Psychology: chp. 1 Introduction to Psychology
William Wundt
1832-1920; Field: structuralism, voluntarism; Contributions: introspection, basic units of experience; Studies: 1st psychological laboratory in world at University of Leipzig - psychologists challenged Wundt's approach of introspection; because wundt's argument was that introspection could reveal the structure of the mind.
William James
1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth
Margaret Floy Washburn
1871-1939 American psychologist who was the first woman to earn a doctorate in psychology in the United States; published research on mental processes in animals.
John B. Watson
1878-1958 American psychologist who founded behaviorism, emphasizing the study of observable behavior and rejecting the study of mental processes. - "give me a dozen healthy infants...
Karen Horney
1885-1952. A neo-Freudian who focused on more equal representation of men and women in psychoanalytic theory and also the role of basic anxiety as a motivating force
I.R.B. ( Internal/Institution Review Board)
3 task of I.R.B. - subject study - quality of design - ethics (reason) & legal - If you want to run a research study, you must consent the I.R.B. - It takes alot of work and time for a research study to get published (3-5yrs). - everyday there is something new.
Wolfgang Kohler
A Gestalt psychologist who became known for his experiments with chimpanzees and insight in problem solving. He believed that by perceiving the whole situation, chimps were able to create novel solutions to problems (rather than just by trial and error). Through insight, chimps were able to use props in order to retrieve rewards. - was spy in WW2 -discovered insight during a mission; studied in a lab as cover for his mission.
Clinical Psychology
A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
Placebo
A false treatment, such as a pill, "drug", or other substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient.
Random Assignment to Condition
A procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or "conditions" on the basis of chance and chance alone.
Variables
Behaviors, events, or other characteristics that can change, or vary, in some way.
Max wertheimer & K.Koftka
Both Gestalt Psychologist; argued: once you break something apart, it's no longer that thing.
Theories
Broad explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest
Abraham Maslow
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, who were central figures in the development of the humanistic perspective people strive to reach their full potential if they are given the opportunity.
Significant Outcome
Meaningful results that make it possible for researchers to feel confident that they have confirmed their hypotheses.
Is it appropriate to focus solely on human behavior, or should the behavior of other species be included?
Most psychology would argue that the field should be receptive to a variety of viewpoints and approaches. Consequently, the phrase behavior and mental processes in the definition of psychology must be understood to mean many things: It encompasses not just what people do but also their thoughts, emotions, perceptions, reasoning processes, memories , and even the biological activities that maintain bodily functioning.
Today's Perspectives
Psychologists developed a variety of approaches to understanding behavior. - Today, the field of psychology includes five major perspectives; perspectives emphasize different aspects of behavior and mental processes.
Why are animals used in psychology research?
Researchers must make every effort to minimize discomfort,illness, and pain. -Procedures that subject animals to distress are permitted only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and when the research is justified by its prospective value.
Dependent Variable
The Variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of changes caused by the experimenter's manipulation of the independent variable.
Psycho dynamic Perspective
The approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control. - Sigmund Fraud, was an austrian physician in the early 1900s; developed the perspective; brought high disputes.
Behavioral Perspective
The approach that suggests that observable, measurable behavior should be the focus of study. -avocated by John B. Watson, american psychologist. - Developed by B.F. Skinner - much of behaviors is based on this perspective.
B.F. Skinner
The behavioral perspective was championed by B.F. Skinner, a pioneer in the field. - much of our understanding of how people learn new behaviors is based on the behavior perspective.
Independant Variable
The factor that is manipulated; variable whose effect is being studied
Free Will
The idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual.
Determinism
The idea that people's behavior is produced primarily bu factors outside of their willful control. -ex: People make intentional choices and that those who display so- called abnormal behavior should be considered responsible for their actions.
How do people become psychologists?
The most common route is a long one. Most psychologists have doctorate, either PhD (doctor of philosophy) or, less frequently, a PsyD (doctor psychology). - Both the PhD and the PsyD typically take four or five years of work past the bachelor's level. -Some fields of psychology involve education beyond the doctorate.
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
Personality Psychology
This perspective is interested in describing and understanding individual's "consistency in behavior" which represents their personality; also interested and concerned with factors that shape personality and with personality assessment
Sigmund Freud
Was Austrian physician in the early 1900s whose ideas about unconscious determinants of behavior had a revolutionary effect on 20th-century thinking, not just in psychology but in related fields as well.
Stetter Hollingworth
Was one of the first female psychologists to focus on child development and on women's issues.
The PsyD...
is obtained by psychologists who wish to focus on the treatment of psychological disorders.
The PhD...
is research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation.
We can trace...
psychology's roots back to ancient Greeks, who considered the mind to be a suitable topic for scholarly contemplation -Later philosophers argued for hundreds of years about some of the questions psychologists grapple with today. - for example, the 17th-century British philosopher John Locke believed that children were born into the world with minds like "blank slates" and that their experiences determined what kind of adults they would become.
Correlational Research
research in which the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated, or "correlated". - Pos. correlation: indicated that as the value of one variable increases, we can predict that the value of the other variable will also increase. - Neg. Correlation: tell us that as the value of one variable increases, the value of the other decreases.
Replicated Research
research that is repeated, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings
Evoluntionary psychoogist...
take Darwin's arguments a step further. They argue that our genetic inheritance determines not only physical traits such as skin and eye color but certain personality traits and social behaviors as well.
John Locke
the 17th-century British philosopher John Locke believed that children were born into the world with minds like "blank slates" and that their experiences determined what kind of adults they would become. - his views contrasted with those of Plato and the 17th-century French philosopher Rene Descartes, who argued that some knowledge was inborn in humans.
Experimental Manipulation
the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation
Clinical Neuropsychology
unites the areas of biopsychology and clinical psychology, focusing on the relationship between biological factors and psychological disorders
Control Group
Any group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment.
Introspection
A procedure used to study the structure of the mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus. - introspection was not a truly scientific technique, because there were few ways an outside observer could confirm the accuracy of others' introspections. - Moreover, people had difficulty describing some kinds of inner experiences, such as emotional responses. - led to developments of new approaches.
Cognitive Perspective
A psychological approach that emphasizes mental processes in perception, memory, language, problem solving, and other areas of behavior - compared human thinking to computers ( work the same, kind of).
Gestalt Psychology
A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts. - Led by German scientist Hermann Ebbinghaus and Max Wertheimer.
Experimental Psychology
A psychologist who studies sensation, perception, learning, motivation, and emotion in carefully controlled laboratory conditions.
Evolutionary Psychology
A relatively new specialty in psychology that sees behavior and mental processes in terms of their genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction. - stems from Charles Darwin's arguments in his groundbreaking 1859 book, On the Origin of Species. - Darwin suggested that a process of natural selection leads to the survival of the fittest and the development of traits that enable a species to adapt to its environment.
Experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
Scientific Method
A series of steps followed to solve problems including collecting data, formulating a hypothesis, testing the hypothesis, and stating conclusions. 1. identifying questions of interest 2. formulating an explanation 3. carrying out research designed to support or refute the explanation 4. communicating the findings.
Treatment
A special program that is the subject of an experiment.
Operational Definition
A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.
Correlation Coefficient
A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1). Value indicates strength of a relationship (closer to -1 or +1) is a strong or weak relationship and the plus or minus indicated direction. -strength: number - Direction: sign
Experimental Group
A subject or group of subjects in an experiment that is exposed to the factor or condition being tested.
Hysteria
A temporary loss of cognitive or motor functions, usually as a result of emotionally upsetting experiences. - affiltiated with mostly women; believed to be a diesease in uteris in women.
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Mary Calkins
American psychologist who conducted research on memory, personality, and dreams; first woman president of the American Psychological Association
Cognitive Psychology
An approach to psychology that emphasizes internal mental processes; thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Behavioral Neuroscience
An approach to psychology that links psychological processes to activities in the nervous system and other bodily processes.
Humanistic Perspective
An explanation for behavior which suggests that humans strive for self-fulfillment and are motivated by a basic goodness. Developed originally by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. -humanistic perspective has been an important influence.
Case Study
An in-deph, intensive investigation of an individual or small group of people. - when used in research, the goal is often not only to learn about the few individuals being examined but also to use the insights gained from the study to improve our understanding of people in general.
Behavioral Genetics
An interdisciplinary field that studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioral traits.
Archival Research
Existing data, such as census documents, college records, and newspaper clippings, are examined to test a hypothesis.
Experimental Bias
Factors that distort how the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment. -A Experimenter unintentionally transmits cues to participants about the way they are expected to behave in a given experimental condition. - Participant expectations about appropriate behavior.
Counseling Psychology
Focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems.
Neuroscience perspective
How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences - because every behavior ultimately can be broken down into its biological components, the neuroscience perspective has broad appeal.
Working at Psychology
Work in: * Colleges, universities, and other academic setting: 38% *Business, government, or other settings: 17% *Hospitals: 16% *Other human services:10% *Private practice: 7% * School districts: 7% *Managed care settings: 5%
Structuralism
Wundt's approach, which focuses on uncovering the fundamental mental components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities.
Informed Consent
a document signed by participants affirming that they have been told the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve.
Functionalism
an early approach to psychology that concentrated on what the mind does- the functions of mental activity- and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments. -Led by American psychologist William James.
Development Psychology
branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive and social change throughout the lifespan
Evey psychologist...
would agree that neither nature nor nurture alone is the sole determinant of behavior; rather, it is a combination of the two.
