Psychology - Exam 1 (Ch 1, 5, 6)

Positive Psychology Perspective

-Based on Seligman and others -Studies how to contribute to optimal functioning and counterbalance traditional emphasis on problem and disorders -Topics under the umbrella of positive psychology include personal happiness, optimism, creativity, resilience, character strengths, and wisdom -Focus on positive emotions and psychological states, traits, and social institutions that foster positive qualities

limits of experiments

-strict laboratory conditions and having little to do with actual behavior -ethical considerations in creating more lifelike situations - may get more ecologically valid insights from natural experiments

Pavlov's experiment

-unconditioned stimulus (meat) caused unconditioned response (salivation) in dogs -Pavlov repeatedly rang a bell (neutral stimulus) before placing meat in the dogs' mouth - initially, the dogs didn't react much when they only heard the bell w/o receiving meat -After repeating procedure several times, dogs began to salivate when they heard the bell (even if he did not deliver meat) -turned the bell (neutral) into a conditioned stimulus

The 5 key provisions of the APA ethics code for research involving humans.

1. Informed consent and voluntary participation 2. Students as research participants: if research participation is required for points/extra credit - student must be given choice to complete alternative activity for that credit 3. Use of deception - deception only allowed if not feasible to use alternative method/potential findings justify its use 4. Confidentiality of information 5. Participants must be given opportunity to get information about the study and a debriefing with researchers to correct any misconceptions

Descriptive strategies for observing behavior

1. Naturalistic observation 2. Case Studies 3. Surveys 4. Correlational methods

Psychology scientific method

1. Testable hypothesis 2. Design study and collect data 3. Analyze data and draw conclusions 4. Report results

Aristotle

A Greek Philosopher, example of impact of physiology on emergence of psychology - scientific discoveries demonstrated the scientific method could be applied to behavior and mental processes

positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction. Range: 0 to +1

Placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure with no known direct effects

double-blind technique

A procedure in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is in the experimental and control groups until after the data have been gathered; a control for experimenter bias.

Functionalism (William James)

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish. (influenced by Darwin)

representative sample

A selected segment that very closely parallels the larger population being studied on relevant characteristics.

Theory

A tentative explanation that tries to integrate and account for the relationship of various findings and observations

G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924)

American psychologist who established the first psychology research laboratory in the U.S.; founded the American Psychological Association; received first PhD in psychology - studied under William James

Francis C. Sumner (1895-1954)

American psychologist. First African-American to receive Ph.D. Clark University (1920) Chaired psychology dept at Howard University

main effect

Any change that can be directly attributed to the independent or treatment variable after controlling for other possible influences.

evolutionary perspective

Applies the principles of evolution to explain psychological processes Assumes Most adaptive psychological processes are perpetuated through natural selection

Applied Psychology

Applying the findings of basic psychology to diverse areas; examples include sports psychology, media psychology, forensic psychology, rehabilitation psychology.

Psychology's Origins

Aristotle, Rene Descartes, Nature v Nuture Issue

Behavioral Perspective

Based on Watson, Pavlov, Skinner: Study of how behavior is acquired and modified through experience and environment May be emphasized by mental health professionals

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Believed psychology should restrict itself to studying outwardly observable behaviors - Expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement and punishment -- environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses - Helped establish and popularize the operant conditioning model of learning - Skinner's intellectual influence lasted for decades - often used rats and pigeons

comparative psychology

Branch of psychology that studies the behavior of different animal species

Edward B. Titchener (1867-1927)

British-born American psychologist who founded structuralism, the first school of thought in psychology; student of Wundt

Cross-cultural Perspective

Emerged in 1980s, emphasizes diversity of behavior across cultures and how cultural factors influence patterns of behavior

Kenneth Bancroft Clark (1914-2005)

First African American president of American Psychological Association whose research on the effects of racial discrimination was instrumental in ending segregation in U.S. schools.

Margaret Floy Washburn (1871-1939)

First woman to earn a PhD in psychology (1894) Known for her experimental work involving animal behavior and sensation/perception processes -Wrote The Animal Mind

cognitive perspective

Focuses on mental process in memory, perception, language, problem solving and thinking Based on using computers as an informational processing model for human mental processing

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions Emphasizes sexual and aggressive nature of unconscious processes

counseling psychology

Helping people adjust, adapt, and cope with personal and interpersonal challenges; improving well-being, alleviating distress and maladjustment, and resolving crises.

Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)

Humanistic psychologist who proposed the hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization as one of the ultimate psychological needs. Emphasized the importance of psychological growth in his theory of motivation

Humanistic Perspective

Influenced by Maslow, Rogers: Focuses on personal growth, interpersonal relationships, and self-concept Often emphasized by psychologists in the mental health field

Carl Rogers (1902-1987)

Main founder of humanistic psychology Emphasized a person's conscious experiences, unique potential for psychological growth and self-direction, self-determination, free will, and importance of choice in human behavior

William James (1842-1910)

Main proponent of American psychology; Published THE PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY, the science's first textbook Established the Theory of Functionalism: How mental processes function in our lives; Opposed Wundt and Titchener

Contemporary Psychology

More specialized and diverse with varying perspectives Psychologists identify themselves according to: perspective they emphasize and the specialty area in which they practice

Ethical Considerations for Animal Psych Research

Must be a reasonable expectation that research will: - increase knowledge about behavior - increase understanding of species under study - produce results that benefit health/welfare of humans or other animals

Psychiatrists

Physicians who specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders Use biomedical therapies: Rx drugs, electroconvulse therapy, and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

John Watson (1878-1958)

Posited that the goal of the behaviorists was to discover the fundamental principles of learning—how behavior is acquired and modified in response to environmental influences Championed behaviorism as new school of psychology Case of Little Albert Pioneer in application of classical conditioning principles to advertising

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Russian physiologist; Performed pioneering conditioning experiments on dogs. These experiments led to the development of the classical conditioning model of learning.

Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

Student of William James Became president of the American Psychological Association 1905; taught at Wellesley Completed her doctoral studies but Harvard refused to award her a Ph.D. because, at the time, they did not grant doctoral degrees to women

clinical psychology

The branch of psychology concerned with the cause, diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders.

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.

collectivistic culture

a culture that places a high value on collaboration, teamwork, and group achievement over the needs/goals of the individual

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect/outcome in an experiment

conditioned stimulus

a formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response

control group

a group exposed to the control condition of the independent variable; baseline for comparison of changes in the experimental group

operational definition

a precise description of how the variables in a study will be manipulated or measured

correlational studies

a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them or assign causation between them -uses precise calculation -correlation does not necessarily indicate causality

Hypothesis

a specific question or prediction to be tested

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

meta-analysis

a statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable and identify overall trends

industrial-organizational psychology

a subfield of psychology that studies and advises on workplace behavior. works to understand the relationship between people and work

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events -repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response AKA pavlovian conditioning

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind (sensations and feelings)

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

placebo effect

change attributed to person's beliefs and expectations rather than an actual drug treatment or procedure

demand characteristics

cues by the researcher in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected usually involuntary or subconscious

individualistic culture

culture that focuses on individual achievement and autonomy over the needs and goals of the group

Goals of Psychology

describe, explain, predict and control the behavior and mental processes of others

Ethnocentrism

evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture.

personality psychology

explaining the nature of human personality, including the uniqueness of each person, traits, and individual differences

biological psychology

exploring the links between physiological processes and the body's physical systems

testing effect

finding that retrieving info from memory produces better retention than restudying the same info for equivalent time

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

founder of psychoanalysis, a controversial school of thought about the workings of the unconscious mind

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879; used experimental methods to study mental processes

Descartes

interactive dualism: mind and body are separate entities that interact to produce sensations, emotions, and other conscious experiences

School Psychology

is devoted to counseling children in elementary and secondary schools who have academic or emotional problems

educational psychology

learning, applying psychological principles and theories to methods of learning

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation goal: to detect behavior patterns that exist naturally that may not be apparent in a lab try to avoid detection by subjects

random selection

process in which subjects are selected randomly from a larger group such that every group member has an equal chance of being included in the study

clinical psychologist

psychologist who treats people serious psychological problems or conducts research into the causes of behavior Trained in diagnosis, treatment, causes and prevention of psych disorders PhD or PsyD

statistically significant

refers to a result that is statistically unlikely to have occurred by chance confirms the hypothesis

Learning

relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of experience

longitudinal design

research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time with the same variables

cross-sectional design

research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time

Surveys

research in which a representative sample of people are asked (often anonymously) questions about their attitudes or behavior usually in self-report form

single-blind study

researchers, but not the subjects, are aware of critical information

health psychology

researching psychological factors in the development, prevention, and treatment of illness, stress and coping, promoting health enhancing behaviors

Maslow's Theory of Motivation

sought to explain why people are driven by particular needs at particular times

experimental research

strategies for inferring cause-and-effect relationships among variables -deliberate manipulation of one factor: independent variable -measures the changes in second factor: dependent variable/outcome variable

descriptive research methods

studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest, without specifying a casual relationship -may or may not include numerical data -Do not predict what may influence the facts

case studies

studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals investigate rare, unusual or extreme conditions

experimental psychology

studying basic psychological processes including sensation and perception and principles of learning, emotion, and motivation

psychodynamic perspective

the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control and early life experience Psychologist may be influenced by Freud/psychoanalysis

Experimental Group/Condition

the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, including the independent variable

conditioned response

the learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus

Unconditioned Stimulus

the natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning

Conditioning

the process of learning associations between environmental events and behavioral responses

Biological Perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of biology/physical basis on behavior Neuroscience study of physiological mechanisms in the brain and nervous system that organize and control behavior

negative correlation

the relationship between two variables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases -range: 0 to -1

Cognitive Psychology

the research of mental processes including: reasoning, thinking, problem solving, memory, perception, mental imagery and language

Behaviorism

the school of psychology, founded by John Watson, that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior Strict focus on overt behavior that could be objectively measured and verified Dominated American psychology for 50 years

Psychology

the science of behavior and mental processes

developmental psychology

the scientific study of physical, psychological, and social change throughout the life span

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable Proven to be the opposite among Chinese participants vs EuroAmerican participants

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it -experiment confirms our intuition -rooted in overconfidence

social psychology

understanding how an individual's thoughts, feeling, and behavior are affected by social environments and the presence of other people

unconditioned response

unlearned response that occurs naturally in reaction to the unconditioned stimulus

descriptive research

used to systematically observe and describe behavior goal to describe relationship among behaviors and events

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

natural experiment

where researchers observe and measure impact of naturally occurring event, condition, disaster, epidemic on study participants