolescents' violence viewing with their later likelihood of assault, robbery, and threats of injury. -Correlating elementary schoolchildren's violent media exposure with how often they got into fights when restudied 2-6 months later.

Obedience

The performance of a behavior in response to a direct command •Typically, an authority figure or a person of higher status, such as a teacher or supervisor, gives the command

Contact Hypothesis

The principle that bringing people together who are in conflict, the conflict will subside as they get to understand one another

Social Influence

The psychological study of how our behavior is influenced by the social environment and other people

What is the rape myth?

The rape myth is that some women would welcome sexual assault and that "no doesn't really mean no."

In Milgram's original obedience study, there were many different factors operating in the situation that influenced the subjects to continue obeying the experimenter's orders. Which of the following was NOT one of those factors

The subjects knew that their actions were being filmed

Public Compliance

The superficial, public, and often transitory change in behavior -Expressed in response to requests, group pressure -Commonly the result of Normative Social Influence

in-group bias

The tendency to make favorable, positive attributions for behaviors by members of our in-group and unfavorable, negative attributions for behaviors by members of out-groups ex: ethnocentrism

Social Norms

The unwritten "rules," or expectations, for appropriate behavior in that particular social situation

According to the just-world hypothesis, how would society most likely respond to a victim who was robbed at night?

They would blame the victim, because they should not have been walking alone at night

Describe (list and give examples of) the various ways that group influences affect aggression.

Through social contagion, groups magnify aggressive tendencies, much as they polarize other tendencies. -As group identity develops, conformity pressures and deindividuation increase. -Self-identity diminishes as members give themselves over to the group, often feeling a satisfying oneness with the others. -When circumstances provoke an individual's aggressive reaction, the addition of group interaction will often amplify it. -Group members diffuse responsibility

Willoughby & others

Violent media has been linked to increased aggression

Parswani, Sharma, & Iyengar (2013) wanted to test whether mindfulness-based stress reduction would be beneficial for patients with chronic heart disease. They selected male patients from a heart disease clinic and randomly assigned half to receive 8 weekly sessions of MBSR (treatment group) or one session of the usual health education class offered to heart disease patients (control group). Using valid and reliable measures, they measured anxiety, perceived stress, and several other variables not presented here before the classes (pre) and after the classes (post). They found a statistically significant difference between pre and post anxiety and stress scores for the MBSR group, and no significant differences between pre and post for the control group, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. The effect sizes they found for both anxiety and perceived stress are considered "large".In this study, which is an independent variable?

Treatment group: MBSR or control

Bandura

Violent people often mimic behavior they have seen; observational learning

Genetic Component of Attitudes

Twin studies - related to temperament and personality

During Stanley Milgram's original obedience study, it was surprising that most subjects (teachers) did what?

Two thirds of Milgram's subjects went to full 450-volt level. Not one person stopped before the 300-volt level

Which of the following represents hindsight bias?

Two years ago you were so happy for your friends that were getting married but got they got divorced last month. You knew all along they were going to get a divorce.

Ethnocentrism

Type of in-group bias

Sense of self

Unique sense of identity influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences

What is cognitive dissonance? How does it affect our behavior/values?

Unpleasant state of psy tension due to inconsistency between actions and beliefs • Cognitive dissonance can change an attitude or strength of an attitude so that it is consistent with some behavior that has already been performed

Dissonance

Unpleasant state of psychological tension or arousal that occurs when two thoughts or perceptions are inconsistent

dissonance

Unpleasant state of psychological tension or arousal that occurs when two thoughts or perceptions are inconsistent

What is one thing researchers could do increase the internal validity of the study?

Use a double blind procedure

What are benefits of playing video games?

Video games improve hand-eye coordination and reaction time. Game-playing is focused fun that helps satisfy basic needs for a sense of competence, control, and social connection. Those who played prosocial video games helped others, shared, and cooperated more in real life situations.

Describe evidence that viewing violence primes aggressive-related ideas.

Watching violent television increases aggressive-related ideas. After viewing violence, people offer more hostile explanations for others' behavior (was the shove intentional?). They interpret spoken homonyms with the more aggressive meaning (interpreting "punch" as a hit rather than a drink). And they recognize aggressive words more quickly. Media portrayals prime thinking.

Motivation to be Consistent

We see ways to decrease the discomfort caused by the inconsistency

What does Myers suggest we do when angry?

We should reframe accusatory "you" messages as "I" messages. People who do this communicate their feelings in a way that better enables the other person to make a positive response. We can be assertive without being aggressive.

The Fundamental Attribution Error

When trying to understand the cause of someone's current behavior, we tend to... -Overestimate the influence of personal traits (honesty, moodiness, laziness) -Underestimate the influence of the situation -Less likely to see in Collectivistic Cultures -Uncontrollable

Group Polarization - Groupthink

When group members try to maintain harmony in a decision-making group and ignore conflicting evidence or opinions.

Social Striving

When individuals work harder when they are in groups that when they are alone

When we make eye contact with an attractive person, the brain area that is associated with the expectation of a reward shows increased activity.

"Sour grapes" rationalization

You emphasize the negative features of the choice you rejected

"Sweet lemons" rationalization

You emphasize the positive features of the choice you made

Specific situation in which the process occurs

You evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act

Of the following factors, which is NOT one that will make you more likely to conform to the group's norms?

You have already expressed commitment to a different idea or opinion.

Which of the following is the BEST example of how achievement motivation might be expressed in an individualistic culture?

You work hard because you want to be the top-performing salesperson in your company.

The Effect of Attitudes on Behavior

You're most likely to behave in accordance with your attitudes when: •You anticipate a favorable outcome or response from others for behaving that way •Your attitudes are extreme or are frequently expressed •Your attitudes have been formed through direct experience •You are very knowledgeable about the subject •You have a vested interest in the subject and personally stand to gain or lose something on a specific issue

Person perception follows some basic principles. Which of the following is NOT one of them?

Your reactions to others are not determined by your perceptions of them but rather by who or what they really are

2/3

__/__ of Milgram's subjects (26 out of 40) were fully compliant & went to the full 450 volt level -those who defied the experimenter didn't stop before the 300 volt level

Juliana has always been bad at writing essays and she doesn't think there's any point in trying to get better. Juliana is reflecting

a fixed mindset

In the last three days, Doug has become progressively more energetic and euphoric. He has been sleeping no more than an hour or two a night, but he seems to have unlimited energy. Doug is inappropriately self-confident as he veers from one grandiose idea to another in his plans to become rich and famous. Doug appears to be experiencing:

a manic episode.

Patrick has been diagnosed as suffering from social anxiety disorder. Patrick is likely to experience:

a paralyzing fear of performing even routine behaviors in public situations or in front of other people.

Your instructor notices that in many of his classes, the longer he lectures, the more student yawns he sees. This represents:

a positive correlation

An operational definition is:

a precise description of how each variable in a particular study will be manipulated or measured.

Dr. Martinez is studying the effects of diet on mental alertness. Each morning for two weeks, participants in Dr. Martinez's study eat a breakfast that is either high in carbohydrates or high in protein. Dr. Martinez then measures the participants' abilities to solve geometry problems. What is the dependent variable in this study?

ability to solve geometry problems

When Konya emigrated to the United States, he found it very difficult to adapt to the new culture. Konya probably experienced

acculturative stress.

When Konya emigrated to the United States, he found it very difficult to adapt to the new culture. Konya probably experienced:

acculturative stress.

Jasmine is a police detective. To cope with her high level of stress, she goes to aerobic classes and works out in the gym four or five times a week. Jasmine is using a(n) _____ coping strategy.

active, emotion-focused

conformity

adjusting your opinions, judgment, or behavior so that it matches that of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation

Conformity is defined as:

adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that it matches the opinions, judgments or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation.

conformity

adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that it matches the opinions, judgments, or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation

When Carl got to the parking lot, he was distressed to discover that his new car had been badly damaged by a hit-and-run driver. Immediately after his discovery, Carl is probably in the ____stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).

alarm

(Scenario I) Given the data shown in the graph, it is possible that

all of these are possible

Milgram described the details of his experimental design to three groups: psychiatrists, college students, and middle-class adults. He asked each group to predict how subjects would behave. The results of this survey showed

all three groups were wrong in their predictions.

Research has found that physically attractive people tend to:

be less anxious in social situations.

Helping another person with no expectation of personal reward or benefit is the definition of:

altruism

Kitty Genovese was murdered outside her New York City apartment. This tragic event led to intense psychological research on:

altruism and prosocial behavior.

Natalie suggests that the aggressiveness of her brother's new friend is the result of his friend's low self-esteem. Natalie's inference about the cause of the behavior of her brother's friend is an example of:

an attribution.

Tammy loved the movie Enchanted and thought that the wicked stepmother was ugly and evil and that the lovely princess was innocent and virtuous. Because of cultural conditioning it is likely that Tammy is using _____ called _____.

an implicit personality theory; "what is beautiful is good"

Psychologists use statistics to

analyze the data collected and determine if the results support the hypothesis

prosocial behavior

any behavior that helps another, whether the underlying motive is self-serving or selfless

Professor Gorsky is trying to replicate Milgram's obedience experiments. If Professor Gorsky allows the teachers to freely choose the level of shock given to the learner, it is probable that

approximately 95 percent would not progress beyond the 150-volt level

"Oh, man, that was awesome! Let's do it again!" Marcela said as she climbed out of the front roller coaster seat. Which category of motivational theories would best explain Marcela's behavior?

arousal theories

just world hypothesis

assumption that the world is fair & that therefore people get what they deserve & deserve what they get

A(n) _____ is a learned tendency to evaluate some object, person, or issue in a particular way that may be either positive, negative, or ambivalent.

attitude

Social psychologists have found that we are most likely to behave in accordance with our attitudes when:

attitudes are formed through experience, and we have a vested interest in the subject.

fundamental attribution error

attributing behavior to internal, personal characteristics, while underestimating or ignoring external, situational factors

The mental process of explaining the causes of people's behavior, including one's own, is called:

attribution

The mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own, is called

attribution.

The mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own, is called:

attribution.

implicit cognition

automatic, non conscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, & reasoning -prior experiences & beliefs about different social categories can trigger these social reactions ranging from very positive to very negative

The need to feel that your activities are self-chosen and self-endorsed defines _____, which is a fundamental motive in _____.

autonomy; self-determination theory

Ethan is struggling to make enough money to pay his rent and buy food. According to Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Ethan is attempting to meet his _____ needs.

basic

Research has found that physically attractive people tend to

be less anxious in social situations

informational social influence

behavior that's motivated by the desire to be correct

normative social influence

behavior that's motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance & approval

According to the _____ perspective, psychologists should investigate only overt, observable behavior and should not concern themselves with internal mental processes that cannot be precisely observed and measured.

behavioral

Trying to determine if a specific event or situation caused the sadness.

behavioral

discrimination

behaviors ranging from privately sneering at to physically attacking members of an out-group

ethnocentrism

belief that one's own culture of ethnic group is superior to all others & the related tendency to use one's own culture as a standard by which to judge other cultures -contributes to formation of negative stereotypes about other cultures whose customs differ from our own

cognitive component

beliefs, thoughts, ideas about the attitude object

Dr. McNair has been studying the effects of different levels of estrogen hormones on mating behaviors in male and female hamsters. Dr. McNair is most likely a _____ psychologist.

biological

The theory that borderline personality disorder (BPD) is the result of a unique combination of biological, psychological, and environmental factors, is called the:

biosocial developmental theory of BPD.

self effacing bias

blame ourselves for our failures, attributing them to internal, personal causes, while downplaying our successes by attributing them to external, situational factors. Collectivistic cultures.

The self-serving bias is to _____ as the self-effacing bias is to _____.

blaming failure on situational factors; blaming failure on internal, personal factors

"Hal got hit by a car when he was jogging? Really? Well, it doesn't surprise me," Erin commented. "He never wears reflective gear, so I bet the driver couldn't even see him." Erin's response illustrates an attributional pattern called

blaming the victim

Before Mark had even heard the details of how Allison's car accident had happened, he commented, "Allison is so absent-minded, I'm sure it happened because she wasn't paying attention." Mark's response illustrates an attributional pattern called:

blaming the victim.

Before Mark had even heard the details of how Allison's car accident had happened, he commented, "Allison is so absentminded, I'm sure it happened because she was probably talking on her cell phone and not paying attention." Mark's response illustrates an attributional pattern called:

blaming the victim.

Kidnapped at knifepoint from her bedroom in the middle of the night, 14-year-old Elizabeth Smart was held captive for over nine months by a drifter and his female companion. When police finally found her and the details of her captivity were widely publicized, some observers publicly questioned why the girl never tried to escape or get the attention of the police. Such responses illustrate an attributional pattern called: Kidnapped at knifepoint from her bedroom in the middle of the night, 14-year-old Elizabeth Smart was held captive for over nine months by a drifter and his female companion. When police finally found her and the details of her captivity were widely publicized, some observers publicly questioned why the girl never tried to escape or get the attention of the police. Such responses illustrate an attributional pattern called:

blaming the victim.

blaming the victim

blaming victims for their own misfortune or not taking steps to prevent or avoid it, partly due to the just-world hypothesis

hinder

but if task is complex or poor learned, the opposite effect can occur: the presence of people is likely to _____ the performance

Which of the following is the BEST definition of stress? A) the demands that are made on you by other people B) deadlines, daily hassles, or inconveniences C) a negative emotional state caused by your perception that you are unable to cope with events or circumstances D) the mental processes that people use to make sense out of their environment

Attitudes:

can have cognitive, behavioral, and emotional components.

According to the _____ of panic disorder, people with panic disorder are not only oversensitive to physical sensations, they also tend to misinterpret and exaggerate the meaning of their experience, and may be victims of their own illogical thinking.

catastrophic cognitions theory

Peter is a clinical psychologist. When determining whether a client's behavior shows psychopathology, he should use all of the following criteria EXCEPT whether the

client recognizes he or she has a disorder.

stereotype

cluster of characteristics that are associated w/ all members of a specific social group, often including qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define the group -simplify social info so that we can sort out, process, & remember info about other people more easily -once formed, they're hard to shake b/c they're not always completely falose

Dr. Woods is studying the degree to which primates seem to display logic and insight in figuring out a variety of puzzles and other simple problems. Dr. Woods is most likely a(n) _____ psychologist.

cognitive

Which model of stress emphasizes the role of an individual's evaluation of events and situations and of the resources that he or she has available to deal with the event or situation?

cognitive appraisal model

Before Jackie left for college, she told her friend Lisa that she thought sororities were filled with snobs and that she would never consider joining one. But during Jackie's first week on campus, she was approached by a sorority member who invited her to a social function and encouraged her to pledge. After Jackie attended the party, she told Lisa, "Sororities do a lot of good things for the community. They're really service organizations." Jackie's change in attitude to match her behavior reflects which of the following concepts?

cognitive dissonance

Collectivistic cultures differ from individualistic cultures in that

collectivists are more likely to attribute causes of another person's behavior to external, situational factors rather than to internal, personal factors.

Five-year-old Sam begins to cry when he discovers that his pet turtle has died. His father scolds Sam for crying and says, "Big boys don't cry." According to Carl Rogers, because Sam's father is using ____, Sam is likely to ____ his feelings of sadness in the future.

conditional positive regard; deny

Muzafer Sherif helped clarify the conditions that produce intergroup _____ and _____.

conflict; harmony

The tendency to adjust one's behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to group norms in response to group pressure is called

conformity

When Justine made an oral presentation in class, Meagan joined her classmates in applauding at the end, even though she did not think the presentation was very clear or well organized. Meagan's behavior in this example illustrates:

conformity

the tendency to adjust one's behavior, attitudes, or beliefs to group norms in response to real or imagined group pressure.

conformity

Lacey has reviewed the literature on conformity and obedience for a term paper. If her conclusions are similar to those presented in the textbook, she is likely to suggest that:

conformity and obedience are not necessarily bad in and of themselves and are important for an orderly society.

collectivistic

conformity is generally higher in ____ cultures b/c they don't seem to carry the same negative connotation

If a cross-cultural researcher investigates conformity in both collectivistic cultures and individualistic cultures, she is generally likely to find

conformity tends to be higher in collectivistic cultures compared to individualistic cultures

Adjusting your opinions, judgments, or behavior so that they match the opinions, judgments or behavior of other people, or the norms of a social group or situation is called

conformity.

explicit cognition

deliberate, conscious mental processes involved in perceptions, judgements, decisions, & reasoning

Professor Nelson wishes to investigate the relationship between stress and visits to the college mental health clinic. Which of the following research methods would be most appropriate?

correlational study

jigsaw classroom technique

created by Elliot Aronson -this approach brought together students in small, ethnically diverse groups to work on a mutual project -each student had a unique contribution to make toward the success of the group -each student became an expert on one aspect of the overall project & had to teach it to the other members -interdependence & cooperation replaced competition!

exceptions

creating ____ allows people to maintain stereotypes in the face of contradictory evidence -they create mental subgroup for indiv. who belong to larger group but depart from stereotype in some way

persuasion

deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes or behavior of another person in a situation in which that person has some freedom of choice

Kathleen overslept, got caught in rush hour traffic, and was late for work. During lunch she spilled coffee on her clothes. When she left work that afternoon she got caught in a sudden downpour of rain. By the time she arrived home she felt drained, grumpy, and stressed out. Kathleen's present state is the result of the cumulative effect of:

daily hassles.

After her husband died last year, Sophia moved to a new city, started a new job, and returned to school part time after an absence of ten years. These major life events may create a ripple effect and generate a host of _____ that could significantly ____ Sophia's stress level.

daily hassles; increase

People who have anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa have _____ brain activity of the neurotransmitter _____.

decreased; serotonin

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is:

deliberately manipulated by the researcher.

Although it is obvious to most of Bernie's friends and family that he drinks too much, his wife Betsy refuses to admit that he has a drinking problem. She insists that he is a moderate drinker who has the occasional glass of red wine for medicinal purposes. In this situation it is possible that Betsy is using an emotion-focused coping strategy called:

denial.

Professor Patel is conducting observational research on children in kindergarten. Her data will make it possible for her to:

describe the children.

prosocial behavior

describes any behavior that helps another person, including altruistic acts—whatever the motive

A middle-aged woman is sitting on a bench in the busy shopping mall, holding her head in her hands, visibly upset and crying. Nobody stops to see if she needs assistance. One explanation for why nobody helps in this situation is:

diffusion of responsibility

refers to the phenomenon in which the presence of other people makes it less likely that any individual will help someone in distress because the obligation to intervene is shared among all the onlookers.

diffusion of responsibility

Your textbook suggests that the sheer number of bystanders who observed the death of Kitty Genovese may have been a factor in these people's decision not to give her assistance because of:

diffusion of responsibility.

Franz, who dislikes speaking in public because it makes him very nervous, was not well prepared for his presentation. In this situation, the presence of other people will:

diminish Franz's performance.

A waitress refused to serve an interracial couple. This example best illustrates:

discrimination

There is a cognitive basis to prejudice and often an emotional component as well. When prejudice is displayed behaviorally it is called:

discrimination.

Claire stopped taking her medication a few weeks ago and has recently begun to experience some very odd symptoms. If someone asks her a question, her response makes no sense, as her sentences seem to just be strings of loosely connected ideas. She cannot concentrate on anything, and her thinking seems completely illogical and disorganized. She veers from one unrelated topic or activity to another for no apparent reason. Taken together, Claire's schizophrenic symptoms are called:

disorganized thinking.

Jack was found sleeping on a park bench. When awakened by a police officer, he could not remember who he was or where he lived. Later, investigators discovered that Jack's wife had left him the night before after a violent fight in which he tried to attack her. Jack insists that he has no memories of the dispute with his wife or even of having been married. Jack is probably suffering from:

dissociative amnesia.

When you feel cold, you engage in behavior to reduce this unpleasant feeling such as putting on your coat. This desire to reduce internal tension is a crucial aspect of _____ theories of motivation.

drive

After working all afternoon cleaning up the attic, Mr. Dixon is very thirsty and drinks a big glass of orange juice. His motivation to drink in order to reduce his feeling of thirst can best be explained by:

drive theories.

social influence

effects of situational factors & other people on an individual's behavior -focuses on how our behavior is affected by other people & by situational factors

When Nathan was having personal and academic problems while attending college, he talked to his family and friends, asking for advice and help. It would appear that Nathan is using a(n) ____coping strategy called_____.

emotion-focused; seeking social support

During a discussion about junk food with her two adolescent children, Mrs. Kozena made it very clear that she thought junk food was disgusting and that it upset her to see her children eat it. Mrs. Kozena's negative feeling about junk food best illustrates the _____ component of attitudes.

emotional

Matthew is extremely intelligent and is a gifted statistician, yet he has few friends and rarely holds a job for more than six months because he constantly alienates his co-workers and supervisors. Matthew probably lacks:

emotional intelligence.

Madeline is a talented actress. Consequently, she was very well prepared when she played the leading role in the school's production of The Sound of Music. The presence of other people will:

enhance Madeline's performance.

When Harry got a failing grade in one of his courses, he decided to talk to his professor about the personal problems he had during the term and discuss the possibility of doing a makeup final exam or writing an extra paper. Harry appears to be reacting to a stressful situation by trying to exercise some personal control. If Harry's approach is realistic and successful, it is likely to:

enhance his feelings of self-confidence, self-efficacy, and autonomy.

Daniel was adopted at birth. In a behavioral genetics study, similarities between Daniel and his adoptive parents are considered to be due to _____, and similarities between Daniel and his biological parents are considered to be due to _____.

environmental influences; genetic influences

The hormone _____, more commonly known as adrenaline, activates the sympathetic nervous system.

epinephrine

Statistically, women are _____ as men to be diagnosed with bipolar disorder.

equally likely

During Nick's first trip abroad he was surprised to find that people in other cultures ate such foods as snails, squid, insects, lizards, earthworms, seaweed, and rotten-looking cheeses. "One day they will become civilized like us and eat normal foods like Krispy Kreme donuts, pizza, hot dogs, and hamburgers and cheese fries," he wrote to his parents. Nick's remarks illustrate a form of in-group bias called:

ethnocentrism.

implicit attitudes

evaluations that are automatic, unintentional, and difficult to control

The perspective in psychology that is based on the premise that certain psychological processes and behavioral patterns evolved over hundreds of thousands of years because of their adaptive and survival value is called:

evolutionary psychology.

Carl has been under stress for a long time. The stress first started when Carl's grandfather had a heart attack. Carl took charge of his grandfather's round-the-clock care. Carl acclimated to his new routine, and was able to manage. However, lately, Carl doesn't know how much longer he can go on. Carl is starting to get sick a lot, and Carl's own doctor has told him that he is showing signs of stress-related illnesses. Carl's development of stress-related illness corresponds to which stage of the general adaptation syndrome?

exhaustion

Dylan is working with six other employees to produce a joint report. If he is typical of most people in individualistic cultures who are involved in a collective task, he is likely to:

expend less effort than if he were working on the task alone.

Elizabeth is leaving the United States to live and work in Japan and is very excited about the change. When Elizabeth arrives and starts work in Japan, she is likely to:

experience increased levels of stress due to the acculturation process.

Researchers randomly assigned depressed people to receive one of 3 types of pills: placebo (sugar pill with no active ingredient), a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), or a new drug Venlafaxine. Both the SSRI and Venlafaxine contained an active ingredient thought to treat depression. After 8 weeks, the researchers recorded the percentage of each group who were no longer depressed (i.e. were in remission). The differences among the groups were all statistically signficant (p < .05).

experiment

Researchers randomly assigned students with test anxiety to one of 3 conditions: placebo (sugar pill with no active ingredient), an SSRI (a drug used to treat depression and anxiety), or cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT, a type of psychotherapy used to treat depression and anxiety). All of the students were enrolled in the same math class, had similar math placement scores at the beginning of the study, and similar levels of anxiety about the math class. Researchers recorded grades at the end of the math class. The placebo group's scores were statistically significantly different from the SSRI and CBT group's scores (p < .05). The difference between the SSRI and CBT group was not statistically different (p > .05). What type of study is this?

experiment

Researchers at State University wanted to test the hypothesis that distributed, or spaced, practice results in better retention of material than massed practice or cramming. To find out if there is a cause-and-effect relationship, the researcher should use:

experimental research

Chantée has a very specific goal to marry a man with inherited wealth. As a consequence, whenever she meets new prospective mates, she consciously judges them based on the presence or absence of what she considers to be external indicators of wealth, including expensive clothing and accessories and straight, sparklingly white teeth. In this example, Chantée is using _____ to categorize her prospective mates.

explicit cognition

Sanda makes a conscious, deliberate decision about each of her new clients based on her perception of their overall appearance, how well they are dressed, how old they are, what gender they are, and so on. In this case, Sanda is using _____ in categorizing her new clients.

explicit cognition

Sandra makes a conscious, deliberate decision about each of her new clients based on her perception of their overall appearance, how well they are dressed, how old they are, what gender they are, and so on. In this case, Sandra is using _____ in categorizing her new clients

explicit cognition

In relation to factors that influence perceptions, deliberate, conscious mental processes are to _____ as automatic, non-conscious mental processes are to _____.

explicit cognition; implicit cognition

Your friend fails a test and complains that the teacher didn't teach them the material that was on the test. Does your friend have an internal or an external locus of control?

external

external validity

Rianne has to choose between returning to graduate school to pursue her love of philosophy and going to work for a bank in town. Although she does not enjoy banking, she knows she will receive a good salary and benefits there. If Rianne decides to take the position at the bank, she is exhibiting:

extrinsic motivation.

feel good, do good effect

attraction

feeling drawn to other people—having positive thoughts and feelings about them

affective component of attitude

feeling or emotions about the topic

emotional/affective component

feelings about emotions about the attitude object

low-ball technique

first the persuader gets you to make a commitment by deliberately understanding the cost of the product you want -in reality, he has no intention of honoring the artificially low price

foot-in-the-door technique

first the persuader makes a small request that you're likely to agree to. -next, he asks you to comply w/ a second, larger request -b/c of your earlier commitment, you feel psychological pressured to behave consistently by now agreeing to the larger commitment

that's-not-all technique

first the persuader makes an offer but before you can accept or reject it, the persuader appears to throw in something extra to make the deal even more attractive to you

Shana wants to establish an exercise routine, but she really does not like to work out. If she decides to use intrinsic motivation to start exercising, which of the following is Shana most likely to do?

focus on how much pleasure she feels when she is exercising

social influence

focuses on how our behavior is affected by other people and by situational factors.

In looking at gender differences in emotion, psychologist Agneta Fischer and her colleagues analyzed cross-cultural data from 37 countries around the world. The researchers found that across cultures:

for both men and women, the expression of emotions is strongly influenced by culturally determined display rules.

Rhonda sees a baker drop his entire tray of rolls and instantly assumes the man in a clutz instead of realizing that the tray was extremely hot. Rhonda's quick perception of the baker is called:

fundamental attribution error

altruism

fundamentally selfless—the individual is motivated purely by the desire to help someone in need. No expectation of personal benefit.

Tracy is very fit and energetic. She goes to aerobic classes four times a week, and she is considered by many to be very feminine, especially by her same-sex partner. Tracy's sense of femininity is her _____, and her attraction to a member of the same sex is her _____.

gender identity; sexual orientation

Pat describes Terry as "very masculine" because Terry is confident, active, and physically strong. Pat is referring to Terry's:

gender role

Darlene is constantly nervous, tense, and apprehensive. She worries about her health, her job, her children, and her relatives. Her husband has tried to reassure her that everything is going well, but she can't seem to shake her pervasive anxiety. Darlene is probably experiencing:

generalized anxiety disorder.

Anita is suffering from major depressive disorder. Compared with people who are not depressed, Anita is more likely to:

have a diminished ability to think, concentrate, and remember.

Which of the following factors has been linked to the development of schizophrenia?

having a father who was 50 years old or older when the person was conceived

altruism

helping another person w/ no expectation of personal reward or benefit -fundamentally selfless

The new Aristographic Creativity Scale had test and retest scores that were highly similar, but it lacked predictive value. In addition, there was some uncertainty about precisely what ability the test was actually measuring. The Aristographic Creativity Scale has:

high reliability but low validity

People who score high on neuroticism show _____ brain activation in response to negative images than people who score low on neuroticism.

higher levels of

Philip Zimbardo

his experiments underscore the power of cognitive dissonance

According to reciprocal determinism:

human behavior and personality are caused by the interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and environmental factors.

Dr. Ashley emphasizes the importance of psychological and cognitive components in human motivation and believes that we are innately driven to strive for a positive self-concept and the realization of our personal potential. Dr. Ashley's views are most consistent with _____ theories of motivation.

humanistic

Dr. Barongon is a psychotherapist who emphasizes the importance of choices and self-direction to his clients so that they can strive to reach their fullest potential. Dr. Barongon subscribes to the _____ perspective of psychology.

humanistic

Assume that "friendliness" is a genetically influenced trait. Which of the following groups would you expect to be MOST similar on the trait of friendliness?

identical twins

The automatic non-conscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning are called

implicit cognition.

The automatic, nonconscious mental processes that influence perceptions, judgments, decisions, and reasoning are called:

implicit cognition.

A(n) _____ is defined as a network of assumptions or beliefs about the relationships among various types of people, traits, and behaviors

implicit personality theory

The tendency to judge the behavior of the members of your group more favorably than the behavior of members of other groups is called: in group bias

in group bias

The social group to which a person belongs is called the ____and the social group to which a person does not belong is called the_____

in group, out group

Cross-cultural researchers have found that different cultures classify emotions:

in very similar ways.

People have a strong tendency to perceive others in terms of two basic social categories, which social psychologists call the _____ and the _____.

in-group & out-group

The tendency to judge the behavior of the members of your group more favorably than the behavior of members of other groups is called:

in-group bias

The tendency to judge the behavior of the members of your group more favorably than the behavior of members of other groups is called:

in-group bias.

Nestor belongs to the cross-country ski club at his college but is not a member of the downhill ski club. In terms of basic social categories, Nestor's cross-country club members are the _____ and the members of the downhill ski club are the _____.

in-group; out-group

sense of self

individual's unique sense of identity that has been influenced by social, cultural, & psychological experiences; your sense of who you are in relation to other people -plays key role in how you perceive & react to others

social striving

individuals work harder when they're in groups than when alone -collectivistic cultures -group success tends to be more highly valued than individual success -contributions made by indiv. to group success are more highly valued -social norms in collectivistic cultures encourage sense of social responsibility & hard work w/in groups

The field of behavioral genetics studies the:

influence of genes and heredity on behavior.

When we want to be correct but are uncertain or doubt our own judgment, we may look to the group as a source of accurate information. This is referred to as

informational social influence

Juanita decided to participate in a psychology research project that involved solving a number of arithmetic problems. Before the experiment started, a research assistant explained the purpose of the experiment, listed the risks and benefits and assured her that she was free to withdraw from the study at any time. This stage of the research represents:

informed consent

Which of the following physiological changes is part of the fight-or-flight response?

inhibition of digestion

According to self-determination theory, the person who has satisfied her competence, autonomy, and relatedness needs will:

internalize external motivators as part of her identity and values

Olivia is taking advanced placement biology in high school because she loves science and is fascinated by biology. Jacob is taking advanced placement biology in high school because his guidance counselor told him he had to if he intended to apply to a pre-med program at a competitive university. Olivia is motivated by _____, while Jacob is motivated by _____.

intrinsic motivation; extrinsic motivation

The Stanford Prison Experiment:

involved Stanford University students playing the roles of prisoners and guards in a simulated prison.

self-effacing bias/modesty bias

involves blaming failure on internal, personal acts, while attributing success to external, situational factors -common in collectivistic cultures

Relying on social categories

is a natural, adaptive, and efficient cognitive process that provides us with considerable basic information about people

Nobuaki is a young Japanese man living in Tokyo. Nobuaki suffers from a syndrome called taijin kyofusho. This means that Nobuaki:

is extremely anxious that he will somehow offend, insult, or embarrass other people.

In contrast to normal anxiety, pathological anxiety:

is irrational, uncontrollable, and disruptive.

Cross-cultural studies have shown that a sense of control:

is more highly valued in individualistic, Western cultures than in collectivistic, Eastern cultures.

attitude

learned tendency to evaluate objects, people, or issues in a particular way 3 components: -cognitive -behavioral -affective

attitude

learned tendency to evaluate some object, person, issue in particular way -such evaluations may be positive, negative, or ambivalent (mixed feelings)

People with a damaged amygdala:

lose the ability to distinguish between friendly and threatening faces.

People in the _____ socioeconomic levels of society tend to have the _____ levels of psychological distress, illness, and death.

lowest; highest

Over the last three months, Ivana's feelings of despondency have intensified for no apparent reason. Although her friends have tried to be encouraging and supportive, Ivana says that she feels completely detached from people, worthless, and has even thought about killing herself. Ivana's symptoms would suggest that she is probably suffering from:

major depressive disorder.

Anila struggles to keep her anger under control at work meetings, something her boss has spoken to her about multiple times. After an outburst today, she was almost fired. Anila needs to work on her ______________ branch of emotional intelligence.

management

Someday, Susan would like to participate in a marathon. In training for the realization of this long-term goal, Susan has successfully completed a number of smaller events, including a half-marathon. Susan is steadily increasing her self-efficacy though:

mastery experiences.

math class grade

Evolutionary view of love relationships

men - youth & beauty; women - $

cognitive schemas

mental frameworks you hold about traits & behaviors associated w/ diff. types of people

social categorization

mental process of categorizing people into groups on the basis of their shared characteristics -consciously focus on easily observable features, such as gender, age, clothing

attribution

mental process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own -also refers to explanation made for a particular behavior -these that you make strongly influence your thoughts & feelings about other people

person perception

mental processes we use to form judgments & draw conclusions about the characteristics & motives of other people -active, subjective process that always occurs in some interpersonal context -NOT one way process in which we objectively survey other people & then logically evaluate their characteristics

Figure 2.1 illustrates a _____ correlation between Variables A and B.

moderate negative

Harrison is a handsome young man. Other people are most likely to perceive him as being

more intelligent, happier, and better adjusted than other people.

Harrison is a handsome young man. Other people are most likely to perceive him as being:

more intelligent, happier, and better adjusted than other people.

Similarity is a powerful predictor of attraction in:

most Western cultures.

implicit association test (IAT)

most widely used test to measure implicit attitudes & preferences developed by Greenwald -computer based test that measures degree to which you associate particular groups of people w/ specific characteristics or attributes -based on assumption that people can sort images & words more easily when concepts seem to "match" or go together -results suggest = implicit preferences are quite pervasive

Hugh is sad that his best friend is studying abroad for the entire academic year. His brother tries to get him to go to some social events, but Hugh does not want to do anything. Hugh's behavior is not energized, directed, or sustained, and he is lacking

motivation

After many media reports of aggressive behavior by parents and other adult spectators in the stands at Canadian youth hockey games, psychologists systematically recorded the comments of adult spectators at youth hockey games in a large Canadian city. They found that almost two-thirds of the comments were directed at the players rather than the referees, and that most comments were positive and encouraging rather than negative or critical. The psychologists used a descriptive research method called:

naturalistic observation.

negative

prejudice

negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific social group

prejudice

negative attitude toward people who belong to a specific social group -based on exaggerated notion that members of other social groups are very diff. from members of our own social group

A study on parental use of corporal punishment found a relationship between parental socioeconomic status and use of corporal punishment. Put simply, as socioeconomic status declines, rates of parents' use of corporal punishment rise. This finding represents a:

negative correlation.

implicit personality theory

network of assumptions or beliefs about the relationships among various types of people, traits, & behaviors -"what is beautiful is good" myth -people tend to attribute wide range of positive qualities to attractive individuals

According the five-factor model of personality, the "Big Five" traits are:

neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness.

The textbook defines _____ as behavior that is motivated by the desire to gain social acceptance and approval.

normative social influence

Nadine is a casual dresser who loves wearing jeans and hates worrying about clothes. However, when she went for a job interview she decided to wear a good tailored suit. Nadine's behavior best illustrates the importance of:

normative social influence.

Physical attractiveness is:

not correlated with intelligence, mental health, or self-esteem.

The performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status is a definition of:

obedience

Stanley Milgram

obedience study Two-thirds of Milgram's subjects—26 of the 40—were fully compliant and went to the full 450-volt level

The performance of an action in response to the direct orders of an authority or person of higher status is called:

obedience.

In a disorder called _____, the person suffers from repetitive, intrusive, and unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviors that the individual feels driven to perform.

obsessive-compulsive disorder

Before leaving her home, Margaret makes sure that every electrical appliance is unplugged and checks that every window and door is securely locked. She checks everything seventeen times according to a strict ritual that she has worked out. If she misses one window, door, or appliance, she must begin all over again. If she tries to skip any step of the ritual, she experiences unbearable anxiety. Margaret is probably suffering from:

obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Lulu has a hard time sitting still and concentrating when doing her homework. Lulu's father says to her "If you can sit still and focus for 10 minutes and get these three math problems right then we can play soccer together for a while." Lulu's father is trying to motivate a change in her behavior by

offering Lulu extrinsic motivation to finish the math homework.

rule of commitment

once you make a public commitment, there's psychological & personal pressure on you to behave consistently w/ your earlier commitment -foot in the door technique -low ball technique

Jacob is imaginative, creative, and seeks out new experiences. Sean is hardworking, ambitious, neat, and prides himself on never giving up until a task is finished. In terms of the five-factor model, Jacob would probably score high on the dimension of _____, while Sean would probably score high on the dimension of _____.

openness to experience; conscientiousness

After Melinda was laid off from her job, and she realized that it was not her fault, it didn't mean that the rest of her life was awful, and it was just a short-term set-back. Melinda has a(n) _________________.

optimistic explanatory style

optimistic explanatory style.

The Focus on Neuroscience box, "Brain Reward When Making Eye Contact with Attractive People," described an fMRI study. The results showed that when we make direct eye contact with a physically attractive person, a specific area on each side of the brain area is activated. When the attractive person's eye gaze is shifted away from the viewer, activity in these areas decrease. Other researchers have expanded on these findings and identified two brain areas that are selectively responsive to the reward value of attractive faces, the _____ and the _____.

orbital frontal cortex; amygdala

During lunch a group of computer science majors were talking. One student said he had once considered becoming an accountant but decided against it because "accountants are all alike: boring number crunchers without an ounce of creativity." This statement best reflects the

out group homogeneity effect

situational

overall, Milgram demonstrated that the rate of obedience rose or fell depending upon the ____ variables the subjects experienced

hindsight bias

overestimating the extent to which we could have foreseen or predicted the outcome of an event after it has ocurred

For the third time in two months, Erica's husband rushed her to the hospital emergency room because Erica thought she was having a heart attack. Her symptoms included a racing, pounding heart, weakness, feeling faint, and feeling as if she were unable to breathe. Although her doctor says she is physically healthy, Erica lives in fear of another attack. Erica is most likely suffering from which psychological disorder?

panic disorder

in-group

people are often prejudiced against groups that are perceived as threatening important _____ norms & values

One potential problem with surveys and questionnaires is that:

people do not always answer honestly.

John has difficulty getting along with his partner be cause he can't ever read her body language to tell when she is upset. John most likely lacks the ______________ branch of emotional intelligence.

perception

obedience

performance of behavior in response to direct command

Chronic, low-grade depressed feelings are to _____ disorder as moderate, recurring mood swings are to _____ disorder.

persistent depressive disorder; cyclothymic

A term that refers to the mental processes we use to form judgments and draw conclusions about the characteristics and motives of others is _____.

person perception

The bus is fairly crowded when you get on. You quickly decide to sit next to a well-dressed senior citizen because you think that he'll probably leave you alone. This example illustrates the process of:

person perception

According to the Critical Thinking box, "Do Personality Factors Cause Disease?" scientific research has shown that:

personality factors, such as hostility and pessimism, are correlated with an increased likelihood of developing poor health, but the research does not claim that there is a direct causal relationship between these variables.

The fact that most parents in the United States do not dress their newborn boys in pink clothes illustrates the:

persuasiveness and force of cultural and societal expectations regarding gender roles.

Thomas attributes the cause of his failure experience as being due to himself, that he will fail in other areas of his life, and that this will be a life-long occurrence for him, of more failures. Thomas has a(n) _______________ .

pessimistic explanatory style

bystander effect

phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present, the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress

diffusion of responsibility

phenomenon in which the presence of other people makes it less likely that any individual will help someone in distress b/c the obligation to intervene is shared among all the onlookers

The most significant factor in attraction is:

physical appearance.

Solomon Asch

posed question: "would people still conform to the group if the group opinion was clearly wrong?" -in his studies, subjects were asked to pick the comparison line that matched the standard line -majority of his subjects (76%) conformed w/ the group judgment on at least 1 of the critical trials

positive

As you're stretched out on the couch watching a late-night rerun of your favorite TV show, commercial after commercial comes on showing mouthwatering images of burgers, tacos, pizza, ice cream, and so on. These commercials are designed to heighten your anticipation of the pleasures of eating these foods, which is termed:

positive incentive value.

Jayne was in a fast-food restaurant when a man walked in, drew a gun, and started shooting, killing two people before killing himself. Although Jayne was not injured in the shooting spree, she has since been unable to return to work. She can't seem to stop thinking about the event. She has recurrent nightmares, is unable to sleep, and does not want to leave her home. It is most likely that Jayne is suffering from:

posttraumatic stress disorder.

The Focus on Neuroscience box, "Brain Reward When Making Eye Contact with Attractive People," described an fMRI study. The results showed that when we make direct eye contact with a physically attractive person, a brain area called the ventral striatum is activated. When the attractive person's eye gaze is shifted away from the viewer, activity in the ventral striatum decreases. The ventral striatum is the brain area that

predicts reward

behavioral component

predisposition to act in a particular way

implicit attitudes

preferences & biases toward particular groups that are automatic, spontaneous, unintentional, & often unconscious; measured w/ implicit associations test (IAT)

Remington, a successful lawyer, is hiring a new administrative assistant for his office. As he sorts through the applications for the position, he makes the comment, "I hope none of these applicants are blondes. I just hate blondes. They're all dumb, and they're ruining this country, in my opinion." In this example, Remington is exhibiting:

prejudice.

Philip Zimbardo

prison study 24 male college students were randomly assigned to be either prisoners or prison guards.

When sales were down for the third month in a row, the sales manager called a meeting of all sales staff in order to analyze the situation and attempt to come up with some solutions. This example illustrates:

problem-focused coping.

In order to earn his "Community Service" badge as a Boy Scout, young Miguel is a weekend volunteer in the "Up With Trees" program. Miguel's behavior in this situation is an example of:

prosocial behavior.

Muzafer Sherif

psychologist who helped clarify the conditions that produce intergroup conflict & harmony -studied group of 11 year old boys in unlikely setting for experiment = summer camp in Robbers Cave State Park in OK

deindividuation

reduction of self-awareness & inhibitions that can occur when a person is a part of a group whose members feel anonymous -can lead to irresponsible or antisocial behaviors

social cognition

refers to how we form impressions of other people, how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior, and how our behavior is affected by our attitudes

If this study was repeated several times and each replication produced the same results, that would indicate this study has high

reliability

When a test has the ability to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions, it is said to be:

reliable.

Carl has been under stress for a long time. The stress first started when Carl's grandfather had a heart attack. Carl took charge of his grandfather's round-the-clock care. At first, Carl was really stressed, but after a while he acclimated to his new routine and felt like he was just barely able to cope with the new level of stress in his life. Carl's acclimation corresponds to which stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

resistance

Psychologist Cheryl Kaiser and her colleagues looked at how people with a strong belief in a just world psychologically resolved the fact that thousands of innocent people died in the terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001. Kaiser found that people with a strong belief in a just world advocated _____ those who committed the injustices because doing so would _____.

revenge against; ensure that they got what they deserved and restore justice

Daniella invited Nicole to her house for a party, which turned out to be a sales pitch for the cosmetic line that Daniella had recently started selling. Nicole didn't need any cosmetics, but since she was already at Daniella's house and enjoying the complimentary food and drink, she felt obligated to purchase some lipstick. Daniella is using the:

rule of reciprocity.

Self-determination theory suggests that people have the following basic needs EXCEPT:

safety

Professor Rossi wants to represent the data she collected on age and income as single points on a chart. She can accomplish this using a

scatterplot

The mental frameworks we hold about traits and behaviors associated with different types of people are called

schemas

The best way to describe science is

science is a way of investigation

Every Halloween, Mrs. Herlihy puts a bowl of candy on her porch with a sign that says, "Take one." But this year, the bowl was empty after just a few minutes, leading Mrs. Herlihy to believe that one group of children took more than their fair share. In order to discourage such dishonest actions, Mrs. Herlihy positioned a mirror above the candy bowl. Mrs. Herlihy's plan should work because:

seeing your own face in a mirror heightens self-awareness, counteracting deindividuation that can lead to irresponsible behavior.

An important social psychology concept is your sense of _____, which is an individual's unique sense of identity that has been influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences.

self

During a lecture on human biology, Professor Sadir described the differences in genetic composition and reproductive anatomy that determine whether a person is classified as male or female. Dr. Sadir was referring to:

sex.

When Henry met Sarah he fell madly in love with her. Henry's emotional and romantic attraction to Sarah illustrates:

sexual orientation.

During Stanley Milgram's original obedience study, most of the subjects:

showed extreme tension and conflict as they continued to shock the learner.

Barbara is an accountant who works a lot of overtime toward the end of the tax year to finish her clients' tax returns by the deadline. However, despite the long hours of being under pressure to get the tax returns done on time, Barbara continues to be relaxed and calm. Barbara is:

showing a Type B behavior pattern.

rule of reciprocity

simple but powerful social norm; if someone gives you something or does you a favor, you feel obligated to return the favor -door in the face technique -that's not all technique

stereotype threat

simply being aware that your social group is associated w/ a particular stereotype can negatively impact your performance on tests or tasks that measure abilities that are thought to be associated w/ that stereotype

How long did the Stanford Prison Experiment last before the situation became "out of control"?

six days

The "rules," or expectations, for appropriate behavior in a particular social situation are called

socail norms

Marcy has a persistent fear that she is going to publicly embarrass or humiliate herself with some unintended behavioral mistake. She is overly critical of her own behavior, fears criticism by others, and experiences over-arousal in interactions with others. She is best diagnosed as having ______.

social anxiety disorder

The chapter Prologue describes how Fern labeled the man sitting on the steps with a cup in his hand as "homeless" on the basis of very limited information, which led her to make an embarrassing mistake. This is one disadvantage of using

social categories

When Raphael was in the elevator, he noticed a man and a woman in conversation. He decided that the woman in the suit was an administrator and the gray-haired man in the glasses was a professor. Raphael was engaged in the process of:

social categorization

When Raphael was in the elevator, he couldn't help but notice a man and a woman in conversation. He decided that the woman in the suit was probably a college administrator and the gray-haired man in the glasses was probably a professor. Raphael was engaged in the process of:

social categorization.

The study of the mental processes people use to make sense of their social environment is called

social cognition

how we form impressions of other people, how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior, and how our behavior is affected by our attitudes is

social cognition

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that focuses on a broad range of topics. According to your textbook, the two key research areas in social psychology are:

social cognition and social influence.

As a student majoring in psychology, Hannah is interested in how we form impressions of other people, how we interpret the meaning of other people's behavior, and how our behavior is affected by our attitudes. Hannah's interest most closely resembles an area of social psychology called:

social cognition.

The _____ perspective on personality emphasizes conscious thought processes, self-regulation, and the importance of situational influences.

social cognitive

The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance is called:

social facilitation

Last Friday, Melissa attended a karaoke party with Laura, her best friend from high school. Under normal circumstances, Melissa usually refuses to sing in public. However, because her best friend Laura agreed to a duet, Melissa reluctantly performed. Ultimately, Melissa and Laura won the karaoke contest with the performance of the same song and dance routine they used to do every weekend when they were in high school. Melissa's performance is an example of:

social facilitation.

The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance is called:

social facilitation.

The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance is called:The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance is called:

social facilitation.

in-group

social group to which one belongs -"us" -typically see them as being quite varied, despite having enough features in common to belong to same group

out-group

social group to which one does NOT belong -"them" -see these members as much more similar to one another, even in areas that have little to do w/ criteria for group membership

According to your textbook, _____ is an area of social psychology that studies the effect of situational factors and other people on an individual's behavior

social influence

According to your textbook, _____ is an area of social psychology that studies the effect of situational factors and other people on an individual's behavior.

social influence

According to your textbook, _____ is the study of the effect of situational factors and other people on an individual's behavior.

social influence

as why we conform to group norms, what compels us to obey authority figures, and the conditions under which people will help a stranger

social influence

the effect that situational factors and other people have on our behavior.

social influence

Dr. Segal, a developmental psychologist, contends that gender roles develop because young children observe others modeling particular gender-appropriate behaviors. She also thinks that the children are rewarded when they behave accordingly and punished when they don't. Dr. Segal's views are most consistent with the _____ theory of gender-role development.

social learning

The tendency in individualistic cultures to expend less effort on a task when it is a group effort is called:

social loafing

Whether it's cheering, clapping, or rope pulling, people tend to expend less effort on collective tasks than they do when performing the same task alone, a phenomenon called:

social loafing

the tendency to expand less effort on a task when it is a group effort. More people involved the less an individual puts into.

social loafing

Randy is a gifted student. Though he could just as easily perform his experiments alone, Randy prefers to complete his chemistry projects with a lab partner. Randy feels more motivated and actually works harder when he is contributing to a collaborative effort. Randy's behavior is an example of:

social loafing.

Stephen is a gifted student. However, in chemistry lab, Stephen always tries to pick the most conscientious student in the class to be his lab partner. This way, Stephen can just relax and let his partner do all the work on their projects. Stephen's behavior is an example of

social loafing.

Pamela observes that people don't sit next to strangers on the subway when there are empty seats available. She notices this also happens on the bus, in the movie theater, and in the cafeteria. Pamela's observations suggest that people's behavior in these situations is governed by:

social norms

The "rules," or expectations, for appropriate behavior in a particular social situation are called

social norms

social norms.

The branch of psychology that studies how people think, feel, and behave in social situations is called:

social psychology.

In some cultures, individuals tend to work harder when they are in groups than when they are alone, a phenomenon called:

social striving

In many collectivistic cultures individuals work harder when they are in groups than when they are alone. This phenomenon is called:

social striving.

Alan always has been terrified of spiders. He refuses to enter his bedroom at night until it has been thoroughly checked for spiders. Even a picture of a spider makes him extremely uncomfortable. Most likely, Alan is suffering from a psychological disorder called:

specific phobia.

Results can be considered ______ when the probability of obtaining them by chance alone is less than .05.

statistically significant

When a researcher can sufficiently conclude that the differences between a control group and an experimental group are NOT due to chance, the researcher has likely found results that are:

statistically significant.

Mrs. Lovejoy thinks that all teenagers are reckless, promiscuous, irresponsible delinquents. Mrs. Lovejoy appears to be associating qualities that are unrelated to the objective criteria that define this particular age group. This example illustrates:

stereotype

This cluster of characteristics associated with members of a specific social group, often unrelated to the objective criteria for group membership

stereotype

Half the female participants were told that males typically did better than females on the math test they were about to take, and the other half were told that the test did not produce gender differences. The first group scored lower on the test than did the second group. These results are explained by a phenomenon called:

stereotype threat

Sixty-five-year-old Bernice is taking courses at the university with the intention of completing a bachelor's degree. Some members of her family think she is not likely to succeed because she is much too old to learn new information. These family members are demonstrating:

stereotyped thinking.

When Chris missed his connecting flight due to bad weather, he became extremely upset and worried about the important meeting he was going to miss. In this scenario, the missed connection is an example of a _____, and his response to the missed connection is an example of _____.

stressor; stress

Psychology is formally defined as the scientific:

study of behavior and mental processes.

One aspect of major depressive disorder is that thinking becomes globally pessimistic and negative about the self. This pervasive negativity and pessimism is often manifested in:

suicidal thoughts or preoccupations with death.

Trait theorists have analyzed and grouped large numbers of _____ traits in order to identify a smaller number of _____.

surface traits; source traits

social facilitation

tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance -only if the task is simple or well rehearsed

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute behavior of others to internal, personal characteristics, while ignoring or underestimating effects of external, situational factors -attributional bias that's common individualistic cultures

self serving bias

tendency to attribute successful outcomes of one's own behavior to internal causes & unsuccessful outcomes to external, situational causes -common in individualistic cultures -results from attempt to save face & protect self esteem in face of failure

blaming the victim

tendency to blame innocent victim to misfortune for having somehow caused problem or for not having taken steps to avoid or prevent it

Social loafing refers to the:

tendency to expend less effort on a task when it is a group effort.

social loafing

tendency to expend less effort on a task when it's a group effort -greater the number of people involved, the lower each individual's output -responsibility for attaining group goal is spread across all group members, resulting in reduced effort by each indiv. group member -common in individualistic cultures

in-group bias

tendency to judge behavior of in-group members favorably & out-group members unfavorably

hindsight bias

tendency to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted outcome of event -makes it seem as if the victim should have been able to predict & prevent what happened

out-group homogeneity effect

tendency to see members of out-groups as very similar to one another

out-group homogeneity effect

tendency to see members of the out-group as more similar to one another

self-serving bias

tendency to take credit for our successes by attributing them to internal, personal causes, and the tendency to distance ourselves from our failures by attributing them to external, situational factors. Individualistic cultures.

Which of the following is NOT a common attributional bias or explanatory pattern?

the bystander effect

Jeff, Andrea, and Nancy were busily working at their computers in the graduate student lounge when Jeff exclaimed, "I'm having chest pains." Neither Andrea, nor Nancy responded to this exclamation. Nor did they respond when Jeff said again, "No, really, I think I could be having a heart attack." The two women just kept on typing, each of them thinking, "I don't need to worry about Jeff, the other person in the room will help him, what I need to worry about is my manuscript deadline." In this example, the graduate students have fallen victim to:

the bystander effect.

The phenomenon in which the greater the number of people present means the less likely each individual is to help someone in distress is called:

the bystander effect.

While studying in the crowded library, Arlene hears a crashing noise and then someone moaning. The commotion appeared to come from behind closed doors marked "Staff Only." Nobody near Arlene seems concerned, so Arlene goes back to her studying. This example best illustrates:

the bystander effect.

Professional persuaders use a number of techniques to influence attitudes and behaviors. Which of the following is NOT one of those techniques?

the foot-in-the-mouth technique

the freedom of the teacher to choose the level of shock

the fundamental attribution error

the fundamental attribution error.

While eating at a restaurant, you see a waiter's serving tray tilt and an avalanche of food and beverages splatters on four people. "What a careless, clumsy idiot," you mumble to yourself as you resume eating. You have just committed an attributional bias called:

the fundamental attribution error.

The tendency, after an event has occurred, to overestimate one's ability to have foreseen or predicted the outcome is called:

the hindsight bias.

Mrs. Juarez divides her class into small, ethnically diverse groups. She then requires each student to become an "expert" in one aspect of an overall project and then teach it to other members of his or her group. Mrs. Juarez is using:

the jigsaw classroom technique

Assume that one hypothetical study showed that there is a relatively high negative correlation between exercise and physical fitness. This would indicate:

the less people exercise, the greater their physical fitness.

The tendency to see members of out-groups as very similar to each other is called

the out-group homogeneity effect

The tendency to see members of out-groups as very similar to each other is called:

the out-group homogeneity effect.

When Catherine decided to major in engineering her parents thought she should reconsider her decision because engineering majors are "logical, analytical, conservative, aggressive, and always male." Her parents' view that all engineering majors are similar illustrates:

the out-group homogeneity effect.

obedience

the performance of a behavior in response to a direct command

door-in-the-face technique

the persuader makes a large request that you're certain to refuse & then once you refuse, he makes a smaller request which was the persuader's real goal in the beginning

Social facilitation is a phenomenon where, when a task is relatively simple or well rehearsed,

the presence of other people enhances individual performance.

The bus is fairly crowded when you get on. You make a rapid evaluation and quickly decide to sit next to a well-dressed senior citizen because you think that it will be safer to sit next to him than some of the other people on the bus. This example illustrates

the process of person perception.

Researchers interested in how sleep deprivation affected performance randomly assigned participants to groups that had one, two, or three nights of sleep deprivation. Then they tested their reaction times on a standard motor reaction task. The dependent variable in this experiment was:

the reaction times of the three groups on the standard motor reaction task.

Professor Wallace studied over 3,000 elderly individuals for a decade and found a statistically significant relationship between survival rate and number of close friends. Specifically, he found that elderly individuals with few close friends had a much higher death rate. To say that the results of his study are "statistically significant" means that:

the results are unlikely to have occurred by chance.

Women and people with mental illness were not included in this study. This is a problem because

the results may not generalize to everyone with heart disease

Person perception is an active, interactive, and subjective process that always occurs in some interpersonal context. Which of the following is NOT one of the key components that influence that process?

the rule of reciprocity

Which of the following was NOT a factor that contributed to the abuse of prisoners at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq?

the rule of reciprocity

After collecting her data and performing a number of statistical analyses, Jana noticed that the standard deviation was very large. This indicates that:

the scores had a great deal of variability and were not clustered around the mean.

When Yoshiko's hard work and ability landed a big contract for her company, she would not accept the credit, insisting it was pure luck. When she failed to get the contract in another situation, however, she said it was her fault for not trying hard enough. This example illustrates:

the self-effacing, or modesty, bias.

In social psychology the concept of sense of self is important because

the sense of self is influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences, and it plays a key role in how we perceive and react to others.

In social psychology the concept of sense of self is important because:

the sense of self is influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences, and it plays a key role in how we perceive and react to others.

Kaitlin is a personality theorist who believes that a person's conscious thoughts in a particular situation are likely to influence his or her goals and behavior. Kaitlin is most likely to agree with which of the following perspectives on personality?

the social cognitive perspective

the stereotype threat.

The term social facilitation refers to:

the tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance.

For as long as she can remember, Farrah has avoided talking to any Yumtucks because she thinks that all Yumtucks are self-centered and irresponsible. However, when Farrah's 4-year-old wandered out of the yard and strayed a couple of blocks, it was a Yumtuck who found the child and brought him safely back home. Based on this direct experience with a Yumtuck, Farrah is likely to:

think that this particular Yumtuck is an exception to the stereotype.

common goal

to decrease hostility b/w Rattlers & Eagles at Robber's Cave, the researchers created situations that required joint efforts of both groups to achieve ____ _____ -these takes helped boys recognize their common interests & become friends

Dr. O'Higgins believes that the study of personality should focus on identifying, describing, and measuring individual differences. Dr. O'Higgins probably would identify with the _____ perspective on personality.

trait

When David is asked to describe his best friend Josh, he responds: "Josh is very friendly, pretty intelligent, and a really nice guy. He seems laid-back, but he actually works hard at keeping up with his college classes. He's a lot of fun because he's always ready to try something new." David's description of his friend's personality would be most consistent with which of the following approaches to personality?

trait

While taking a very tough final exam, Pietro noticed that his heart was pounding and his palms were sweaty. Pietro thought about it and decided that his pounding heart and sweaty palms were caused by anxiety. This best illustrates the _____ theory of emotion.

two-factor

Howie noticed that both when he encountered a bear in the woods on his camping trip and when he kissed his girlfriend for the first time, he felt the same pounding heart and sweaty palms. He felt afraid when he saw the bear because it was a threatening situation, but he felt excited with the kiss. Which theory of emotion best explains Howie's emotions?

two-factor theory of emotion

Dr. García and her colleagues have done extensive research into the effects of life events on health and well-being. She is most likely to conclude that:

undesirable events are significant sources of stress, but change in itself is not necessarily stressful.

Researchers investigated the effects of rather commonplace stressors such as the numerous exams that medical students have to take each year. They discovered that exposure to such chronic, ordinary stressors of life:

unfavorably affects immune system functioning.

Dr. Barkulis is a trait theorist. He would be most likely to describe an individual in terms of her:

unique combination of characteristics or attributes.

Basic emotions are:

universal and biologically determined, the products of evolution.

cognitive dissonance

unpleasant state of psychological tension or arousal that occurs when 2 thoughts or perceptions are inconsistent; typically results from the awareness that attitudes & behavior are in conflict -so unpleasant that we're strongly motivated to reduce it -can change the strength of an attitude to make it consistent w/ some behavior that has already been performed

When interacting with his friends in a group setting, Liam watches their faces intently to make decisions about who to pay attention to and how to moderate his own expression in return. Liam is showing competence in the ___________ branch of emotional intelligence.

use

The finding that schizophrenia occurs more often in people who were born in the winter and spring months, when upper respiratory infections are most common, is used to support the _____ of schizophrenia.

viral infection theory

The difference in anxiety scores between pre and post for the control group

was essentially zero

external, situational

we're more likely to explain our own behavior using ____,_____ attributions

In Milgram's original obedience experiment, subjects who were assigned the role of "teacher"

were deceived about the real role of the learner and the level of shock that he actually received.

misleading & damaging

when stereotypic beliefs become expectations that are applied to all members of a given group, stereotypes can be ____ &_____

act as their own authority, freely

when teachers were allowed to __________________ & ____ choose the shock level, 95% of them didn't venture beyond 150 volts - the first point at which the learner protested

In a series of experiments, Stanley Milgram systematically varied the conditions of his obedience study. Under which of the following conditions were subjects LEAST likely to continue administering shocks to the full 450-volt level?

when the teacher observed two other teachers who refused to continue with the experiment

ventral striatum

when we make direct eye contact w/ physically attractive person, area on each of brain called ___ ____ is activated - this part of brain predicts rewards in context of human social interaction

change your attitude to make it consistent w/ your behavior

when your behavior cannot be easily justified, how can you resolve the contradiction & eliminate the unpleasant state of dissonance? since you can't go back & change the behavior, you...

Dr. Kiecolt-Glaser is a health psychologist studying whether stress impairs the body's ability to heal. In the highly stressful week before final exams, dental students are given an oral punch biopsy—a small sample of gum tissue is removed. The number of days for the oral wound to completely heal is recorded. The same dental students receive a second oral punch biopsy during summer vacation. Once again, the number of days until the oral wound completely healed was recorded. What is the independent variable in this study?

whether the oral wound was created during a high stress or low stress period

In the process of person perception, we initially form a very rapid first impression based largely on looking at other people's faces. According to the textbook, if you glanced at a stranger's face for only one tenth of a second:

you could evaluate the other person's attractiveness, likeability, competence, trustworthiness, and aggressiveness.

If you were a subject in Milgram's original obedience experiment, it is very likely that:

you would play the role of the teacher and get to "shock" the learner.

1. anticipate favorable outcome or response from other for behaving that way 2. your attitudes are extreme or are frequently expressed 3. your attitudes have been formed through direct experience 4. you're very knowledgeable about the subject 5. you have vested interest in the subject & personally stand to gain or lose something on a specific issue

you're most likely to behave in accordance w/ your attitudes when...

According to your textbook, an important social psychology concept is your sense of self, which involves

your sense of identity that has been influenced by social, cultural, and psychological experiences

Person perception follows some basic principles. What are they?

• Reactions to others are determined more by your perceptions of them than by their true characteristics • Your goals in a particular situation determine the amount and kind of information you collect about others • You evaluate people partly in terms of how you expect them to act in the situations (norms) • Self perception influences how you perceive others and how you act on your perceptions

The textbook provides several practical suggestions to defend against being manipulated by various persuasion techniques. List them.

• Sleep on it • Play devils advocate • Pay attention to your gut feeling

What factors increase the likelihood of bystanders helping?

• The "feel good, do good" effect • Feeling guilty • Seeing others who are willing to help • Perceiving the other person as deserving help • Knowing how to help • A personalized relationship with the other person

In a series of variations of his obedience experiments, Milgram found that what factors made the "teachers" less likely to deliver high levels of shock?

• When they are allowed to act as their own authority and freely choose the shock level, 95% did not venture beyond 150 volts • People were more likely to defy authority when they saw others do it

Factors Enhancing Obedience

•A previously well-established mental framework to obey •Subjects arrive at the lab with mental expectation that they would obediently follow •The situation, or context, in which the obedience occurred •Research setting predisposed subjects to trust the experimenter •The gradual, repetitive escalation of the task •The experimenter's behavior and reassurances •The physical and psychological separation from the learner -Learner was in a separate room -Punishment was depersonalized -Participants entered what Milgram called: a State of agency (when a person no longer feels that they are behaving out of their free will)

Classical Conditioning & Attitudes

•A stimulus that elicits an emotional response is accompanied by a neutral stimulus that does not until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits the emotional response by itself. •Suppose that when you were a child, you experienced feelings of warmth and love when you visited your grandmother •Suppose also that her house always smelled faintly of mothballs •Eventually, the smell of mothballs alone will trigger the emotions you experienced during your visits, through the process of classical conditioning

Jigsaw classroom

•Adapted Robber's Cave techniques to a newly integrated school •Aronson (1992) brought together students in small, ethnically diverse groups to work on a mutual project •Jigsaw Classroom Technique: Each student had a unique contribution to make toward the success of the group; interdependence and cooperation replaced competition •Results: Children in the jigsaw classrooms had higher self-esteem and a greater liking for children in other ethnic groups than those in traditional classrooms •Less negative stereotypes and prejudice and a reduction in intergroup hostility •"Cooperation changes our tendency to categorize the out-group from 'those people' to 'we people.'"

Asch's Experiment of Conformity

•All but one in group was confederate •Seating was rigged •Asked to rate which line matched a "standard" line •Confederates were instructed to pick the wrong line 12 of 18 times •Results: -Asch found that 76% participates conformed to at least one wrong choice -Subjects gave wrong answer (conformed) on 37% of the critical traits

Operant Conditioning & Attitudes

•Behaviors we freely perform become more or less frequent, depending on whether they are followed by a reward (positive reinforcement) or punishment •A four-year-old white girl goes to the playground and begins to play with an Asian-American girl •Her father expressed strong disapproval, telling her, "We don't play with that kind of child" •It won't take long before the child associated interacting with that child as bad. The child adopts fathers racist attitude

Biological Influences & Aggression

•Genetic influences •Biochemical influences, such as testosterone and alcohol •Neural influences, such as severe head injuries

Aggression

•Can be a response to an unpleasant state •Aversive stimuli such as pain, heat, insults, and bad smells can evoke hostility and aggression

Problems with Stereotyping

•Can blind us to the true causes of events •Stereotype threat •Once formed, stereotypes are hard to shake •Stereotypic beliefs become expectations that are applies to all members of a given group •Can be both misleading and damaging •People tend to discount evidence that contradicts a stereotype •Creating expectations allows people to maintain stereotypes in the face of contradictory evidence

Sherif's Robber Cave Experiment

•Conducted with 11 to 12 year old boys at camp •Boys were divided into 2 groups and kept separate from one another •Researchers arranged for the groups to meet in a series of competitive games •Fierce rivalry quickly developed, demonstrating the ease with which mutually hostile groups could be created •Nasty incidences occurred •Each group took on characteristics of distinct social group, with leaders, rules, norms of behavior, and nicknames •Simple increased contact did not reduce hostility •Harmony between the groups was established by having two groups cooperate to achieve a common goal •But might have not worked if the two artificial groups were not homogeneous (all were white and middle-class)

Social-cultural Influences & Aggression

•Deindividuation from being in a crowd •Challenging environmental factors, such as crowding, heat, and direct provocations •Parental models of aggression •Minimal father involvement •Being rejected from a group •Exposure to violent media

Making eye contact with attractive people

•Direct eye contact with a physically attractive person, activates ventral striatum •Ventral striatum is a brain area that predicts reward •Orbital frontal cortex, nucleus accumbens, and amygdala are all selective responsive to the reward value of attractive faces

Psychological Influences & Aggression

•Dominating behavior (which boosts testosterone levels in the blood) •Believing your drunk alcohol (whether you actually have or not) •Frustration •Aggressive role models •Rewards for aggressive behavior

Milgram's Experiment Results

•Milgram asked psychiatrists, college students, and middle-class adults to make predictions •All three groups predicted that all subjects (the teachers) would refuse to obey at some point •Predicted that most subjects would refuse at 150-volt •Two thirds of Milgram's subjects - 26 of the 40 - were fully compliant and went to the full 450-volt level •Of those who defied the experimenter, not one stopped before 300-volt level

Milgram's Original Obedience Experiment

•Participants represented a wide range of occupational and educational backgrounds -Postal workers, high-school teachers, white-collar workers, engineers, and laborers •One teacher and one learner (learner is always the confederate) •Watch learner being strapped into chair •Learner expresses concerns over his "heart condition" •Teachers goes to another room with experimenter •Shock generator panel - 15 to 450 volts, labeled "slight shock" to "XXX" •Asked to give higher shocks for every mistake learner makes •Learner protests more and more as shock increases •Experimenter continues to request obedience even if teacher blanks

Interpersonal aspects of attraction

•People whom we perceive as being like us •More familiar - "Birds of a Feather Flock Together." •Socioeconomic and cultural environment -Men in societies where food and resources are in short supply tend to prefer heavier women -Preferences for thinner women is more common in societies where resources are abundant -Proximity

What makes a person more attractive

•Personal characteristics such as warmth, trustworthiness, adventurousness, and social status •Physical appearance, especially facial features - most significant factor in attraction -Wide smile, high eyebrows, dilated pupils, and full lips are judged as attractive by both men and women -Women tend to prefer taller men -Men tend to prefer women who are of short or average height

Attribution Theory: Explaining Behavior

•Process of inferring the causes of people's behavior, including one's own •The explanation given for a particular behavior •Helps psychologically insulate us from the uncomfortable thought "it could have just as easily been me"

Prejudice Causes & Cures

•Racial and ethnic groups are far more alike than are different •Any differences that may exist between members of different racial and ethnic groups are far smaller than differences among various members of same group •Prejudice can occur with respect to many kinds of social groups

Reduction of Social Loafing

•The group is composed of people we know •We are members of a highly valued group •Task is meaningful or unique •Women are generally less likely to engage in social loafing than are men

External Attribution

•The inference that a person is behaving a certain way because of something about the situation he or she is in •The assumption is that most people would respond the same way in that situation "He said something mean because he's so stressed at work this week." "She helped me because she wanted to impress our friends"

Social Loafing

•The influence of groups on individual behavior •Individual behavior can be strongly influenced by the presence of others •People tend to expend less effort on collective tasks than they do when performing the same task alone •Pronounced when it's difficult or impossible to assess each individual's contribution to collective effort •The greater the number of people involved in a collective effort, the lower each individual's output •Diffusion of responsibility occurs among group members working on a collective task

Social Facilitation

•The tendency for the presence of other people to enhance individual performance -When a task is relatively simple or well-rehearsed, the presence of other people tends to enhance individual performance -The presence of others tends to increase our level of arousal and motivation •Complex or poorly learned tasks, presence of other people is likely to hinder performance -Arousal coupled with apprehension about being negatively evaluated tends to work against us

Deindividuation

•When group members feel anonymous •Reduction of self-awareness and inhibitions when person is part of a group in which members feel anonymous -Example: wearing hoods in the KKK, large riots •One way to counteract is to heighten self-awareness

Factors Inhibiting Obedience

•When teachers were not allowed to act as their own authority and freely choose the shock level, 95% of them did not venture beyond 150 volts •Milgram found that people were more likely to muster up the courage to defy an authority when they saw other do so

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