psychology chapter 14

study on stress and immune function

Cohen 1998 Participants who reported experiencing chronic stressors for more than one month were more likely to develop colds than those who reported no chronic stressors.

friedman and rosenman

Discovered that people who are prone to heart disease tend to think, feel, and act differently than those who are not. • Found that heart disease is over seven times more frequent among Type As Further research suggested that the one of the most important factors in the development of heart disease is the anger/hostility dimension of Type A behavior pattern. • Individuals that indicated they responded to pressure with anger were over 6 times more likely than those who indicated less anger to have had a heart attack by age 55.

stage of resistance

During this stage, the initial shock of alarm reaction has worn off and the body has adapted to the stressor. Nevertheless, the body also remains on alert and is prepared to respond as it did during the alarm reaction, although with less intensity. For example, suppose a child who went missing is still missing 72 hours later. Although the parents would obviously remain extremely disturbed, the magnitude of physiological reactions would likely have diminished over the 72 intervening hours due to some adaptation to this event.

stage of exhaustion

If exposure to a stressor continues over a longer period of time, the stage of exhaustion ensues. At this stage, the person is no longer able to adapt to the stressor: the body's ability to resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body's tissues and organs. As a result, illness, disease, and other permanent damage to the body—even death—may occur. If a missing child still remained missing after three months, the long-term stress associated with this situation may cause a parent to literally faint with exhaustion at some point or even to develop a serious and irreversible illness.

how does religion impact happiness

In nations with difficult living conditions, religiosity is associated with greater well-being but does not make a difference in nations with favorable living conditions.

how does family and social relationships influence happiness

Married people report being happier than those that are not. • High-quality social relationships and strong social support networks correlate with increased happiness.

life events and happiness

People are often poor at predicting the intensity and duration of their future emotions. Events might initially cause an intense surge of emotion but we eventually adapt to changing emotional circumstances in our lives. Dramatic life events have much less long-lasting impact on happiness than might be expected.

how does culture influence happiness

People that possess characteristics values in their culture tend to be happier

depression and the heart

Research suggests that a relationship exists between depression and heart disease. One reason for this seems to be that people diagnosed with depression as children have been found to be more likely to be obese, smoke, and physically inactive. Depression may increase the likelihood of living an unhealthy lifestyle and therefore the chances of heart disease

learned helplessness

Seligman, Maier, and Geer an acquired belief that one is powerless to do anything about a situation. In Seligman's experiment, dogs were placed in a chamber where they received electric shocks from which they could not escape. When they were later given the opportunity to escape the shocks, most seemed to give up and did not even try. They had acquired learned helplessness . Seligman believed learned helplessness to be a possible cause of depression

heart disease

a cardiovascular disorder, a major risk factor is hypertension

america is the _____ happiest country in the world

17th

how does money influence happiness

A nations gross domestic product (GDP) is associated with happiness levels. • Wealthy individuals tend to be happier than poor individuals. • Happiness increases with income only up to $75,000

eustress

A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal, low to moderate intensity, optimal health and performance

Social Readjustment Rating Scale

A scale of major life events over the past year, each of which is assigned a point value. The higher the score, the greater the chance of having a serious medical event. Developed by asking 394 participants to provide a numerical estimate corresponding to how much readjustment they felt each event would require. • Each life event has a score/life change unit (LCU) from 11 to 100, representing the perceived magnitude of life change they involve. • Death of a spouse was ranked highest (100), and divorce was ranked second highest (73). • Research demonstrates that accumulating a high number of LCUs within a brief time period is related to a range of physical illnesses/symptoms and mental health problems. • Used to assess amount of stress in people's lives

negative aspects of relationships that can cause stress

Adverse exchanges and conflicts. • Lack of emotional support or confiding. • Lack of reciprocity

transactional model of hostility for predicting social interactions

Anger and hostility appear to constitute long-term risk factors for adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Why? According to the transactional model of hostility for predicting social interactions (Vella et al., 2012), the thoughts and feelings of a hostile person promote antagonistic behavior toward others, which in turn reinforces complimentary reactions from others, thereby intensifying ones' hostile disposition and intensifying the cyclical nature of this relationship

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. ex. study more, contact professor for help, find a tutor

What do studies show about the relationship between stress and memory? a.Stress has no effect on remembering educational material. B Moderate stress can enhance both immediate and delayed recall of educational material. c. Recall of educational material is best under stress-free conditions. d. Intense stress can enhance both immediate and delayed recall of educational material.

B Moderate stress can enhance both immediate and delayed recall of educational material.

flow

a particular experience that is so engaging and engrossing that is becomes worth doing for its own sake. • Feeling of losing oneself in an activity. • State of effortless concentration and focus. • Feels like time passes more quickly than usual. • Usually related to creative endeavors and leisure activities. • Experienced by people who like their job or students who love studying. • Typically occurs when people engage in challenging activities that require skills and knowledge they know they possess. • Thought to play a key role in happiness.

health psychology

a subfield of psychology devoted to understanding the importance of psychological influences on health, illness, and how people respond when they become ill investigates: the connection between stress and illness why people make certain life choices the effectiveness of interventions aimed at changing unhealthy behaviors which groups of people are especially at risk for negative health outcomes, based on psychological behavioral factors

stress

a term used loosely to descrive a variety of unpleasant feeling states (ex. frustrated, angry, conflicted, overwhlemed, or fatigued) a process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events he appriases as overwhelming or threatening to their wellbeing

traumatic events

a type of stressor, situations involving exposure to actual or threatened death or serious injury military combat threatened/actual physical assaults robbery terrorist attacks natural disasters car accidents this kind of stressor can cause PTSD

physiological response to stress

accelerated heart rate, headaches, gastrointestinal problems

both heart disease and hypertension have been linked to negative ____

affectivity

what factors affect happiness

age, family and social relationships, money, religion, culture

happiness

an enduring state of subjective well-being consisting of joy, contentment, and other positive emotions, plus the sense that one's life has meaning and value

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction ex. watch a movie or play games to distract yourself from the problem

acute stressors

brief events that sometimes continue to be experiences as overwhelming well after the event has ended (ex. breaking a leg)

which country has the happiest people in the world

denmark

alarm reaction

describes the body's immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency, and it is is roughly analogous to the fight-or-flight response described by Cannon. During an alarm reaction, you are alerted to a stressor, and your body alarms you with a cascade of physiological reactions that provide you with the energy to manage the situation. A person who wakes up in the middle of the night to discover her house is on fire, for example, is experiencing an alarm reaction.

fight or flight response

developed by cannon an emotional and physiological reaction to an emergency that increases readiness for action

high stress occupations

difficult, demanding, or unsafe working conditions occupations containing unpleasant elements - exposure to loud noise, harassment, threats of physical violence, constant frustration

cognitive response to stress

difficulty concentrating or making deicisions

Lazarus and Folkman

distinguished two fundamental kinds of coping: problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping

behavioral response to stress

drinking alcohol, smoking, or taking actions diected at eliminating the cause of stress

response-based definitions of stress

emphasize physiological responses that occur in response to demanding or threatening situations characterizes stress as a response to environmental conditions neither this or stimulus-based definition provide a complete definition of stress

stressors

events that cause a stress reaction

chronic stressors

events that persist over an extended period of time

Stress reduction techniques

exercise, meditation, relaxation, biofeedback

Psychoneuroimmunology

field that studies how psychological factors influence the immune system and immune functioning. • Studies have shown that the immune system can be classically conditioned leading to the idea that if classical conditioning can alter immunity then so can other psychological factors. • Many kinds of stressors are associated with poor/weakened immune functioning

perceived control

our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes. • Has major implications for health and happiness. Greater personal control is associated with: • Better physical and mental health. • Greater psychological well-being. • Lower reactivity to stressors in daily life.

psychophysiological disorders

physical disorder/diseases whose symptoms are brought about or worsened by stress and emotional factors Common examples include: • Tension headaches. • Asthma. • Acne. • Eczema. • Hypertension. • Irritable bowl syndrome. • Coronary heart disease

positive affect

pleasurable engagement with the environment, such as happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement. Associated with: • Greater social connectedness. • Emotional and practical support. • Adaptive coping efforts. • Lower depression • Longevity and favorable physiological functioning.

asthma

psychophysiological disorder in which the airways of the respiratory system become obstructed, leading to great difficulty expelling air from the lungs Psychological factors play an important role in asthma. • Studies show that some people with asthma will experience asthma-like symptoms if they expect to experience symptoms. • People with asthma report and display a high level of negative emotions (e.g., anxiety). • Asthma attacks have been linked to periods of high emotionality. • Exposure to stressful experiences has been linked to the development of asthma throughout the lifespan

who reports lowest levels of stress

retired person

positive psychology

seeks to identify and promote those qualities that lead to greater fulfillment in our lives. • Well-being • Satisfaction • Hope and optimism • Happiness • Capacity for love • Courage • Interpersonal skill • Aesthetic sensibility • Perseverance • Forgiveness and compassion • Originality • Future mindedness • Spirituality

Hans Selye and Stress

specialized in research about stress noticed that prolonged exposure to stressors caused rats to show signs of adrenal enlargement, thymus and lymph node shrinkage, and stomach ulceration the same pattern of physiological reactions occurred regardless of the stressor selye had discovered the general adaptation syndrome

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and its involvement in stress response

stress -> hypothalamus releases corticotrophin release -> -releasing factor (hormone) → pituitary gland releases ACTH → ACTH activates adrenal glands → adrenal glands release hormones including cortisol.

cortisol

stress hormone which helps provide that boost of energy when we first encounter a stressor, preparing us to run away or fight. However, sustained elevated levels of cortisol weaken the immune system.

stimulus-based definition of stress

stress is a demanding or threatening event/situation (ex. high stress job) characterizes stress as a stimulus that causes certain reactions fails to recognize that people differ in how they react to stressful situations

relaxation response technique

stress reduction technique combining elements of relaxation and meditation reduces sympathetic arousal, reduces blood pressur

challenge

stressor that carries the potential for gain/personal growth

threat

stressor that could lead to harm/loss/negative consequences

type A

tend to be extremely competitive, intensely driven, impatient, rushed, and hostile toward others

type B

tend to be relaxed and laid back

negative afectivity

tendency to experience distressed emotional states involving anger, contempt, disgust, guilt, fear, and nervousness.

control and stress

the ability to enact control in our lives is a basic tenet of human behavior our reaction to potential stressors depends largely on how much control we feel we have

General Adaptation Syndrome

the body's nonspecific response to stress three stages: 1. alarm reaction 2. stage of resistance 3. stage of exhaustion

immunosuppression

the decreased effectiveness of the immune system. • Causes people to become susceptible to infections, illness, and disease

optimism

the general tendency to look on the bright side of things. • Tendency to expect that good things will happen. • Tendency to view life's stressors and difficulties as temporary and external to oneself. • Significant predictor of positive health outcomes.

social support

the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances Can include advice, guidance, encouragement, acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance. • Provides comfort when faced with life stressors. • A psychosocial factor affecting health outcomes - individuals with stronger social relationships have a 50% greater likelihood of survival compared to those with weal social relationships. • Research suggests social support boosts the immune system and reduces blood pressure

a threat is less stressful if we believe that

there is something we can do about it

seligman

urged psychologists to focus more on understanding how to build human strength and psychological well-being.

biofeedback

uses electronic equipment to measure a person's involuntary (neuromuscular and autonomic) activity and provide feedback to help the person gain a level of voluntary control over these processes

immune system

various structures, cells, and mechanisms that protect the body from foreign substances that can damage the body's tissues and organs

who has more stress men or women unemployed or employed more or less education higher or lower income

women, unemployed, less education, lower income

job strain

work situation involving the combination of excessive job demands and workload with little decision making latitude or job control Associated with increased risk of physical problems..

distress

negative stress, usually high in intensity, often leads to exhaustion, fatigue, feeling burned out, negative health consequences

job burnout

general sense of emotional exhaustion and cynicism in relation to one's job; consists of three dimensions: exhaustion (a sense that one's emotional resources are drained or that one is at the end of her rope and has nothing more to give at a psychological level.), depersonalization (a sense of emotional detachment between the worker and the recipients of his services, often resulting in callous, cynical, or indifferent attitudes toward these individuals.), and sense of diminished personal accomplishment (the tendency to evaluate one's work negatively by, for example, experiencing dissatisfaction with one's job-related accomplishments or feeling as though one has categorically failed to influence others' lives through one's work.) Occurs frequently among people in human service jobs (e.g., social workers, teachers, police officers)

nearly _____ of all US adults indicated that their stress levels have increased over the last five years

half

sustained high blood pressure due to stress can lead to

heart attack or heart failure

hypertension

high blood pressure Can be caused by stressors including job strain, marital conflict, and natural disasters. • Forces the heart to pump harder, thus putting increased physical strain on the heart. • Has no symptoms. • Can lead to a heart attack, stroke, or heart failure, as well as kidney failure and blindness

whcih pair of psychiatrists were responsible for developing the social readjustment rating scale

holmes and rahe

holmes and rahe

hypothesized that life events requiring significant change are stressful, whether they are desirable or undesirable

autoimmune disease

immune system mistakes the immune system mistakes the body's own healthy cells for invaders and repeatedly attacks them (can affect almost any part of the body)

primary appraisal

involves judgment about the degree of potential harm or threat to well-being that a stressor might entail

secondary appraisal

judgement of options available to cope with a stressor and their potential effectiveness

how does age influence happiness

life satisfaction usually increases with age

in 2006-2009 who had the greatest stress uptick

men, white, people aged 45-64, college graduates, full-time employed because of the economic downturn

daily hassles

minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives and are capable of producing stress (e.g., rush hour traffic, lost keys, obnoxious coworkers, inclement weather, arguments with friends or family)—can build on one another and leave us just as stressed as life change events Frequency of daily hassles is a better predictor of physical and psychological heath that life change units