PSYCHOLOGY - CHAPTER 7: LEARNING
PARTIAL
reinforcing a desired response only some of the times it occurs is called _____ reinforcement.
MIRROR
some scientists believe that the brain has _____ neurons that enable empathy and imitation.
TASTE-AVERSION
Garcia and Koelling's _____-_____ studies showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditional stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS).
ACQUISITION
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Skinner's
Thorndike's law of effect was the basis for _____ work on operant conditioning and bahavior control.
DISCRIMINATION
dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. this process is an example of _____
dulls viewers' sensitivity to violence
most experts agree that repeated viewing of media violence
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
PARTIAL (INTERMITTENT) REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
COGNITIVE LEARNING
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
EXTINCTION
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
MODELING
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
two or more stimuli; a response and consequence
two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organism associates _____, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates _____
RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. this type of learning is called _____ _____.
DISCRIMINATION
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
their words and actions are consistent
parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if
LATENT LEARNING
rats that explored a maze without an reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received learned without reinforcement demonstrated _____ _____.
CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
STIMULUS
any event or situation that evokes a response
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR)
in classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
a sexual image is a US that triggers a UR of interest or arousal. before the advertisement pairs a product with a sexual image, the product is an NS. over time the product can become a CS that triggers the CR of interest or arousal.
"sex sells!" is a common saying in advertising. using classical conditioning terms, explain how sexual images in advertisements can condition your response to a product.
this finding supports Darwin's principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival.
Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. What evolutionary psychology finding does this support?
LAW OF EFFECT
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
COGNITIVE MAP
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
INTRINSIC MOTIVATION
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
PUNISHER
a medieval proverb notes that "a burnt child dreads the fire". in operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a
HIGHER-ORDER CONDITIONING
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
FIXED-RATIO
a restaurant is running a special deal. after you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. this is an example of a _____ schedule of reinforcement.
CONDITIONED REINFORCER
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
OPERANT CONDITIONING
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
VICARIOUS; VICARIOUS
according to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience _____ reinforcement or _____ punishment.
GENERALIZATION
after Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. this illustrates
PUNISHMENT
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
PRIMARY REINFORCER
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
SHAPING
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
DEVELOP COGNITIVE MAPS
evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats
MIRROR NEURONS
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
NEUTRAL STIMULUS (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
your instructor could reinforce your attentive behavior by taking away something you dislike. for example, your instructor could offer to shorten the length of an assigned paper or replace lecture time with an in-class activity. in both cases, the instructor would remove something aversive in order to negatively reinforce your focused attention.
how could your psychology instructor use negative reinforcement to encourage your attentive behavior during class?
in classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses.
how do cognitive processes affect classical conditioning?
associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. it occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. this finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS.
in classical conditioning, what is the process of acquisition?
the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli
in classical conditioning, what is the process of discrimination?
diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US.
in classical conditioning, what is the process of extinction?
the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS.
in classical conditioning, what is the process of generalization?
the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period.
in classical conditioning, what is the process of spontaneous recovery?
OPERANT CHAMBER
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULE
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULE
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
REINFORCEMENT
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
learning by observing others
INFORMATION; BEHAVIORS
learning is defined as "the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring _____ or _____"
ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
LATENT LEARNING
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
SHAPING
one way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as the organism gets closer and closer to a desired behavior. this process is called _____.
VARIABLE-INTERVAL
the partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a _____-_____ schedule.
LEARNING
the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
GENERALIZATION
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
BEHAVIORISM
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
in ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING, we learn that certain events occur together. in classical conditioning, we learn to associate two or more stimuli. we associate stimuli that we do not control, and we respond automatically. this is called RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR. In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. these associations produce OPERANT BEHAVIORS. Through COGNITIVE LEARNING, we acquire mental information that guides our behavior.
what are some basic forms of learning?
a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. an NS is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. a UR is an event that occurs naturally in response to stimulus. a US is something that naturally and automatically triggers the unlearned response. a CS is a previously neutral stimulus that after association with a US comes to trigger a CR. a CR is the learned response to the originally neutral stimulus.
what are the basic components of classical conditioning?
PRIMARY REINFORCERS are innately satisfying. CONDITIONED REINFORCERS are stasifying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards. Immediate reinforcers offer immediate payback delayed reinforcers require the ability to delay gratification
what are the basic types of reinforcers?
classical conditioning techniques are used to improve human health and well-being in many areas, including behavioral therapy for some types of psychological disorders. the body's immune system may also respond to classical conditioning
what have been some applications of Pavlovs work to human health and well-being?
the process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors.
what is LEARNING?
behaviors followed by reinforcers increase; those followed by punishers often decrease
what is operant conditioning?
children tend to imitate what a model does and says whether the behavior being MODELED is PROSOCIAL or antisocial. if a models actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.
what is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?
OPERANT BEHAVIOR
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
it provided a basis for watsons idea that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses. watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of "little albert" to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned
how did watson apply pavlovs principles to learned fears?
classical conditioning principles are constrained by biological predispositions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. learning is adaptive. each species learns behaviors that aid its survival.
how do biological constraints affect classical conditioning?
biological constraints also place limits on operant conditioning. training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.
how do biological constraints affect operant conditioning?
in operant conditioning, COGNITIVE MAPPING and LATENT LEARNING research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes in learning. other research shows that excessive rewards can undermine INTRINSIC MOTIVATION.
how do cognitive processes affect operant conditioning?
a REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE defines how often a response will be reinforced. in CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT, learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. in PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT, initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULES reinforce behaviors after a set of number of responses; VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULES, after an unpredictable number. FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULES reinforce behaviors after set time periods; VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULES, after unpredictable time periods.
how do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?
REINFORCEMENT is any consequence that strengthens behavior. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior
how do positive and negative reinforcement differ?
in OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING, as we observe and imitate others we learn to anticipate a behaviors consequences because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. in associative learning, we merely learn associations between different events.
how does observational learning differ from associative learning?
in operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior. in classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli - events it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior.
how does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?
punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors; teaching aggression; creating fear; encouraging discrimination; and fostering depression and feelings of helplessness.
how does punishment affect behavior?
PUNISHMENT administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus. This desired consequence increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
how does punishment differ from negative reinforcement?
skinner and others found that the behavior of rats or pigeons placed in an OPERANT CHAMBER can be SHAPED by using reinforcers to guide closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
how is operant behavior reinforced and shaped?
our brains frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain. some psychologists believe MIRROR NEURONS enable this process. the same areas fire when we perform certain actions as when we observe someone else performing those actions.
how may observational learning be enabled by mirror neurons?
at school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use interactive software and websites to provide immediate feedback. in sports, coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. at work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. at home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. we can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual.
how might Skinner's operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, and at home?
CONDITIONED
in Pavlov's experiments, the tone started as a neutral stimulus, and then became a(n) _____ stimulus.
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers aN UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR)
CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR)
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for BEHAVIORISM, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. the behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.
what was behaviorisms view of learning?
a Russian psychologist, created novel experiments on learning. His early 20th century research over the last three decades of his life demonstrated that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning
who was Pavlov?
a college english major and aspiring writer who later entered psychology graduate school. he became modern behaviorisms most influential and controversial figure.
who was skinner?
critics of skinner's principles believed the approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. skinner replied that peoples actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more humane than punishment as a means for controlling behavior.
why did Skinner's ideas provoke controversy?
he taught that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively, and that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species.
why does Pavlovs work remain so important?
NEGATIVE REINFORCER
your dog is barking so loudly that its making your ears ring. you clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself. "i'll have to do that when he barks again." the end of the barking was for you a
