Psychology Exam #2 Chapters 4-9
Forms of Aggression
-Physical aggression -Teasing By age 2, more likely to tease siblings than hurt them physically -Relational aggression
Kohlberg's Three Stages
1. Basic Sex-Role Identity: - Labeling oneself as a boy or girl 2. Sex-Role Stability: - Understanding the stability of sex roles over time 3. Sex-Role Constancy: - Understanding their sex remains the same no matter what the situation
The "Strange Situation"
Observe how babies Use mother as a secure base Respond to separation from mother Respond to a stranger Types of Attachment Secure Avoidant Resistant Disorganized
Sex-Role Identity
Psychodynamic View Social Learning View Cognitive-Development View Gender Schema View Cultural View
Explicit Memory
Recalling absent objects and events without a reminder things that you can express, a story that you can tell. Tends to be stronger, requires more cognitive processing
Implicit Memory
Recognizing what has been experienced before
Self-conscious Emotions
Requires thinking about and evaluating oneself in relation to other people and their standards embarrassment pride shame guilt envy (All around age 2)
Phonemes
Same thing as syllables or sound patterns, don't convey meaning by themselves, the basic sound of our language "cha" "sha" and vowel sounds
Sensorimotor Substages: Substage 3
Secondary Circular Reactions 4 to 8 months Repeating actions that involve objects Kids are repeating reactions in order to get responses from the environment Talking to the child, start teaching them the process of conversation Peek-a-boo: object permanence, things don't stop existing if the child cannot see them
The Changing Nature of Communication
Secondary Intersubjectivity A form of interaction between infant and caregiver with communication and emotional sharing focused not just on the interaction but on the world beyond. (9-12) months
Developing Self-Regulation
Self-Regulation: The ability to control one's thoughts, behaviors, and emotions.
Psychodynamic View
Sigmund Freud Still influential, even though not always substantiated by evidence Assumes young children are caught in hidden conflicts between their fears and desires. -Phallic Stage -Oedipus Complex -Electra Complex
Forms of Communication
Social Referencing In which infants look to their caregiver for an indication of how to feel and act on encountering an unfamiliar object or event.
Developing Trust & Autonomy: Erik Erikson's Stages
Stage 1: Basic trust vs. mistrust Infants learn to trust others to care for their basic needs, or to mistrust them. Stage 2: Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Children learn to exercise their will and to control themselves, or they become uncertain and doubt that they can do it by themselves. Children see themselves as competent enough to do something themselves, or incompetent
Sensorimotor Substages: Substage 5
Tertiary Circular Reactions 12 to 18 months Deliberately varying their actions, thus experimenting shape sorters, puzzles with chunky knobs, they like being able to manipulate objects in a logical sense in order to fit them together, a stacking toy (blocks), puppets
Cognitive Development and Culture
The importance of routine events Scripts event schemas that specify who participates, what social roles they play, what objects they are to use, and the sequence of actions that make up the event.
Preoperational Development
The preoperational stage From Piaget's theory Cannot perform mental operations Mental operations: The mental process of combining, separating, or transforming information logically. Between infancy and middle childhood (2-7) where children are unable to engage in a process we call decentaring, unable to decentar their thinking, or to really think through the consequences of their actions Mental operations - how we manipulate information in a chronological method
Socialization:
The process by which children acquire the standards, values, and knowledge of their society.
Modeling (Social Learning View)
The process by which children observe and imitate individuals of their own sex.
Differential Reinforcement (Social Learning View)
The process by which girls and boys are differently rewarded for engaging in gender-appropriate behavior
Phonological Development
The process of learning how to segment sequences of speech into meaningful units. Components: Segmenting sequences of speech -phonemes -morphemes Mastering pronunciation Rules of the native sound system
Semantic Development
The process of learning the meanings of words and word combinations. How kids learn the meaning of their language and the elements of their language, learning the meanings of words and word combinations
Grammar Development
The process of learning the rules of a particular language for sequencing words in a sentence, and word parts within words.
Pragmatic Development
The process of learning the social and cultural conventions that govern how language is used in particular contexts
Personality Formation
The process through which children develop their own unique patterns of feeling, thinking, and behaving in a wide variety of situations.
Empathy
The sharing of another person's emotions and feelings. Relationship to egocentrism
Morphemes
The smallest unit of language that contains meaning
Egocentrism
The tendency to be captive to one's own perspective and unable to take that of another
Centration
The tendency to focus on only one feature of an object to the exclusion of all others. According to Piaget, the greatest limitation of young children's thinking Gives rise to three common early childhood errors: Egocentrism Confusion of appearance and reality Precausal reasoning
Precausal Reasoning
The tendency to reason from one particular to another, rather than engaging in cause-and-effect reasoning Challenges
Fast Mapping (Vocabulary Spurt)
The way in which children quickly form first-pass ideas of word meanings. Occurs at about 2 or 3 years of age Use of social cues to infer speaker's intentions Building their vocabularies, kids start to be able to pick up on social cues from another speaker.
Theories of Emotional Development
Theory of Gradual Differentiation Differential Emotions Theory Ontogenetic Adaptations
Development of Pre-frontal cortex
This is the part of the cortex that lies right behind the forehead, it is important to the development of voluntary behaviors. Writing, sipping water, stretch your legs all come from pre-frontal cortex. Doesn't need to be matured in the utero. Crucial to how we function once we are born.
Explanations of Language Acquisition
Three dominant approaches: Biological Explanations Social and Cultural Explanations Cognitive Approaches
Understanding Aggression
Two main categories of aggression: Hostile aggression: intended to hurt someone in some way Instrumental aggression: intended to achieve a particular goal
Cognitive Approaches
Understanding how we learn through language, how our thoughts become to closely tied to language, how do we learn language, multiple languages?
Components
Understanding the meaning of words and strings of words Learning to pair words
Cultural Context
Unevenness of development Cultural influences 1. Availability of specific activities 2. Frequency of basic activities 3. Relating different activities to each other 4. Regulation of children's role in the activity
Prosocial Behaviors
Voluntary actions intended to benefit others, such as sharing, helping, caregiving, and showing compassion.
Emotion Regulation
Ways of acting to modulate and control emotions
LAD (Chomsky)
We come wired with neurons that are activated when exposed to language, doesn't matter which language we are talking about, universal, neurons fire when hearing language (Biological) Say that language has already been acquired
Confusing Appearance and Reality
Young children may often confuse appearance and reality Again, influence of context and familiarity Verbal vs. nonverbal distinctions
Grasping (3-4 months)
children are capable of grasping (hair, clothes, etc.), not a fine movement, but its practice for the evolution of reaching and grasping
Gross motor skills
develop before fine motor skills, gross motor skills need more time and attention than fine motor skills. Involve the development and coordination of large muscles (ex: quads), these are muscles crucial for locomotion (crawling or walking), these things cant happen if you don't have large muscles working and under control
Fine motor skills
development and coordination of small muscles (ex: those that move the fingers and the eyes). The combination of fine and gross motor skills leads to an increased ability to explore their environment
Disorganized (Insecure) Attachment
disoriented, when mom returns both scream for the mother and run away from her, tied to situations of neglect and abuse, children genuinely don't know if their care giver is going to care for them or make them feel worse
Resistant/Ambivalent (Insecure) Attachment
infant stays close to the mother in the initial stages, appear anxious even when their mother is near them, very upset when mother leaves, but not comforted when she comes back, seek out contact with the mother but also resist her efforts to comfort them
Avoidant (Insecure) Attachment
infants are indifferent to where their mothers are sitting, may not cry when mother leaves, just as likely to be comforted by the stranger just as much as the mother, don't really care when mom returns to the room, avoid contact with the mother
Grasping (9 months)
kids become capable of feeding themselves
Responsive parenting
not giving in to every demand of the child, when its reasonable and appropriate, respond to what the child is asking for
Increased myelination of neurons
observable by looking at how much better children get at coordinating their muscle movements as they get older, as their neurons continue to myelinate, the better they get at communicating with each other = the better the child gets at coordinating muscle movements
Increased synchrony among the brain areas
seems as though the two sides of the child's body isn't synchronized but communication as been improved because they are able to walk
Growth of language related areas in the brain
start to development long before children are able to even produce language, ~8-10 months infants know their own name, important because children understand when other's are speaking to them, most kids will demonstrate receptive language long before they engage in the production of language
Sit up unsupported
~6-7 months, neurons are better myelinated and enable them to keep better balance of their body, neurons communicate more quickly
Crawling
~8-10 months, messages are getting sent from the brain to the arm and leg muscles, there is not one "standard" way of crawling.
Potential warning signs in motor development:
3% of children won't meet milestones at the correct time Of those 3%, only around 15-20% will actually have a developmental delay Less than 1% of all children actually have a delay that needs intervening and addressing Warning signs: any time motor skills regress, any time a child has acquired a skill that they are no longer capable of doing If their limbs seem stiff (robot like) If the limbs seem too floppy or loose If they don't walk at all by 18 months If infants walk on their toes all the time If they appear to favor one side of the body than the other, if they seem to always lead with the same side of their body If infants are very clumsy If they are constantly moving If they have constant trouble grabbing their objects Any time kids drool excessively or have trouble eating/difficulty swallowing
What is an emotion?
A feeling state that Includes distinctive physiological responses can be expressed to others involves a cognitive appraisal can motivate action
Internal Working Model
A mental model that children construct as a result of their experiences and that they use to guide their interaction with caregivers and others
Identification
A psychological process in which children try to look, act, feel, and be like significant people in their social environment. Includes acquisition of sex-role and ethnic identities
Personal Distress
A self-focused emotional reaction to another person's distress.
Self Recognition
Ability to recognize oneself in a mirror Self as Agent Self exerts power and control over environment Two-word utterances (~2 years)
Piaget's Stage of Sensorimotor Development
Acquisition of knowledge -Motor actions -Directed at environment -Guided by senses Energy is directed towards the environment, all of their knowledge is based off the things in their environment, these factors are guiding/forming the learning process
Broca's Area
An area of the brain that when damaged the individual's speech is either absent or severely disrupted
Wenicke's Area
An area of the brain that when damaged the individual's speech makes little sense
The Infant-Caregiver Emotional Relationship
Attachment An emotional bond between children and their caregivers. Develops around 7 to 9 months
Emotion Regulation and Intersubjectivity
Babies have deep need to connect emotionally Pouting (Oster) Muscles very different from crying "Directed" at social partner Serves to interrupt crying - evolutionary origin
Sensorimotor Substages: Substage 6
Beginning of Symbolic Representation 18 to 24 months Basing their actions on representations Important for problem solving, symbolic play, deferred imitation, and the use of language how do we represent the knowledge that we have about ourselves and the world around us? Where infants will start to communication about things that aren't in front of them. to put kids words into sentences, blocks, dolls, and cars for symbolic play
Phases of Attachment
Bowlby (1969) described 4 phases: Preattachment "Attachment-in-the-making" "Clear-cut attachment" Secure base Separation anxiety Reciprocal relationship
A Sense of Self
By 6 months of age Experience interacting with objects and people Locomotion Separation from caregivers New social relations Emerging use language
Cognitive-Development View
Central Idea: A child's own conceptions are central to the formation of sex-role identity. Jean Piaget Lawrence Kohlberg -Three Stages
Reasoning about Objects
Challenges to Piaget's view of cognitive development Counting Cause-Effect Relationships Categorization Piaget believed that counting was a more advanced concept than children could process. Cause and effect relationships: calling everyone daddy
Brain Development
Changes in myelination, neuron connections, and unevenness of growth Variability in developing different areas of the brain May contribute to unevenness of early childhood cognition Scale errors
Health
Common problems with getting enough sleep and meeting nutritional needs Quicker rate of ossification (cartilage to bone) Sleep 12-15 hours, usually get 8.7-9.1 hours Overweight but malnutriated
Sensorimotor Substages: Substage 4
Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions 8 to 12 months Displaying intentionality, engaging in goal-directed behavior The first indication of more complex goal directed behavior that the infant is doing intentionally. Example: a child has a toy that squeaks, they learn that if they squeeze it it squeaks, "what happens if I step on it?" "what happens if I throw it?" "what if I put it in water?" "what if I give it to the dog?", taking what they already know and applying it to new situations Hide toys in easy to find places, helps them learn the concept of object permanence, toys that roll, objects they can bang, touching and comparing body parts
Environmental Key to Language
Cultural Variations: Infant directed speech Motherese or baby-talk Deliberate instruction
Cultural View
Cultural gender categories mediate - Children's organization of activities - Way children relate to environment Methods of mediation - Content Which behaviors specifically male or female Extent of rigidness of gender categories
Memory
Development of procedural memory Time to forget procedure 2 months: 1-2 days 6 months: 2 weeks Longer if visual reminder Shift from relying on implicit memory to explicit memory Infantile Amnesia: earliest memory is around 3rd birthday Children do have the capacity for memory Procedural memory: memory for a process for a practice (what it takes to get dressed) Implicit memory: memory that is used to recognize objects and events that have previously been experienced (able to recognize) Explicit memory: recall memory, the type of memory that is used to recall without any clear reminder, absent minded, and events
Social Learning View
Emphasizes two processes: 1. Modeling The process by which children observe and imitate individuals of their own sex. 2. Differential Reinforcement The process by which girls and boys are differently rewarded for engaging in gender-appropriate behavior
Sympathy
Feelings of sorrow or concern for another. More likely to lead to prosocial behavior
The Process of Attention (4 phases)
Four distinct phases Stimulus-Detection Reflex Stimulus Orienting Sustained Attention Attention Termination Distinguished by changes in heart rate Stimulus-Detection: feeling someone's eyes on you without hearing anything first, just knowing that someone is looking at you Stimulus orienting: when we hear a sound we tend to look in the direction that the sound came in Sustained attention: could be 5 seconds, 5 minutes, 10 minutes, etc Attention termination: im over this and turning my attention elsewhere Help kids take in the information around them Heart rate increases at first 2 phases, levels at 3 phase, and drops back to normal at phase 4
Explanations of Attachment
Freud's Drive-Reduction Explanation John Bowlby's Ethological Explanation
Motor Development
Gains in both gross and fine motor development
Gender Schema View
Includes features of both social learning and cognitive-developmental theories. Gender Schema: A mental model containing with information about males and females that are used to process gender-relevant information.
Brain Development
Increased myelination of neurons Development of prefrontal cortex Growth of language-related areas Increased synchrony among the brain areas
Understanding Other Properties of the Physical World
Initial grasp of various physical laws as young as 3 months Violation of expectations method Example: law of gravity "water is wet" "snow is cold" violation: looks at how kids try to process information when things are not operating as expected in the physical world.
LASS - Social and cultural explanations: (Bruner)
Language Acquisition Support System, a tern for the patterned behaviors and formatted events within which children acquire language. What matters are the languages that we are exposed to on a regular basis. environmental aspect of the LAD Say that language has already been acquired
Speech
Language Progress Early Vocalization then Babbling then Speaking then Learning Accelerates
The Power of Language
Language is a cultural tool, a symbolic system of enormous scope and power. It profoundly affects development by mediating human activities, relationships, and thinking.
Control Elimination
Maturation of sensory pathways From reflex to control Must learn to associate sensory signals with need to eliminate. When to "hold it" Cultural Influences Kids "eliminate" as a reflex Potty training includes the child taking control of those signals on their own Cultural influences: some cultures believe that children need to control their elimination by an early age, other cultures are much more "forgiving" where the timeline to Potty train is guided by timeline expectations (going to school for example)
Intersubjectivity and the Brain
Mirror Neurons Special brain cells that fire when an individual sees or hears another perform an action, just as they would fire if the individual were performing the same action.
Biological Key to Language
Nonhuman primates dramatically different from humans Research with bonobos and chimpanzees May learn to understand language Don't spontaneously produce spoken language Can produce language equivalent to 2-year-old child Only with extensive teaching
