Psychology

Hypothalamus

-2 regions involved in the hypothalamus. -Control of satiety -> feel full, stop eating: ventromedial. Damage to ventromedial, can't stop eating. -Control of hunger -> lateral hypothalamus. Damage to lateral, stop eating.

Certain types of brain damage/effects

-Agnosia (key and bird): INABILITY TO RECOGNIZE. Patient can draw from a model, but can't recognize or name the object despite the ability to see and describe its properties. -Aphasia (speech): Damage/lesions on the left hemisphere. -Damage to Broca's area (front) damages ability for speech = nonfluent aphasia. Can't find the words to say what they mean. -Damage to Wernicke's area (back) damages ability for speech comprehension = fluent aphasia. Can talk, but it is gibberish and have trouble with comprehension. -Apraxia (execution): INABILITY TO EXECUTE. Damage to prefrontal area (motor cortex). -Neglect syndrome: lesion on parietal area. Neglecting one side of space.

Agonists/Antagonists alter NT activity

-Agonists = agents that enhance conduction between neurons. -Antagonists = agents that block conduction between neurons. -Agonist drugs can enhance a neurotransmitter's effect or increase release of neurotransmitters. They do so by: -Blocking its synaptic reuptake, so there's more of/excess of the NT flooding the synapse. -Counteracting the cleanup enzyme so the NT remains intact in the synapse. -Acting on synaptic receptors by mimicking the NT's action, so the postsynaptic receptors respond as if there were increasing amounts of NTs. -Cocaine is an agonist. It blocks the dopamine transporter from pumping dopamine back into the transmitting neuron. Floods the synapse with dopamine, which is "rewarding." -Methamphetamine is an agonist. It enters through cell membranes, enters the vesicles that retain dopamine or norepinephrine, causes the release of this neurotransmitter. It also blocks the dopamine transporter so the synaptic reuptake of dopamine is put off. -Antagonists impede the activity of a neurotransmitter. They block or occupy postsynaptic receptor sites so that the NTs that are supposed to occupy/activate these sites cannot. Thus, the NT cannot relay its message. They also can destroy NTs in the synapse.

Exam recap: Agonists v. Antagonists

-Agonists enhance the effect of the NT by: 1. Blocking reuptake of NT, therefore letting it flood the synapse in excess. 2. Counteracting the enzyme that would normally clean up the NT from the synapse. 3. Mimicking the NT's effect in the synapse. Cocaine, meth Ex; seratonin reuptake inhibitors - regulates seratonin levels in patients with depression. -Antagonists impede the activity of the NT by: 1. Occupying the postsynaptic sites so the NTs can't bind.

RECAP

-Allele = version of a gene. -I.e. a gene for eye color has many variations (different colors). -We get one allele from each parent. (I.e. brown-eyed allele (Br) from mom; blue-eyed (Bl) from dad -Any time the alleles are different, the individual is heterozygous for that trait. (I.e. Br/Bl) The dominant allele will be visible in that person. Brown eyes are dominant while blue eyes are recessive, so a child with Br/Bl will have brown eyes. -Because blue eyes are a recessive trait, in order to be born with the phenotype of blue eyes, you need both alleles to be identical (homozygous, or Bl/Bl) to show the trait.

Controlled/Regulated by ANS (Autonomic nervous system) - Pupil dimensions

-Arousal is regulated by the sympathetic system - increased heart rate, pupil dilation, more alert, more norepinephrine release. -When arousal increases, pupil diameter increases. -Sleep impacts pupil dimensions. Well-rested = stable pupil dimensions. Sleep-deprived = fluctuations/shrinking pupils.

Action potential

-Axon hillock = where all-or-none spike is generated. If threshold is reached, action potential propagates down the axon, sent to next neuron. Excitatory potential. -Opening and closing of ion channels in axons -> rapid polarization and depolarization. -More intense stimulus = more depolarized, more frequent firing rate. -Action potential happens when the axon hillock decreases in negativity/becomes more positive and reaches an excitation threshold. -Axon hillock depolarizes -> converts to action potential. -You either reach the threshold so action potential can begin, or you don't. Action potential is always the same amplitude. Once a stimulus exceeds the threshold of the neuron, the height and form of the action potential will be the same regardless of the intensity of the stimulation.

Emphasis of genes on survival

-Behavior observed in mother piping plover: Mother lures a predator away from her nest of chicks. But this puts the mother at personal risk. Q: How is this evolutionarily beneficial for genes? A: Evolution requires survival of genes rather than survival of individuals. Q: Why endanger her own survival to protect her offspring? A: By protecting the chicks, the mother's genes within the chicks will be protected and the trait will prevail.

Obesity today

-Body Mass Index (BMI, measure of body fat based on height and weight) of 30-34.9 = obese. -The genes for obesity have survived due to it being a "thrifty gene." -Hereditary factors: people inherit different versions of metabolic genes, with varying levels of metabolic efficiency. -Obesity: Biological set-point for a higher weight. -Feeding patterns in early childhood may contribute to formation of extra fat cells. More fat cells = more need for maintenance/eating.

Body weight set point & rats

-Body weight set points are probably genetically determined. -This may explain why some people end up heavier than others even if they don't eat more. -Also may explain why people who go on crash diets rapidly return to their starting weights once they go off the diet -> Body compensates for caloric loss by reducing its metabolic rate. Rat example: -Destruction of lateral area of the hypothalamus -> refusal to eat, or aphagia: Rat eats an amount that maintains weight, because the set point for body weight has lowered. -Destruction of ventromedial of hypothalamus -> excessive eating, or hyperphagia: Rat began to eat ravenously. -Other example of homeostatic regulation: Rats decrease their food intake if the food is enriched, so they decrease their caloric intake to the appropriate level.

Recap for exam: Hypothalamus

-Controls autonomic nervous system/ANS (automatic functions) -Controls motivated behaviors (I.e. eating, drinking, temperature regulation, sexual activity) -2 regions of the hypothalamus are involved in hunger. Ventromedial and lateral. Ventromedial controls feeling full. Damage to it means we cannot feel full -> overeat. Lateral controls hunger. Damage to it means we cannot feel hunger -> don't eat.

Exam recap: Corpus callosum

-Corpus callosum is a thick bundle of fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain. -If you CUT this connection, the two hemispheres will no longer be able to communicate with each other. -The occipital lobe (vision) would remain relatively intact, so: -Right hemisphere only sees things on the left side of the visual world. Will not be able to verbalize what is seen. Instead, the patient would indicate they can see an object on the left side of visual field by reaching to touch it with left hand (which is controlled by right hemisphere). -Left hemisphere only sees things on the right side, can verbalize what is seen but can only see what is on the right side of visual field.

Parts of a neuron

-Dendrites = RECEIVES inhibitory and excitatory messages from neurons. Messages are conveyed in chemical form (via neurotransmitters) across synapses. Transduction of these messages into electrical form. Conduction of these electrical messages to the cell body. -Cell body = INTEGRATES excitatory and inhibitory messages. -Axon hillock = DECIDES whether or not to further the messages. -Axon = CONDUCTION of electrical messages to other neurons. -Axon terminal = TRANSDUCTION of electrical messages into a reaction in the form of a release into synapse. -Synapse = gap separating neurons. More specifically, gap between axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of another. -Kinds of neurons = sensory, motor, interneuron (a neuron that transmits impulses between other neurons).

Information flowing through neurons

-Dendrites collect electrical signals. -The cell body integrates incoming signals and generates outgoing signal to axon. -Axon passes electrical signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell. -Effector cell = cell capable of responding to a stimulus at the terminal end of an efferent neuron or motor neuron.

Cells/chromosomes/DNA

-Each human cell has a nucleus. -Each nucleus has 46 chromosomes. -Chromosomes are made up of coiled strands of DNA. -DNA molecules have a double-helix shape. -The double-helix are made up of complementary chains of chemical subunits Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G), and Cytosine (C). -These chemical subunits come in pairs: A always pairs with T (A+T) and C always pairs with G (C+G).

Recap for exam: Autonomic nervous system

-Falls under peripheral nervous system. -Peripheral nerves receive signals, central nervous system registers signals, sends back to peripheral to respond.

Parts of the brain

-Frontal lobe = motor. Planning/plans of action. Execute functions. This part of the brain is not fully developed until late 20s/early 30s. -Temporal lobe = sensory/audition. -Parietal lobe = somatosensory, touch sensations. Sensory/body surface. -Occipital lobe = sensory/vision -The two hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum. -Topological organization of sensory areas = organized according to where they appear in the brain as opposed to where they are on the body. -Contralateral organization = Left hemisphere controls right side of body, right hemisphere controls left side of body. 3 areas of the brain that are topologically organized: -Motor cortex - back of frontal lobe. -Somatosensory cortex - front of parietal. -Occipital (visual cortex) - right eye registers to left side of brain, left eye registers to right side of brain.

Genes

-Genes come in pairs. -Genes control the production of enzymes and proteins that determine our structural and behavioral traits. -Each pair of genes occupies a specific position on the corresponding locus on half of the chromosome. -Gene pairs, one from mother one from father -> 2 genes per pair = alleles (variations for specific genes) -Allele = one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. -If a pair of genes is identical, individual is homozygous for that gene. (I.e. individual with pair of brown-eyed alleles). -If a pair of genes is different, individual is heterozygous for that gene. (I.e. one allele may be recessive and the other dominant).

Relationship between motivation and hypothalamus

-Hypothalamus regulates biological needs. -Region for hunger = lateral hypothalamus. -Region for satiety/feeling full = ventromedial hypothalamus. -Regulates body temperature. -Links nervous system to different glands to allow certain bodily reactions to stimulus. Governs the autonomic nervous system. -Connections to brain region "pleasure center" -> mediated by dopamine that may be triggered whenever a motive is satisfied.

Evolution by natural selection

-Individual with certain traits are more likely to survive and reproduce -> their genes will continue to the next generation. -Specific genes give rise to advantageous traits -> those traits will survive and be represented in the next generation. -Beware of "naturalistic fallacy" = the idea that evolution somehow improves organisms, and anything natural is good... NO.

Types of channels

-Ligand-gated = opens when a specific chemical messenger (neurotransmitter) is attached. These channels are neurotransmitter-specific. -Lock-and-key model = transmitters will affect the post-synaptic membrane only if the molecule's shape fits into certain synaptic receptor molecules. -Dendrites are ligand-gated. -Voltage-gated = opens when the membrane is a certain voltage, i.e. depolarized. -Axons are voltage-gated. Electrical current message.

Graded potentials

-Local changes in the synapse of a neuron. -Ligand-gated; neurotransmitters can either excite or inhibit. -Depending on the stimulus, either external or neurotransmitter, can be depolarizing or hyperpolarizing.

Survival in the social and natural world con't:

-Most (but not all) basic survival needs, while being unmet, activate need detectors. -Need detectors are sensing mechanisms for detecting stimuli that signal that there are - or soon will be - needs to be resolved. -Such detected needs activate (motivate) and sensitize. -Motivate -> response mechanisms ("seek") are mechanisms that attempt to remove a need. -Sensitize -> cue detectors of stimuli, which offer guidance as to how to respond (in what direction and with what particular set of responses?) to remove a need. -These particular stimulus-response combinations yielding signs of success activate. -Activate -> success detectors ("find") encourage positive feedback, termed "reward" Success detectors are responsible for: -Continued execution of particular stimulus-response combinations. -The storage of those same combinations to memory, for the ease of re-use should the same need arise again. -Right response + right cue detectors = right response to the need or stimuli. -Success detectors/positive feedback = keep you doing what is working, stop when need is met. (I.e. keep eating until full).

Motives

-Motives = factors important for survival that steer our attention (and resulting behavior) in certain directions rather than others. -Self-regulation -> body temperature, satiation of hunger -Self-preservation -> response to threats. -Self-restoration -> sleep.

Communication between neurons via release of neurotransmitters

-NTs cross the synapse & bind to receptors on the post-synaptic cell, potentially triggering a response in that cell. -Some NTs are inactivated shortly afterwards ^, by "cleanup" enzymes. -Enzyme = a substance produced by a living organism that acts as a catalyst to bring about a specific biochemical reaction. -Other NTs are reused by a process of synaptic uptake. Synaptic transmission: -NTs either act as inhibitory or excitatory. -Excitatory -> encourages postsynaptic neuron to relay message to other neurons. -Inhibitory -> discourages neuron from relaying an excitatory message.

Resting state of a neuron

-Neuron = a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell. -When no message is being sent to a neuron, it maintains a -70 millivolt (negative) inside. -Cell has a mechanism that continually pumps sodium (Na+) ions across the membrane to the outside, and potassium (K+) ions on the inside of the cell. This maintains negative voltage, since Na+ is more positive than K+, and there is more Na+ on the outside than inside of the cell.

Transmitters

-Neurotransmission = no direct contact between neurons. A chemical substance is released into the space between two neurons, aka the synapse. -When neurons communicate, a message travels down the action towards the synapse as an electrical impulse. This causes a domino effect -> rest of axon opens vesicles, triggers release of chemical messengers/neurotransmitters (NTs) -NTs are released in the post-synaptic cleft and diffuse across the synapse -> bind to special receptor molecules. These receptors are within the cell membrane of dendrites of adjacent neurons. -NTs either ENHANCE (excite) or INHIBIT the firing of an electrical impulse in the receiving neuron's dendrites. -Dendrite = a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.

Obesity over the years ("thrifty gene")

-Obesity = more fat cells, slower metabolism. So can store more calories, but don't draw on these deposits. -Ancestors who were predisposed to obesity would have survived better in the feast-and-famine world. (Overabundance or shortage of food). -Metabolically efficient gene adaptive for low-energy source environments, aka environments with low food availability. If a person has this gene, and is in a high-energy source environment, they will be prone to obesity.

Message transmission through NS 2

-PNS sensory neurons receive input via dendrites, which send message to cell body. -These are either excitatory - encouraging the neuron to relay the mesage - or inhibitory - discouraging the neuron from relaying the message. -Input is translated into a message and sent to the CNS interneurons. This is when integration occurs (process of adding and subtracting Na+ and K+ ions). Then decide what to do. -Message is sent back to PNS, ending with motor output. (I.e. sense hot stove, feel burning, take hand off the stove).

The nervous system (NS)

-Peripheral nervous system (PNS) = all neural tissue outside spinal cord and brain. Two branches of this: -Somatic -> nerves control skeletal muscles and transmission of info from sense organs. -Autonomic -> regulates & informs the brain about viscera, heart & lungs, blood vessels, digestive systems -WITHIN autonomic, parasympathetic and sympathetic. -Parasympathetic -> crying, salivating, secreting digestive fluids, stomach contraction, constricting respiratory passages, contraction of bladder -Sympathetic -> mobilizes an organism for physical exertion. Inhibition of tear glands + salivation, accelerated heart, open respiratory passages, relaxed bladder. Short-term activation -> take action. Long-term activation -> too stressed/breakdown. The parasympathetic nervous system (abbreviated PN to avoid confusion with the peripheral nervous system (PNS)) is one of the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system, the other being the sympathetic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body's unconscious actions. the part of the autonomic nervous system that contains chiefly adrenergic fibers and tends to depress secretion, decrease the tone and contractility of smooth muscle, and increase heart rate — compare parasympathetic nervous system. -Central nervous system (CNS) = all neural tissue inside the brain and spinal cord. (Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain)

Genes con't/phenotypes

-Phenotype = the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. -Dominant = will exert its effects regardless of whether or not the other allele is identical. -Recessive = will affect the phenotype only if it matches the allele of its partner gene. -Codominant = both genes affect the phenotype. (I.e. blood type AB from mom with type A and dad with type B). -Incomplete dominance = intermediate phenotype between the two alleles.

Survival in the social and natural world con't 2:

-Presence of a need will go unattended unless there are detectors. -Need motivation to respond and act on a solution, I.e. do something about your hunger. -Need cues that the organism is perceptually sensitive to; cues guide towards solution. -Attending to the right cue with the right response leads to a goal; need success detector. -Continued engagement with the goal via positive feedback (I.e. food is filling -> keep eating). -Further search terminates when there is no longer a need; negative feedback. (I.e. feeling too full, stop eating).

Self-stimulation in rats

-Rat has an electrode implanted into hypothalamus, specifically the medial forebrain bundle. Triggers the VTA (Ventral tegmental area/dopamine rewarding system) and nucleus accumbens. Stimulants similarly cause "reward" by triggering dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. -Rat learns to press bar for reward - a stimulating pulse to the pleasure center each time rat presses bar. -Nucleus accumbens - sensitive to anticipating a reward "wanting." -Rat learns to press the lever - the action that leads to success - via cues triggered by the reward system that tells the rat to keep pushing because it feels good.

Recap for exam: Main survival needs and their functions?

-Renewal = eating, sleeping. -Self-preservation = protection, responding to threats. -Reproduction = mating. -Homeostasis/Self-regulation = i.e. temperature, weight ^All operate on a level of positive/negative feedback. -The detection of these needs are largely controlled by the hypothalamus, which controls the autonomic nervous system, which regulates unconscious bodily functions such as heart rate, respiration, digestion, sexual arousal, etc. -Sub-brances of this system are: -Parasympathetic = activities when the body is at rest, decreases. -Sympathetic = stimulating visceral functions, heart rate

Hunger con't.

-Signals for regulating food intake: Glucose -> glycogen -> liver receptors: Don't Eat! Glycogen -> glucose -> liver receptors: Eat! -Glucose is a sugar. -Food levels in the body are translated into glucose in the blood. -High glucose = full. Low glucose = hungry. -The liver absorbs excess glucose (if there is enough) and stores it in cells in the liver. Then, nerves signal to the brain that you are full. -Leptin = a protein produced by fatty tissue and believed to regulate fat storage in the body. Leptin is sensed by sensors in the hypothalamus, where it reduces hunger.

Gene expression

-Some genes are expressed, some are not. -Controlled by biochemical environment within a cell, which is affected by many factors (I.e. organism's overall environment; organism's experience; organism's behavior). -Genome = the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism. -Genotype = genetic blueprint of an individual. -Organism's genome specifies only its genotype. -Phenotype = actual traits of the organism, product of genotype and organism's experience in constant interaction.

Protective withdrawal reflex: Stepping on a tack

-Stepping on a tack activates pain receptors in foot. -Pain signal travels to spinal cord, where it then follows 3 routes: 1. An excitatory interneuron is activated, commanding the motor neuron/muscle to withdraw the foot from the tack. 2. An inhibitory interneuron is activated, commanding the motor neuron to abort messages telling you to keep walking. Prevents you from taking another step. 3. An interneuron is activated and sends a message to the other side of the spinal cord, commanding the other side of the body to support your weight as you STOP the use of the impacted foot.

Selective permeability

-The cell has a membrane that is selectively permeable, meaning some substances pass more easily through the membrane than others. -Cell is more permeable to potassium (K+), meaning it easily lets potassium ions flow through. -Sodium (Na+) has more trouble passing through the membrane, so high concentrations of positive sodium ions are kept outside of the cell. -To maintain an equal distribution of the concentration of Na+ inside and outside the cell, ions are constantly moving across the membrane.

Exam recap: Lateralization

-The two hemispheres of the brain obtain and process information differently. What areas/functions are lateralized? Language - on the left side. Left = ability to verbalize what you see. Split corpus callosum patient will only verbalize what he/she sees on the right side. Left - language and inferences. Right - visual and spatial tasks, i.e. recognizing faces and perceiving patterns.

3 Darwin Principles

-There must be variation among individuals in a population. -Certain variations must survive and reproduce at higher rates than others. -Traits associated with advantage must be passed from parents -> offspring. Both the variation itself and the transmission of traits across generations depends on the organism's genome.

Sleep

-Why do we need it? -Restorative process, time for body to repair. (Rest, digest, etc). -Paralysis during REM (sleep stage) allows for rest, no need to waste energy during sleep. (REM involves rapid eye movement & vivid dreaming. EEG pattern resembles wakefulness in terms of beta waves). -Slow-wave sleep (SWS) -> EEG delta (slow) waves - important for memory consolidation. Dull and fragmented dreaming. Growth promoting hormone secreted primarily during SWS, suggests restorative function. -Sleep deprivation -> poor task performance, loss of alertness, decreased immune response.

Message transmission through the entire NS

1. RECEPTION - sensory input is received by PNS sensory neurons. 2. TRANSDUCTION of the stimulus to a sensory message. 3. CONDUCTION - sensory message sent to/from sensory organ in PNS -> CNS 4. INTEGRATION of messages converging from different sensory and memory sources. 5. DECISION regarding if and how to respond, based on net integration. 6. CONDUCTION of messages from CNS to muscle or gland via motor neurons. 7. TRANSDUCTION of neural message into contraction or grandular secretion. 8. REACTION - there are two ways we can react. Either a muscle response (i.e. retracting a muscle) or gland response (i.e. sweat).

Recap of NS message transmission

1. Reception of the physical stimulus at the sensory organ. 2. Transduction of the physical stimulus into a neural message by the sensory neurons. 3. Conduction of the message from the sensory organ to the central nervous system (CNS) via sensory neurons. 4. Integration of messages converging from different sensory and memory sources. 5. Decision regarding if and how to respond, based on net integration. 6. Conduction of messages from CNS to muscle or gland via motor neurons. 7. Transduction of the neural message into contraction or glandular secretion. 8. Reaction. These functions, which operate at the level of the entire nervous system, also do so at the level of a single neuron.

24. A recent survey of 34 countries says only ___% of people in the US said it's ____ that human beings developed from early species of animals, and ranked ___ in that regard.

40, true, next lowest

23. When will your trait of altruism (putting oneself at risk for the survival of another) and the gene underlying it be promoted in the population of which you are a member, even though the gene leads to your own demise? a) When the individuals you save carry the same gene and pass it on b) when the gene's recessive allele becomes dominant c) when the value of the gene for personal survival exceeds it ultimate value d) two ^ e) all

A

52. what is NOT one of the reasons for the preferences in question 51 to have become widespread in all human societies? a) they ensure that the paternity of any offspring is beyond doubt. b) ensure that the sperm's insemination of the ovum has the best chance of propagating the traits of males with the best male-relevant preferences. c) they ensure that the ovum's insemination by the sperm has the best chance of propagating the traits of females with female-relevant preferences. d) they ensure continued cooperation by both partners beyond their offspring's birth in the service of propagating the preference traits of both parents.

A

7. Genes are stored within the ___ of a cell's nucleus. a) Chromsomes b) genomes c) Phenotype d) environmental context

A: Genes are stored within chromosomes.

35. What is not characteristic of social smile? a) crow's feet around eyes b) monkeys - lips retracted but teeth together c) only in public d) corners of mouth upward e) a and d

A: crow's feet

50. in the mammalian mating system, what are the implications of the female having fewer eggs than the male does sperm? which of the following is false? a) the female leaves the choice of mate to the male because unfavorable mating would be more costly to her b) evolution has selected for females that mate based on signs of good genes shown by their male suitors c) the choice process has selected for males who are most successful in advertizing their "good genes" both physically and through courtship d) two ^ e) none ^

A: is false

43. burrowing owls engage in the genetically inherited behavior of collecting animal dung and spreading it around the entrances to their burrows. Which of the following is NOT true? a) researchers found that the owls engage in this behavior bc the stench around the borrow repels predators. b) researchers found that the owls use the dung as bait to attract the dung beetles that they eat, so the owls can eat while staying in the burrows to guard their nests from predators. c) any gene underlying a parental behavior that increases the survival of the young will be passed on to the young and beyond. d) a and c e) b and c

A: is not true

46. Among mammal species, multiple sexual partnering is a strategy for promoting one's genes into future generations. Which of the following is not true about this strategy in humans? a) only 16% of 185 different cultures worldwide condone polygamy. b) because women need to invest time and resources in carrying and nursing offspring, they maximize reproductive success by seeking fewer partners than men do. c) young boys in many cultures are taught that sexual conquests prove manliness, while girls are taught to value home, family, and a dependable partner. d) a and b e) none ^

A: is not true

31. The process in which organisms, through behaviors, alter their environments is: a) niche construction b)a habitat alteration c) habituation d) environment shift e) behavior consequence

A: niche construction

34. Humans sometimes communicate their status and intentions to each other through built-in signals. One, found in all babies, even blind ones, is: a) smile b) snicker c) wave d) ok sign

A: smile

41. as people gain experience through life, discovering what they are genetically good at, they tend to limit themselves to only environments that are supportive of it. Therefore, it could be that among a pop. of people with different genotypes, this discovery should reduce environmental variance and thus should amplify whatever genetic differences they started with. which of the following is in fact the effect? a) the heritability of many psychological traits including intelligence tends to increase with age. b) heritability actually decreases with age because the variety of environmental influence one is exposed to increases. c) genetic potential is established at conception to that heritability should not chance. d) none ^

A: the heritability of many psychological traits including intelligence tends to increase with age.

18. both excitatory neurotransmitters and above-threshold depolarization of axons: a) open ion channels.

A; open ion channels.

8. Which is NOT part of an individual neuron? a) axon b) myelin sheath c) dendrite d) cell body

B

51. in choosing a mate, men prefer partners to ___ while women prefer their partner to ____. However, both equally prefer their mates to ____.

B AND D b) be physically attractive, have high social status, be kind and intelligent. d) be younger, be somewhat older, be kind and intelligent.

11. The variations of a specific gene (i.e. different eye colors) is the ____ of that gene. a) loci b) allele c) heterozygotes d) dominants e) phenotype

B: Alleles are gene variations

4. The section of a DNA molecule that describes the structure of a protein of a protein together with its control sequences is called: a) Chromosome b) Gene c) Double helix d) Genome e) two of the above

B: Gene = protein structure and control sequences of it.

5. Receptor cells: a) are always a specialized part of afferent neurons b) transduce physical stimuli into neural impulses c) are responsible for the conduction of optic stimuli

B: Receptor cells transduce physical stimuli into neural impulses

21. Darwin's reading of Thomas Malthus suggested to him which idea? a) Parents can pass on traits they have gained over their lifetime to their offspring. b) Those organisms better fitted to the survival demands of their environment so that they reproduce in greater numbers will be the ones whose traits are more successfully passed on to the next generation c) some traits that don't appear to be passed from parents to offspring do nevertheless survive because they are recessive and show up in later generations. d) a and b e) all&

B: Those organisms better fitted to the survival demands of their environment so that they reproduce in greater numbers will be the ones whose traits are more successfully passed on to the next generation

15. The reason why, over years of evolution, that a particular trait or behavior would help population members to survive and reproduce is termed ____ causes. a) Phenotype b) Ultimate c) proximate d) genomic e) two ^

B: Ultimate

27. disease or injury can manipulate the brain in ways that would be unethical for experimenters to do. but studying these damaged brains are not unethical, and as combined with advances in neuroimagery, have the following advantages. they: a) are replicable B)allow for more detailed analysis of symptoms and for coordination of these with how much tissue damage is present and where.

B: allow for more detailed analysis of symptoms and for coordination of these with how much tissue damage is present and where.

44. apraxia, neglect syndrome, and nonfluent and fluent aphasia have in common: a) lesions in the same area b) basic sensory and motor functions that are intact c) deficit in motor skills

B: basic sensory and motor functions that are intact.

45. a patient can't make plans, set priorities, control impulses, override habits, or ignore distractions. he also has trouble inhibiting actions once has begun them and cannot make decisions. the patient has damage to: a) the left brain b) both sides of the prefrontal cortex c) limbic system d) most of cerebral cortex e) neglect syndrome

B: both sides of prefrontal cortex

26. The fact that fruit flies deprived of the gene apterous don't properly develop wings and yet do when when supplied with hLhx2, the human version tof that gene, provides evidence: a) of the persistence of recessive genes because of their not being phenotypically susceptible to natural selection b) that diverse species are descended from common ancestors c) humans could become like angels if only some way they could express apterous gene d) a and c e) none ^

B: diverse species are descended from common ancestors.

39. Continued from previous... there is less similarity in intelligence in the twins raised apart. There should be a greater phenotypic (observable) difference among all the twins raised apart than can be accounted for by their genotypic differences. Knowing this, which of the following can correctly be said about the heritability ratio and what it means? a) Heritability = total phenotypic variance divided by genotypic variance b) heritability is a stat summarizing how much of the variance in a population can be attributed to genetic differences c) a heritability ratio of 1 indicates that all genotypic variability in a pop. can be attributed to phenotypic variability d) the usefulness of heritability estimate is that it tells us about the causes of variation in more than just the pop. and particular environment studied e) b and d

B: heritability is a stat summarizing how much of the variance in a population can be attributed to genetic differences

14. People who produce less seratonin transporters are at risk for depression/anxiety and react differently to antidepressant meds. The genetics that control the amount of transporters are examples of: a) dominance b) incomplete dominance c) polygenetic inheritance d) two ^ e) all^

B: incomplete dominance: Incomplete dominance refers to a genetic situation in which one allele does not completely dominate another allele, and therefore results in a new phenotype.

2. Which of the following characteristics of human/animal behavior counters Descartes' reflex notion that every action by an organism is a direct reaction to some event in the world? a) the withdrawal response when touching a hot object b) the appearance of a behavior (i.e. running to keep in shape) in the absence of any obvious immediate stimulus c) the existence of nerves connecting brain receptors and effectors d) repeatability of reflexes e) none ^

B: the appearance of a behavior in the absence of any obvious immediate stimulus

47. Which of the following conditions would tend to favor the evolution of the prevalent monogamous mating system in birds? a) eggs that don't have to be kept continuously warm in order to develop and hatch b) the bird doing the incubation (usually the female) needing to be fed by her partner so as not to interrupt the incubation process to feed herself c) hatchlings born mature enough to immediately leave the nest d) two ^ e) none

B: the bird doing the incubation (usually the female) needing to be fed by her partner so as not to interrupt the incubation process to feed herself

18. In England one species of moth that birds eat comes in two varieties: Light or dark colored. Before the industrial rev., the light colored moths predominated. After the industrial rev, with all its sooty grime that settled on the up-to-then light colored bark o the trees where these moths lived, the dark colored moths came to predominate. Why? a) the dark colored gene was recessive. b) Ultimate evolutionary causes began to dominate over proximal ones. c) Given the change in the tree bark environment from light to dark, protective coloration shielding moths from detection by birds now favored dark moths being less detectable and thus surviving to procreate over the light ones. d) two ^ e) all ^

C

28. For behaviors just as for physical traits, what does evolution NOT require for advantageous behavioral traits to come to characterize an entire species? a) variation of characteristics b) higher reproduction of individuals with certain variations c) increased personal survival beyond the age for reproducing and promoting the survival of offspring or their children d) continued conditions in the environment that favor certain variations e) none ^

C

6. Extensive exercise will cause larger muscles because exercise triggers biochemical changes in the body that activate certain genes involved in producing muscle proteins. What should not be the take home message of this? a) Genes not only influence the body but the body influences its genes. b) It makes no sense to only talk about genetic effects. c) The nature/nurture distinction is appropriate in separating genetic from environmental effects. d) a and b.

C

22. Raccoon C lives a long life and has 8 babies. These have 12 total babies (C's grandchildren). Raccoon E does not live as long as C, and has 7 babies. These 7 have 14 babies (E's grandchildren). We can say that ___ has more personal survival and _____ has more genetic survival.

C, E

12. If a gene exerts is effect regardless of that the other gene in the gene pair calls for, that gene is: a) polygenic b) recessive c) dominant d) recombinant e) none

C: Dominant gene exerts its effect

24. which of the following would you most prefer to experience if your brain was normal? a) transection b)lesioning c) EEG d) PET scan e) electrical stim.

C: EEG (brain waves)

3. A cell of a roundworm contains about 20,000 genes. Human cells surprisingly contain fewer than was thought (about 25,000). This suggests: a) Don't disparage the worm. It's just as capable. b) Humans are less complicated/smart than we think. c) It's not the number but the combination of genes that counts. d) Two of the above e) none of the above

C: It's not the number of genes that makes a difference, but their combination.

53. the wife of a politician finds out that her husband has fathered an "illegitimate child." she is consulting with a lawyer on how to set up a fund to support this child. she is distressed. from the perspective of evolutionary psych, what is the chief cause of her distress? a) the jealousy she feels over his falling in love with someone else b) the shame she feels from the media c) fear for the loss of support of her own children that could ensue from his making provisions for his OTHER child. d) a and b e) none ^

C: fear for the loss of support of her own children

29. Genes do not directly control an organism's appearance, anatomical structure, or physiology. Instead, genes initiate a particular physical sequence which proceeds in the following fashion: a) from proteins to genes to traits to structures b) from phenotype to genotype c) from genes to proteins to complex structures to observable traits. d) from dominant to recessive e) two ^

C: from genes to proteins to complex structures to observable traits.

7. Which of the following are features that contribute to the assembly if the nervous system? a) genetically determined protomaps b) chemical signals that attract certain neurons to certain places c) guidewire structures created by glia d) selective death of inappropriately connected cells e) all ^

C: guidewire structures created by glia contribute to the assembly of the nervous system

9. Which of the following is false regarding egg fertilization? a) of the 23 pairs of chromosomes comprising your mother's genome, one from each pair is selected to make up the mother's contribution to any given egg she produces. b) ^ ditto but with the father. c) When a particular sperm fertilizes a particular egg, the randomly chosen 23 chromosomes from the father pair with their respective chromosome mates from the mother to form the new 46 pairs of the new individual. d) two ^ e) none

C: is incorrect. One pair from each 23 pairs is selected from each parent.

35. in which of the following tasks would you expect superior performance from the left hemisphere of a typical person? a) matching paint colors b) recognizing faces c) remembering words of a poem d) drawing a floor plan by memory e) all

C: remembering words of a poem.

20. lock and key model accounts for the: a) existence of neurotransmitters b) summation of excitation c) the fact that specific neurotransmitters stimulate specific postsynaptic neurons d) release of NTs from synaptic vesciles

C: specific neurotransmitters stimulate specific postsynaptic neurons.

3. Descartes' notion that humans are machines owes much to: a) the renaissance revival of interest in ancient greek culture b) aristotle's logic of the medeival scholastics c) the increasing discoveries in his time - by people such as copernicus, Galileo, and Kepler - that the movements of the world and heavens obey machinelike principles. d) all ^ e) none ^

C: the increasing discoveries in his time that the movements of the world and heavens obey machinelike principles.

37. What is not true of dizygotic twins? a) grow from distinct eggs b) grow from distinct sperm c) share 100% of genes in common d) called fraternal twins e) two ^

C: they do NOT share 100% of genes in common

22. hormones and neurotransmitters are both:

CHEMICAL MESSENGERS. (between neurons)

17. Fish vary in color. Darkly colored fish are better for camoflauge in the bottom of the river. But if few predators exist, lightly colored fish will do just as well. Even if predators are numerous, dark fish may benefit only if the bottom of the river is also dark. These ideas illustrate: a) Darwin's theory is not real science b) Evolution favors the "better organization" c) inheritance of characteristics is governed by genes. d) when environments change, the patterns of selective advantages may change as well.

D

17.in the course of communicating an excitatory signal from one neuron to the next, which of the following statements is either out of sequence or false? a) an action potential enters a presynaptic terminal b) vesicles of a neurotransmitter burst into the synapse c) if the match is right, postsynaptic receptors are occupied by the neurotransmitter. d) membrane channels open and sodium ions flow out. e) postsynaptic neuron depolarizes, and an electrical current is generated.

D

11. The action potential is: a) accompanied by depolarization of the nerve membrane b) accompanied by opening of sodium channels in the membrane c) propagated from one part of the membrane to another d) all of the above

D all

39. localization of function is established by: a) showing a relation between damage to an area o the brain and a deficit in a particular function b) showing that stimulation of an area of the brain produces increased expression of that function c) showing that during the performance of that function, the area in question is more active. d) all of the above

D all of the above

1. Advances in understanding evolution have been crucial for psychology in showing: a) Why some people respond well to antidepressant meds and others don't b) Why some people are introverts and other extroverts c) Why men and women respond similarly to sexual infidelity. d) Two of the above e) All of the above

D: Two of the above (a & b)

49. Predictions about male-female differences in mammalian mating systems are based on the facts that male mammals have less investment in their offspring and seek out more sexual partners to produce more offspring. This is because they a) don't carry the offspring during pregnancy. b) don't have the capability and hence responsibility for nursing and early infant care c) account for a lesser part of the genetic material of their offspring d) a and b e) all ^

D: a and b a) don't carry the offspring during pregnancy. b) don't have the capability and hence responsibility for nursing and early infant care

19. In order for Darwinian evolution to occur, it is necessary to have: a) variation on some relevant characteristic. b) A selective difference imposed by the environment on the survival value among the variants. c) a wide selection of natural products. d) a and b e) all ^

D: a and b, variation and selective difference in the environment

20. One of the conditions necessary for Darwinian evolution is variation on some relevant characteristic. Which of the following may be sources for that variation? a) Recombinations as to which chromosomes (from mom and dad) are randomly loaded onto each unfertilized egg and each sperm to potentially create new offspring b) mutations in the DNA c) Shifts of the genes in their chromosomal placement d) all ^

D: all of the above

38. motor and sensory projections in the cerebral cortex can both be characterized as: a) almost always contralateral to the body parts they represent b) topographically organized in the same sequence as the body parts they represent c) proportional in size to the usage importance of each body part they represent d) all of the above e) a and b

D: all of the above

6. Which of the following are characteristic of interneurons? a) usually show much branching of dendrites b) form local circuitry of CNS c) make up majority of neurons d) all of the above e) none ^

D: all of the above

13. how can the nervous system represent increase in the intensity of a stimulus? a) by an increase in the size of the action potential in every neuron b) by an increase in the number of neurons being fired by the stimulus c) by an increase in the frequency of firing in the neurons fired by the stimulus d) b and c

D: b/c = b) by an increase in the number of neurons being fired by the stimulus c) by an increase in the frequency of firing in the neurons fired by the stimulus

54. what does the existence of some form of marriage in all cultures suggest about why monogamy persists? which of the following statements, though true, is probably the least relevant answer to this question? a) humans are born helpless and require a long and complicated period of nurturing in order to survive, that paternal and maternal help is needed. b) the family effort required of the male puts a premium on some institutional way of helping to guarantee that offspring are his. c) the female needs some societal constraint on the male's forming extramarital relationships that could threaten the support of her and the children. d) marriage is a convenient legal instrument by which the resources of families and larger political entities are sometimes merged. e) two or more ^

D: least relevant.

36. which part of an elephant would you expect to have a particularly large representation in the motor homonculus? a) ears b) front legs c) back legs d) trunk e) eyes

D: trunk

30. While constraints imposed by the environment may over generations select rigidly for those behaviors that precisely favor survival such as a particular courtship dance or nest building, some flexibility in behavior is nevertheless selected. Why? a) variation on some relevant behavioral characteristic allows the environment to exercise selections that may discover more favorable survival solutions. b) environments may change, as will requirements for survival in them. c) the need for flexibility is amplified by niche construction. d) a and b e) all ^

E : all of the above

21. a new drug is found to increase arousal. which of the following is not a possible mode of action of this drug? a) blocks reuptake of dopamine b) increases availability of norepinephrine c) blocks the enzyme that breaks down the dopamine at the synapse d) mimics the effect of norepinephrine e) blocks the postsynaptic receptor for norepinephrine

E is not possible for an agonist drug

12. The all-or-none law states:

E) once a stimulus exceeds the threshold of an individual neuron, further increases in stimulation intensity make no difference in the height and form of the action potential generated.

2. Which is false? a) A cell has a nucleus containing 46 chromosomes b) Chromosomes carry instructions for how to build/operate a body c) Each chromosome is made of coiled DNA d) DNA has a double helix shape e) The rungs of helix are made of complementary chains of A + G and C +T

E: Correct answer is A pairs with T and C with G.

10. Which is false? The theory that parents could pass on their gained traits to their offspring ____ a) was proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and was later supported by T.D. Lysenko. b) Sought to explain why giraffes have developed long necks. c) was in part believed by Charles Darwin. e) Gave crucial support to Mendel's working out of basic laws of genetic inheritance.

E: Mendel actually discovered recessive and dominant genes with pea breeding.

26. assume a patient is suspected of having brain seizures. which brain exploration technique would be used? a) eeg b)CAT c) fMRI d)a and b e) a and c

E: a and c: EEG and fMRI

16. What can we learn from the beetles and finches and the Beagle in Darwin's study of evolution? a) Beetle collection was impressive to his botany instructor, so he nominated him to accompany the captain on a survey to south america. b) The beagle was the name of the ship that took him there. c) The variety of finches he observed in galapagos led him to realize the relatedness of all life despite its variety and wonder about the purpose of the variety. d) Much of life's opportunities come from chance, but selective attention to them is important int realizing their potential. e) all ^

E: all is true

27. Implied as an answer to the previous question: a) there's a unity to all life as Darwin first understood. b) Much of the basic genetic plans for life are conserved across species c) the commonality of genes across species means that we humans can learn about ourselves by studying other species d) a and b e) all ^

E: all of the above

36. Intelligence allows people a) to gain new knowledge b) to draw conclusions from knowledge c) to solve problems based on knowledge d) to adapt to circumstances e) all ^

E: all of the above

40. in one study, heritability estimates (ratios) for a group of middle-class ppl was 70%, but it was 0% for a group of low-socioeconomic status ppl. What interpretation does the text give for these findings? a) the human genome provides a potential for developing intellectual skills that will be realized only if ppl receive adequate nourishment, health care, and intellectual stimulation. b) While genes may endow us w an array of potential intellectual capabilities, how these are realized depends on what supports and stimulations the environment provides. c) your intelligence is a combo of your genes and what you utilize from your environment. d) genotype seems to have little or no impact on the phenotypic intellignence of people with low socioeconomic status. e) all ^

E: all of the above

44. Which of the following can be said as to why humans differ in their level of intelligence and as to what are the ultimate causes o those differences? a) variations in environment, given the environment's role in activating or suppressing genes, may play a role in generating phenotype differences in intelligence, that are not representative of genotype differences. b) differences in genes affecting intelligence may have arisen and persisted for no selective survival advantage. c) the ultimate causes for genotype differences in intelligence, if they exist, are not yet known. d) two ^ e) all ^

E: all of the above

32. The consequence of humans increasingly altering their environment for their own benefit: A) they have created their own circumstances for these altered environments to select among variations b) they have amplified the need for flexibility/niche construction c) they have raised the possibility that through their success they may, without flexibility, be promoting themselves according to the peter principle to the level of their own incompetence d) a and b e) all ^

E: all of the above (even the peter principle one)

13. Which of the following is true? a) A recessive allele will affect the phenotype of an individual only if it matches the allele of its partner gene. b) If paired genes are identical, an individual is homozygous for those genes and its phenotype is the same as its genotype c)If gene pairs are heterozygous, then one of the genes will be dominant in determining the phenotype d) two ^ e) all ^

E: all of the above are true

5. Which determines whether and how a gene will express itself? a) Factors modifying the biochemical environment inside the cell that the gene is in b) The environment outside the cell that the gene is in c) The stage of development that the cell and its host is in d) B & C e) all of the above

E: all of the above impacts how a gene will or will not express itself.

4. The nervous system is made up of: a) hormones b) computers c) glia d) neurons e) c and d

E: c/d = Glia and Neurons

14. the time (reflex latency) between inadvertently placing your hand on a hot stove and your arm's reflex of jerking it away is much longer than the time it would take for an action potential to go by a direct pathway from the pain receptor to the muscle. this delay is accounted for in terms of: a) inhibition b) excitation c) spatial summation d) the time for depolarization of the axon membrane e) the time for the neurotransmitter to cross the synaptic gap and stimulate the postsynaptic neuron.

E: delay is accounted for by the time for the neurotransmitter to cross the synaptic gap and stimulate the postsynaptic neuron.

15. brief strong stimulation of a receptor produces no movement, but a longer period of stimulation causes a muscle to stop contracting. this can be explained by: a) excitation and inhibition b) inhibition and spatial summ. c) all-or none law and inhibition. d) temporal summation, spatial, and all-or-none e) inhibition and temporal summation.

E: inhibition and temporal summation.

16. synaptic transmission resembles axon conduction in that: a)both involve neurotransmitters b) same speed c) all or none d) all of the above e) none

E: none

48. Which of the following conditions have tended to favor the evolution of the prevalent polygamous mating system in mammals? a) intrauterine development of the young b) nursing and care of the young primarily depending on the mother c) the fact that many young mammal species are born able to forage for themselves d) no obligations by the male towards promoting the survival of his offspring, hence little constraint on his having of offspring e) three or more of the above

E: three or more

38. According to text, the correlation in intelligence between monozygotic twins raised together is 86%, between monozygotic twins raised apart is 71%, between dizygotic twins raised together is 60%, between siblings raised together 45%, between unrelated people 0%. Comparisons between these correlations lead to the conclusion that, whatever the genetic and environmental influence on intelligence, a) they are much more similar for people who are familiarly genetically related b) they are more similar for subs who share 100% in common c) they are somewhat more similar for both 100% and 50% genetically related sibs who shared a family environment more in common than those that didn't (the twins raised apart and the siblings raised together at different times) d) intelligence is more similar in individuals sharing 100% of their genes than in individuals who shared family environment. e) 3+ ^

E: three or more of the above

25. It has been evident for thousands of years that organisms can be transformed by ____ through ____ as evidenced for example by the _____ of cattle. It took the genius of ____ to realize that all life-forms that have arisen throughout the ages could be similarly evolved by ___ through ____.

Farmers, selective breeding, domestication, Darwin, chance variation, natural selection

8. The whole component of genes possessed by an organism is termed its ____, while those genes actively expressing themselves and determining the organism's traits define its _____.

Genotype, phenotype

33. In this chapter the topics of ___, ___, and ___ are considered in order, respectively, to illuminate the proximate causes of a complex capacity, a topic central to natural selection, and an example of what can be learned across cultures/species.

Intelligence, how we choose our partners, expression of emotions

29. structure and its associated functions medulla pons hypothalamus

Medulla - respiration and heartbeat pons - attentiveness, sleep, dreaming hypothalamus - basic biological urges

45. Partnering relationships between the sexes for reproductive purposes takes many forms across species. in some species, the resulting relationship is ____, or a reproductive partnership between one male and one female. In other species, the arrangement involves ____, or several members of one sex mating with one of the other sex. this arrangement can involve either ____, several females mating with one male, or ____, several males mating with one female.

Monogamy, polygamy, polygyny, polyandry

28. afferent and efferent nerves are both found in the:

PERIPHERAL nervous system

Recap for exam: What is positive/negative feedback?

Positive -Attending to the right cue with the right response, you keep doing it. Leads to a goal, such as "feeling full." Requires a "success detector." -Continued engagement with the goal via positive feedback. Negative -Search terminates when the need has been met. I.e. negative feedback tells you you are too full, so stop eating.

Variation

Q: -Why is variation so important? -Why have different styles of building a nest? Or different beaks? A: -Variation on a relevant behavioral characteristic, like nest-building skills, allows for the chance to discover more favorable survival solutions depending on the selectiveness of an environment. (I.e. if there is plenty of food, no need for only those with optimal beaks to survive). -Need flexibility in individual's behavior -> natural selection favors those who can shift their behavior in response to new circumstances. How do they do this? -Niche construction -> process by which, through their behaviors, organisms alter their environment and thus create their own/control their circumstances. -Niche = all factors in an organism's environment that have the potential to affect its life. Animals can alter these factors and therefore alter opportunities and challenges.

Multiple choice question

Q: Cocaine's arousing and rewarding effects result from it being: a) An endogenous oipoid transmitter b) An antagonist of dopamine c) A reuptake blocker of dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine d) Two or more of the above e) None of the above A: C - Cocaine is an agonist, and it functions as a reuptake blocker. It blocks the reuptake or "re-using" of dopamine, meaning there is more of it in the synapse -> more pleasure/"reward."

Study guide question

Q: Discuss the 5 basic communication functions at play in the progress of a message through the nervous system and the input-to-output sequence in which the parts of a neuron exhibit these functions. A: 5 basic communication functions = -Reception -Transduction -Conduction -Integration -Decision When a message travels through the nervous system, there are 5 basic communication functions at play. First is the RECEPTION of a physical stimulus at the sensory level. (Dendrites) Next is a TRANSDUCTION of this physical stimulus into a neural message, which is done by sensory neurons. Next is a CONDUCTION of this neural message to the central nervous system (CNS), which is also done by sensory neurons. Next is an INTEGRATION of messages (in the cell body) converging from sensory and memory sources. Next is a DECISION regarding if and how to respond (Axon-hillock), based on net integration of messages. Next is a CONDUCTION of messages from the central nervous system (CNS) to muscles or glands, done by motor neurons (Axon). Next is a TRANSDUCTION of the neural message into a contraction or a glandular secretion, which results in a REACTION (Axon terminal). This process of communication occurs at the level of the nervous system as a whole, but also can do so at the level of individual neurons.

SAMPLE EXAM ESSAY QUESTION 5

Q: Discuss the five basic communication functions at play in the progress of a message through the nervous system and the input-to-output sequence in which the parts of a neuron exhibit these functions. A: In sending a message through the nervous system, the 5 basic communication functions at play are: 1) Reception 2) Transduction 3) Conduction 4) Integration 5) Decision The process of communication through the nervous system goes as follows: First, there is the reception of a physical stimulus at a sensory level. Next is a transduction of this stimulus into a neural message. Next is a conduction of this neural message to the central nervous system (which encompasses the brain). Next is an integration of messages converging from a variety of sensory and memory sources. Next a decision is made regarding if and how to respond to the original physical stimulus, based on the net integration of messages. Next is a conduction of this message from the central nervous system to muscles or glands in the peripheral nervous system. Next is a transduction of this message into a result reaction. This process of communication occurs at the level of the entire nervous system, but can also do so at the level of a single neuron.

SAMPLE EXAM ESSAY QUESTION 2

Q: Familiarize yourself in detail regarding what, according to Coons, are the three basic needs that must be met for survival, why each exists, and what structures or mechanisms & processes are necessary to accomplish each need's particular survival aims? Where relevant, detail the mediating role played by the reward system in the brain. A: The three most basic needs for survival are: 1) Self-protection - protecting oneself from accidents long enough for its replication to occur. 2) Self-replication - reproduction and consequent preservation. There is safety in numbers - against lethal mutations and encouraging for beneficial mutations/variation. 3) Self-renewal - replenishment of life-necessary resources and energies. Additional needs: Cooperation/communication between self's parts; homeostatic self-regulation; and adjudicating between needs in conflict; self-restoration. The process required to meet each need is as follows: If needs are unmet, they activate need detectors. Detected needs motivate response mechanisms. Cue detectors are responsible for determining how to respond to an unmet need. When the proper stimulus-response combination is struck, success detectors in the brain are responsible for relaying a system of "reward" or "positive encouragement" which tells your body to keep engaging with the particular stimulus-response combination until the need is met. When the need has been met, negative feedback tells you to stop trying to meet the need. This system of positive and negative feedback operates in the hypothalamus of the brain. An example is the detected need of hunger. When you respond to hunger by eating, the hypothalamus will activate positive feedback (i.e. feeling more full) and tell you to keep eating. When the need is met, negative feedback (i.e. feeling too full) lets you know it is time to stop eating because the hunger need has been met.

SAMPLE EXAM ESSAY QUESTION 6

Q: From a lecture and handout example, explain why, adaptively, a chain of many interneurons may be necessary in deciding whether or not an input stimulus finally results in a response. In the example, describe the synaptic excitation and inhibition at play in each link of the chain. A:

SAMPLE EXAM ESSAY QUESTION 3

Q: From the text and from lecture, describe the nature and function of courtship rituals particularly in birds and their "ritualization of function" relationship to territoriality displays. Identify and thoroughly explain a display that in humans has become "ritualized." A: Courtship rituals serve several functions: 1) Advertising one's intentions. For male mammals and especially birds, sexual display involves species-specific courtship behavior patterns that essentially work to advertise one's intentions to be a partner to the female in question. 2) Courtship rituals also work to indicate one's species. Since courtship rituals in animals are species-specific, they guarantee that if the two individuals do mate, their offspring will be the same species and thus further the survival need of self-replication. A courtship display in humans that has become "ritualized" is that of the smile.

SAMPLE EXAM ESSAY QUESTION 7

Q: In terms of the diagrammed protective withdrawal reflex also choreographed in class, describe the neural links involved and the roles played by excitation and inhibition. A:

SAMPLE EXAM ESSAY QUESTION 1

Q: On what basic principles does evolution depend and what are the evidences for the validity of evolution by natural selection? A: Evolution depends on three principles: 1) There must be variation among species. 2) Certain variants must survive and reproduce at higher rates than other variants because they are better adapted to the survival requirements of their environment. This is natural selection. 3) The traits/variants associated with superior survival must be passed onto offspring. Some evidence for the validity of evolution: -The success of selective breeding. -The genomes of birds and crocodiles show their close evolutionary relationship. -^ The same is true for other species such as hippos and whales. -The interrelatedness of all species, as shown by similarity at the molecular/genome level. -Evolution unfolds in present-day populations. -Evidence of evolution in fossils. -Genes in one species can substitute for genes in another.

Study guide question 2

Q: Using an example, explain why, adaptively, a chain of interneurons may be necessary in deciding whether or not an input stimulus results in a response. In the example, describe the synaptic excitation & inhibition at play in each link of the chain. A: Some neurotransmitters are excitatory, meaning they enhance stimulation and propel messages across neurons. Some are inhibitory, meaning they stop signaling and block receptors. Neurotransmitters activate receptors based on the lock-and-key model. Reception occurs in 1-7 steps.

SAMPLE EXAM ESSAY QUESTION 4

Q: What are thought to be the functions of sleep and dreaming? A: Sleep is understood to be a process for the body's self-restoration. It allows time to the body to repair its functions (i.e. digest) without spending energy like you would during the day. During the sleep stage of REM, your body is in a state of paralysis that allows for this rest and conservation of energy. A sleep stage called Slow-Wave-Sleep (or SWS) is important for the brain to complete memory consolidation. There is also a growth hormone present in this sleep stage, suggests a restorative function of SWS. Sleep deprivation is understood to be the cause of issues such as loss of alertness, poor task performance, and weakened immune system.

Recap for exam: Eating

Q: What contributes to hunger and feeling full? A: -Leptin levels. -Receptors for leptin, glucose, satiety, and hunger all in the hypothalamus. -Set point- the level at which negative feedback tries to maintain stability.

Homeostatic regulation

Q: What is necessary to maintain homeostasis (a Stable Internal Equilibrium)? A: -A set point = a pre-set model (or memory) or value the specific body dimension should be fixed on. Optimal state. (I.e. optimal body temperature). Normally, set points remain fixed, but under certain conditions can be re-set. (I.e., when your body has an infection and body temperature needs to elevate to better fight the infection). -A sensor = to measure the actual value of that dimension. (I.e. what is the current temperature?) -A comparator = to compare the value of the dimension in question with the desired set-point, to detect any discrepancy between them. Takes note of direction and degree of deviance. (I.e. compares the current temperature to the optimal temperature). -A restitution response mechanism = works to change any discrepancy in the body. (I.e. makes the temperature correction). Restitution can be attained by way of internal physiological responses and/or by way of behavioral responses towards the outside environment. Temperature example: -Temp. too high - parasympathetic - vasodilation; sweating, panting, etc. -Temp. too low - sympathetic - vasocontruction; shivering

Temporal v. spatial summation

Temporal -A single neuron may generate a potential (i.e. reflex) if there are enough repetitions of the stimulus at close enough intervals. -Build-up at the crossover point between neurons; excitatory potential accumulates at the synapse and triggers the next neuron to fire. Then, the "central excitatory state" will exceed the threshold of the second neuron, causing it to fire. Spatial summation -Multiple neurons fire at once and funnel into one output neuron. -Common path: where two or more groups of nerve fibers (which are neurons) converge upon one output. -Stimulating each of the neurons alone wouldn't be enough to trigger output neuron to fire. Regardless of the means of summation (temporal v. spatial), the more intense a stimulus, the more frequent firing of action potential/relaying of messages.

How neurons communicate

Two types of messages are transmitted: -WITHIN neurons = electrical impulses. -BETWEEN neurons = chemical messengers. -Neurons receive and transmit information from sensory receptors. -Between each neuron is a synapse, which is a small gap between two neurons that are next to each other. -Synapse composed of presynaptic and post-synaptic neurons' membranes and the space between them. -Presynaptic neuron releases a chemical message. These chemicals trigger a response in another neuron, aka the post-synaptic neuron.

Survival in the social and natural world

Types of basic needs for survival: -SELF-PROTECTION = Staying the same. Any structure (as long as it is not rearranged) should not change. But accidents do occur, so how does a structure respond to/protect itself from an accident? By building a wall, in the form of cell membranes, skin, positive mutations, etc. -SELF-REPLICATION = Social world implications. Power in numbers (law of large numbers). -SELF-REPLENISHMENT & CONSERVATION = Replenishing used resources/energy. -COOPERATIVE SPECIALIZATION & COMMUNICATION BETWEEN THE SELF'S PARTS = Coordination of cell/body's functions. -HOMEOSTATIC SELF-REGULATION = Maintaining optimal state/conditions for functioning. Ideal state = homeostasis. I.e. temperature. -WAYS OF ADJUDICATING BETWEEN NEEDS IN CONFLICT = I.e. Hunger v. simultaneous thirst. Which do you address first? -SELF-RESTORATION & MAINTENANCE OF TONIC READINESS = Sleep

43. just as a fluent aphasia can be described as a language agnosia, a nonfluent aphasia can be described as:

a language apraxia

40. a disorder in the organization of voluntary movement is called;

apraxia

34. afferent input from the right hand projects primarily to the left hemisphere. afferent input from the left hand projects primarily to the right hemisphere. in a right handed split brain patient, which hand would the patient have to use to handle an unseen object in order to name it? a) left b) right c) neither d) both hands e) cannot name any object

b: the right hand. the left hemisphere is responsible for language.

47. one take home message of this chapter is that the brain affects behavior. however, the results of one study by elbert showed that highly trained musicians who play string instruments have more cortical area dedicated to the reprsentation of input from the fingers. this suggests:

behavior affects the brain as well as the brain affects behavior.

32. which of the following is not true of the limbic system? a) it is a subcortical structure. b) it is anatomically associated with the hypothalamus. c) it is present on both sides of the brain. d) it is involved in the control of emotional and motivational activities. e) it integrates the functions of the cerebral hemispheres

e: is incorrect

25. in terms if providing info about structure vs. activity, EEG is to CAT scan as:

fMRI is to MRI.

33. match the subcortical structure with its function thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus

thalamus - relay station for directing info to relevant forebrain areas hypothalamus - control of motivated behaviors like eating, drinking, sex amygdala - evaluator of possible threat value of stimuli and emotional modulator hippocampus -important for learning and memory and navigation through space

37. after a stroke, a patient shows diminished sensitivity to touch and other stimulation in the right hand and arm. the probable site of the lesion is

the LEFT somatosensory area

42. what does heritability ratio measure?

the degree to which an observed trait in a particular population can be attributed to a genome governing it as separate from a mix of genetic plus environmental influences (the pop.'s phenotype) measures the fraction of phenotype variability that can be attributed to genetic variation.

23. Which of the following brain exploration technique is described as destroying nervous tissue?

transection is destroying nervous tissue

41. persons unable to recognize what they see even though they can describe its shape, color, and texture suffer from

visual agnosia