Psychology Final

Cognitive map

A learned mental image of a spatial environment. The way in which humans and other animals explore their environment and integrate what they perceive into an internal representation of that environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Operant conditioning

A process of learning in which behavior changes as a function of what follows it- for example, behavior that is followed by reinforcement is likely to be repeated. An organism learns to associate its own behavior with consequences.

Teratogens

Agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

Population

All the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn for study. (Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population)

Generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

Abnormal behavior

Behavior that is atypical, maladaptive, dysfunctional, socially unacceptable, and produces emotional distress

Retinal disparity

Binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

Endocrine system

Body's chemical communication system (compare with nervous system). Set of glands (such as adrenal gland, pituitary gland) that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

Plasticity

Brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.

Psychiatry

Branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medication as well as psychological therapy

Developmental psychology

Branch of psychology concerned with physical, cognitive, and social factors that influence growth and shape behavior throughout the life cycle, from conception to childhood, through old age

Cognitive psychology

Branch of psychology focusing on mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, problem solving, and creativity

Dendrites

Branchlike extensions from a neuron with the specialized function of receiving messages from surrounding neurons and conducting impulses toward the cell body

Terminal buttons

Bulb-like structures on the end of a neuron's axon that releases neurotransmitters

Scientific method

Careful observation of events in the world, the formation of predictions based on these observations, and the testing of these predictions by manipulation of variables and/or systematic observation

Trait

Characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in a particular way

Phenotype

Characteristics that result from the expression of various genotypes (i.e. brown eyes or blond hair)

Hormones

Chemical messengers that are produced in one gland and circulate through the bloodstream to their target tissues in other glands. Some (such as epinephrine) are chemically identical to neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmits an impulse across the synaptic gap from one neuron to another

Instinct

Complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is innate (unlearned)

Medical model

Concept that assumes that psychological disorders are mental illnesses and have physical causes (much like medical illnesses)

Schemas

Conceptual frameworks that individuals use to make sense out of stored information. In Piaget's theory, the mental structures we form to assimilate and organize processed information.

Control condition

Condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effects of the treatment

Experimental Condition

Condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Independent variable

Condition or factor that the experimenter manipulates in an experiment in order to determine whether changes in behavior will result.

Rehearsal

Conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or encode it for storage

Extrasensory perception (ESP)

Controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

James-Lange theory

Experience of emotion (fear) is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimulus. Feeling of fear follows body's response

Double-blind procedure

Experiment procedure in which both the research subjects and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about which subjects have received the treatment or a placebo

Dependent variable

Experimental factor (in psychology, the behavior or mental processes) that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

Subjective well-being

Explanation for why some people are happier than others, focusing on self-perceived satisfaction with life. Used along with objective measures such as physical and economic indicators

Hypothetical construct

Explanatory variable which is not directly observable, rather it is inferred from measurable behaviors. For example, the concepts of intelligence and motivation are used to explain phenomena n psychology, but neither is directly observable.

Axon

Extension of a neuron through which nerve impulses travel from the cell body to the terminal buttons on the tip of the neuron

Attitude

Feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in consistently favorable or unfavorable ways to certain objects, people, ideas, or situations

Social psychology

Field of specialization concerned with understanding the impact of social environments and social processes on individuals. Includes how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Environmental psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with assessing the effects on behavior of environmental factors such as noise, pollution, or overcrowding

Engineering psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with creating optimal relationships among people, the machines they operate, and the environments they work in. Sometimes called human factors psychology.

School psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with evaluating and resolving learning and emotional problems

Educational psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with the study and application of learning and teaching methods, focusing on areas such as improving educational curricula and training teachers

Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology

Field of specialization in psychology concerned with using psychological concepts to make the workplace a more satisfying environment for employees and management

Experimental psychology

Field of specialization in psychology in which the primary activity is conducting research

Clinical psychology

Field of specialization in psychology involved in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders and behavioral problems

Forensic psychology

Field of specialization in psychology that works with the legal, court, and correctional systems to develop personality profiles of criminals, make decisions about disposition of convicted offenders, and help law enforcers understand behavioral problems

Genital stage

Final stage of psychosexual development (beginning with puberty) during which sexual feelings that were dormant during latency stage reemerge; maturation of sexual interests

Person-situation interaction

Finding that, while most personality traits persist over time, they do not always persist across situations. (Score on extraversion test will not always predict how sociable you will be on specific occasion)

Oral stage

First stage of psychosexual development (birth- 18 months) during which lips and mouth are primary pleasure areas; sucking, biting, chewing

Sensory memory

First system in the three-system model of memory, in which quick impressions from any of the senses are stored very briefly, disappearing within a few seconds if not transferred to short-term memory

Compliance

Form of social influence in which people alter behavior in response to direct requests from others, which usually involve degree of coercion

Formal operational stage

Fourth and final stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development (ages 12+), during which individuals acquire the ability to think logically about abstract concepts and solve problems by systematically testing hypotheses.

Psychoanalytic theory

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. Based on id, ego, superego; importance of defense mechanisms, and importance of dreams as the "royal road" to unconscious

General intelligence (g-factor)

General intelligence factor that according to Charles Spearman underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Anxiety disorders

Group of psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

Schizophrenia

Group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

Structuralism

Historical approach to psychology that attempted to break down experience into its basic elements or structures, using a technique called introspection, in which subjects report their perceptual experiences

Functionalism

Historical approach to psychology that emphasized the functional, practical nature of the mind. Influenced by Darwin's theory of natural selection, functionalists attempted to learn how mental processes, such as learning, thinking, and perceiving, helped the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

Intelligence

Hypothetical construct; operationally defined as what intelligence tests measure. Includes abilities to think rationally, think abstractly, act purposefully, and deal effectively with environment; Mental quality consisting of ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

Mental age

IQ testing, chronological age of children who on average receive a test score similar to that of the subject

Drive-reduction theory

Idea that a physiological need, such as hunger or thirst, creates an aroused tension state (drive) that motivates organism to satisfy that need

Sensorimotor stage

In Piaget's theory, the period of development between birth and about age two during which infants learn about their worlds primarily by grasping and sucking easily available objects.

Egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's inability to take another person's point of view.

Assimilation

In Piaget's theory, the process of absorbing new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

In Piaget's theory, the process of changing existing schemas or developing new ones to better fit with new information.

Theory of mind

In children, their ability to take the perspective of another person which allows them to correctly predict their behavior. Typically develops during the preoperational stage.

Discrimination

In classical and operant conditioning, the process by which responses are restricted to specific stimuli (opposite to generalization). Tendency to respond to some stimuli while not responding to other similar stimuli.

Acquisition

In classical conditioning the initial process of learning to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of learning to associate responses with their consequences (either reinforcing or punishing).

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a natural (unlearned) response or reflex.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned response or reflex caused by a stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.

Extinction

In classical conditioning, the process by which a conditioned response is eliminated through repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the process of eliminating a response by discontinuing reinforcement.

Spontaneous recovery

In classical conditioning, the spontaneous reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction has taken place.

Retroactive interference

In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when new information makes it harder to recall something you learned earlier. (Recent with past)

Proactive interference

In memory, the phenomenon that occurs when something you learned earlier disrupts memory for later learning. (Past messes with future)

Encoding

In memory, the process of perceiving info, then categorizing or organizing it in a meaningful way so that it can be more easily stored or recalled.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

In operant conditioning, a schedule that reinforces behavior only part of the time-- for example, a ratio or interval schedule. Behaviors that are acquired on partial instead of continuous reinforcement schedules tend to be established more slowly, but are much more resistant to extinction.

Shaping

In operant conditioning, a technique (a.k.a. successive approximation) in which responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior are reinforced, step by step, until the desired behavior occurs.

Reinforcer

In operant conditioning, any response contingent event that leads to an increase in the probability, or strength, of the response.

Similarity

In perception, the principle that we tend to group elements that are similar to each other. In social psychology, similarity of beliefs, interests, and values is recognized as a factor attracting people to one another.

Validity

In testing, the extent to which a test measures or predicts accurately what it is supposed to

Reliability

In testing, the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

Misinformation effect

Incorporating incorrect info into one's memory of an event

Long-term potentiation

Increase in synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation resulting in a long-lasting enhancement of synaptic transmission. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

Standard deviation

Indicates average extent to which all the scores in a distribution vary from the mean

Range

Indicates difference between highest and lowest scores

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

Intelligence test developed by David Wechsler with verbal and performance sub-tests grouped by aptitude

Attachment

Intense emotional tie between two individuals, shown in young children by seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

Statistics

Math methods for organizing, summarizing, describing, and interpreting data

Acronym

Meaningful arrangement of letters that provides a cue for recalling information (mnemonic device)

Measure of variability

Measure that reflects amount of diversity in a distribution of scores; range, standard deviation

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Measurement of intelligence derived by dividing an individual's mental age by their chronological age, then multiplying by 100

Mnemonics (Mnemonic device)

Memory aids (such as vivid imagery) or organizational devices (chunking or acrostics) that organize material in a meaningful way and provide us with handy retrieval cues

Perceptual set

Mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another. Includes our assumptions, biases, and expectations.

Humanistic therapy

Method of therapy based upon personal growth through self-awareness and self-acceptance

Cognitive therapy

Method of therapy in which therapist guides client to identify negative and distorted thoughts and replacing with more rational and positive thoughts

Group/family therapy

Method of therapy which views a relationship as a system. Therapist guides clients to improve communication among people in their life.

Difference threshold

Minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time (just noticeable difference)

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

Synaptic gap

Minuscule space between neurons, approximately five-millionths of an inch across.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

Part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Consists of the sympathetic nervous system (which arouses the body) and the parasympathetic nervous system (which calms the body).

Variable interval schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where opportunities for reinforcement occur at variable time intervals (unpredictable time)

Fixed interval schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where opportunities for reinforcement occur only after a specified time has elapsed (predictable time)

Fixed ratio schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses occur

Variable ratio schedule

Partial reinforcement schedule in operant conditioning where reinforcement is provided after an unpredictable number of responses occur

Psychological disorder

Pattern of behavior that is deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional and fits a known pattern identified and labeled by psychologists and psychiatrists (i.e. schizophrenia)

Cognitive dissonance theory

People experience psychological tension when two relate attitudes or behaviors are inconsistent and thus motivated to reduce discomfort (dissonance) by making them consistent. Specifically, when our attitudes are inconsistent with our actions, we reduce resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Percentile

Percent of scores in a distribution which fall at or below particular score

Proximity

Perceptual grouping principle in which, all else being equal, we tend to organize perceptions by grouping elements that are the nearest to each other.

Critical periods

Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place.

Memory

Persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

Humanistic perspective

Personality theory- study of healthy people emphasizing human potential, growth through self-determination, and seeing world through each person's eyes (contrast to Freud)

Dissociative identity disorder

Rare psychological disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities

Object permanence

Realization that objects continue to exist even when they are not in view. In Piaget's theory, this awareness is considered a key achievement in the latter part of the sensorimotor stage of development.

Explicit (declarative) memory

Recall of specific facts (info read in a book) and experiences

Occipital lobe

Region of the cerebral cortex at the back of the head that consists primarily of the visual cortex

Motor cortex

Region of the cerebral cortex at the rear of the frontal lobes that transmits messages to muscles; controls virtually all voluntary body movements

Temporal lobe

Region of the cerebral cortex located below the lateral fissure that contains the auditory cortex and whose primary function is hearing

Parietal lobe

Region of the cerebral cortex located just behind the central fissure and above the lateral fissure. Parietal lobe contains the somatosensory cortex as well as association areas that process sensory information received by the somatosensory cortex

Broca's area

Region of the left frontal lobe that is the primary brain center for controlling speech

Auditory cortex

Region of the temporal lobe located just below the lateral fissure that is involved in responding to auditory signals, particularly the sound of human speech

Learning

Relatively enduring change in potential behavior that results from experience

Personality

Relatively, enduring, distinctive patterns of behavior, emotions, and thoughts that characterize an individual's adaptations to his/her life

Survey

Research method in which a representative sample of people are questioned about their behaviors or attitudes. Survey provides descriptive information.

Experiment

Research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes (dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, experiment controls other relevant factors.

Cross-sectional study

Research method in which representative samples of people of different ages are compared with one another.

Longitudinal study

Research method in which the same people are restudied and retested at different times over many years.

Naturalistic observation

Research method of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations, such as a subject's home or school environment, without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Case study

Research technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Introspection

Research technique that involves careful observation of one's own reactions to a stimulus. Historically associated with structuralism

Random assignment

Researchers randomly assign research participants to the experimental and control conditions of experiments in order to minimize any pre-existing differences between the groups

Emotion

Response of whole organism (physiological and behavioral) consisting of physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and consciously experienced thoughts and feelings

Implicit memory

Retention dependent of conscious recollection (bicycling, swimming)

Storage

Retention of encoded info over time

Delusion

Rigidly held belief, often of a persecution or grandeur nature, that is a misrepresentation of reality

Psychology

Scientific study of the overt behavior and internal mental processes (thoughts and emotions) of humans and other animals

Applied research

Scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

Mode

Score that occurs most frequently in a distribution of numbers

Short-term memory

Second memory system consisting of immediate recollection of stimuli that have just been perceived. Unless transferred to long-term memory, info is usually retained only momentarily. (Working memory)

Sample

Selected segment of a larger population that is being studied in a psychological research. Two kinds of samples are the representative sample and the random sample.

Random sample

Selected segment of a larger population that is selected by randomization procedures. A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Acrostics

Sentences whose first letters serve as cues for recalling specific info (mnemonic device)

Big Five Factors

Set of 5 personality dimensions (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion) that is currently considered an accurate conceptualization of basic, universal personality traits

Gender role

Set of behaviors that is considered normal and appropriate for males and for females in a society

Role

Set of explanations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in position ought to behave

Reflex

Simple, automatic, born response to a specific stimulus (i.e. rooting reflex: when something touches their cheek, babies turn toward that touch, open their mouth, find a nipple, and begin sucking)

Obedience

Social influence in behavior is altered in response to commands or orders from people perceived as having power or authority

Normative social influence

Social influence in which we conform not because of an actual change in our beliefs, but because we think we will benefit in some way (gaining approval or avoiding disapproval)

Observer bias

Tendency of an observer to read more into a situation than is actually there or to see what he or she expects to see. Observer bias is a potential limitation of the observational method.

Hindsight bias

Tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it (a.k.a. I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

Conformity

Tendency to modify behaviors so that they are consistent with those of other people

Perceptual grouping

Tendency to organize patterns of stimuli into larger units according to proximity, similarity, and continuation

Serial position effect

Tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle

Theory

Tentative logical framework to explain the facts scientists have observed regarding certain phenomena.

Neuron

Type of cell that is the basic unit of the nervous system. Neuron typically consists of a cell body, dendrites, and an axon. Neurons transmit messages to other neurons and to glands and muscles throughout the body.

Classical conditioning

Type of learning by temporal association in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus, called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), that naturally elicits a certain response, called the unconditioned response (UCR). After repeated pairings the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and evokes the same or similar response, now called the conditioned response (CR).

Skewed distribution

Unbalanced distribution of scores

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Conservation

Understanding that changing the form of an object des not necessarily change its essential character. A key achievement in Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

Cerebellum

"Little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance

Standardization

(1) Uniform and consistent procedures for administering and scoring tests (IQ, personality tests) and (2) defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested "standardization group."

Reciprocal determinism

(Bandura) Principle that individual behaviors and thus personalities are shaped by interaction between cognitive factors and environmental factors

Id

(Freud's psychoanalytic theory) biological component of personality consisting of life instincts and death instincts

Ego

(Freud's psychoanalytic theory) component of personality that acts as intermediary between instinctual demands of id and reality of real world

Superego

(Freud's psychoanalytic theory) consists of individual's conscience as well as the ego-ideal ('should' of behavior)

Unconscious

(Freud) Reservoir of (mostly unacceptable) thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories that are repressed and unavailable to conscious awareness

Psychosexual stages

(Freud) stages of development in which focus of sexual gratification shifts from one body site to another

Defense mechanisms

(Freud) unconscious process that shields ego from anxiety by denying or distorting reality

Self-actualization

(Maslow's study of healthy people) ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met; motivation to fulfill one's potential

Continuous reinforcement

(Operant conditioning) Presentation of a reinforcer for each occurrence of a specific behavior.

Positive reinforcement

(Operant conditioning) Satisfying consequence of behavior that increases the probability of that response occurring again.

Negative reinforcement

(Operant conditioning) Satisfying consequence of behavior that involves the removal of or escape from an unpleasant event following a particular response. (i.e. fastening seatbelt turns off beeping) NOT PUNISHMENT

Primary reinforcer

(Operant conditioning) Stimulus that satisfies a biologically based drive or need (hunger, thirst, sleep)

Shape constancy

(Perceptual constancy) We perceive objects as maintaining the same shape even though their retinal images change when we view them from different angles.

Selective perception

(Perceptual set) Tendency to perceive stimuli that are consistent with expectations and to ignore those that are inconsistent

Genotype

Assortment of genes that each individual inherits at conception

Oedipus complex

Attraction a male child feels towards his mother (and jealousy toward his father) during phallic stage

False consensus bias

Attribution bias caused by assumption that most people share our own attitudes and behaviors

Preoperational stage

According to Piaget, the second major stage of cognitive development (ages 7-12) during which children begin using language and pretend play, but the child lacks operations and the concept of conservation. Thinking is egocentric and animistic and the child is unable to evaluate simultaneously more than one physical dimension.

Depth perception

Ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two dimensional; allows us to judge distance

Basic trust

According to Erik Erikson's 8-stage theory of psychosocial development, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.

Post-traumatic stress disorder

Anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, flashbacks, and/or insomnia following a traumatic experience

Obsessive compulsive disorder

Anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)

Phobia

Anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear of and avoidance of a specific object or situation

Motivation

Any condition, such as a need or desire, which energizes and directs behavior

Flashbulb memory

Apparent vivid recall for an event associated with extreme emotion or uniqueness, such as the assassination of a president or destruction of WTC

Gestalt psychology

Approach to psychology based on the concept that the whole of an experience is different from (greater than) the sum of its parts.

Humanistic psychology

Approach to psychology that emphasizes the role of free choice and our ability to make conscious rational decisions about how we live our lives

Evolutionary psychology

Approach to psychology which attempts to understand the origins of behavior using the principles of natural selection

Health psychology

Area of specialization in psychology concerned with the interaction between behavioral factors and physical health

Wernicke's area

Area of the left temporal lobe that is the brain's primary area for understanding speech

Sensory cortex

Area of the parietal lobe, directly across from the motor cortex in the frontal lobe, which receives sensory information about touch, pressure, pain, temperature, and body position

Mean

Arithmetic average obtained by adding scores and dividing by number of scores

Fixation

Arrested development that results from expresser to either too little or too much gratification (psychosexual development)

Informational social influence

Basis of conformity in which we accept a group's beliefs or behaviors as providing accurate information about reality

Stage 4 sleep

Deepest level of sleep during which the brain emits large, slow delta waves

Regression

Defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage (i.e. oral comfort of thumb-sucking)

Projection

Defense mechanism in which an individual reduces anxiety created by unacceptable impulses by attributing those impulses to someone else

Denial

Defense mechanism in which individual reduces anxiety by refusing to acknowledge the existence or severity of unpleasant external realities or internal thoughts and feelings

Operational definition

Definition specifying characteristics that are used to measure or observe a variable. Precise statements of the procedures (operations) used to define independent and dependent variables, such as a definition of aggression specifying how many fights a person has in a particular period of time

Statistical significance

Describe research results in which changes in dependent variable can be associated (with a high level of confidence) to changes in independent variable. Chance is ruled out as explanation.

Measure of central tendency

Descriptive statistics- value that reflects the middle/central point of a distribution of scores; mean, median, mode

Visual cliff

Device that produces the illusion of depth, allowing researchers to test the ability of humans and animals to perceive and respond to depth cues

Sensory adaptation

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation (i.e. after constant, unchanging exposure to a sound/smell we are less likely to notice it)

Binocular cues

Distance (depth) cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of 2 eyes

Monocular cues

Distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone

Normal distribution (normal curve)

Distribution in which scores are distributed similarly on both sides of middle value; form a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve when graphed. Areas under each side of normal curve are 34%, 14%, 2%

Sympathetic nervous system

Division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

Parasympathetic nervous system

Division of the autonomic nervous system that functions to conserve energy, returning the body to normal from emergency responses set in motion by the sympathetic nervous system.

Cannon-Bard theory

Emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and subjective experience of emotion

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Culture

Enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

Synapse

Junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. Includes the synaptic gap and a portion of the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes that are involved in transmitting a signal between neurons.

Corpus callosum

Large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

Cell body (soma)

Largest part of a neuron, containing the nucleus as well as structures that handle metabolic functions

Association areas/association cortex

Largest portion of the cerebral cortex (about 75%), involved in integrating sensory and motor messages as well as processing higher functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

Frontal lobe

Largest, foremost lobe in the cerebral cortex of the brain lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

Associative learning

Learning by making a connection or association between two events, through either classical conditioning or operant conditioning

Observational learning

Learning by observing others

Modeling

Learning process wherein an individual acquires a behavior by observing someone else performing that behavior (observational learning)

Latent learning

Learning that is not demonstrated by an immediately observable change in behavior

Threshold (all-or-none law)

Level of stimulation that must be exceeded in order for a neuron to fire, or generate an electrical impulse. An action potential will be passed through a neuron's axon as long as the sum of graded potentials reaches a threshold. The neuron either fires or it doesn't fire; the strength of the electrical impulse does not vary according to the degree of stimulation.

Stage 1 sleep

Light sleep that occurs just after dozing off

Nature-nurture issue

Longstanding question of the relative contributions of genetic endowment (nature) and experience (nurture) to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

American Psychological Association (APA)

Major professional organization of psychologists in the United States

Hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid, beginning at base with physiological concerns that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety and the psychological needs become active

Bipolar disorder

Mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression and the overexcited, highly energized state of mania

Major depressive disorder

Mood disorder characterized by deep and persistent depression

Sleep

Natural, periodically occurring altered state of consciousness, characterized by reduced activity, lessened responsiveness to stimuli, and distinctive brain-wave patterns.

Action potential

Neural impulse generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane. A brief electrical charge that flows along the surface of the axon to the terminal buttons, initiating the release of neurotransmitters.

Sensory neuron

Neuron or nerve cell that carries messages to CNS from receptors in the skin, ears, nose, eyes, and other receptor organs. A.k.a. afferent neuron

Motor neurons

Neurons that transmit messages from the central nervous system to muscles or glands.

Size constancy

One form of perceptual constancy. Although the retinal image of an object becomes smaller as the object recedes into the distance (or larger as it approaches), the viewer adjusts for this change and perceives the object to be constant in size.

Closure

One of the ways in which the brain orders sensory information into wholes: we fill in gaps in incomplete figures to create a complete, whole object.

Self-esteem

One's feelings of high or low self-like and self-worth. People who are down on themselves tend to be down on other things and people.

Maturation

Orderly unfolding of certain patterns of behavior, such as language acquisition or walking, in accordance with genetic blueprints

Figure-ground

Organization of the visual field into objects ("figures") that stand out from their surroundings ("ground")

Consciousness

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Mood-congruent memory

Phenomenon wherein recall of particular events, experiences, or info is aided by the subject being in same context or physiological state in which info was first encoded. Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Portion of the nervous system that transmits messages to and from the central nervous system. Consists of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system

Visual cortex

Portion of the occipital lobe that integrates sensory information received from the eyes into electrical patterns that the brain translates into vision

Incentive

Positive or negative external stimulus that motivates behavior even when no internal drive state exists. Need and incentive= strong drive

Hypothesis

Prediction, often implied by a theory, which can be empirically tested

Repression

Primary defense mechanism by which ideas, feelings, or memories that are too painful to deal with on conscious level are ejected to unconscious

Dual processing

Principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

Imprinting

Process by which certain infant animals, such as ducklings, learn to follow or approach the first moving object they see.

Sensation

Process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from the environment

Generalization, stimulus

Process by which, once a response has been conditioned, an organism responds in the same way to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Selective attention

Process of focusing on a particular stimulus while ignoring others. Sometimes referred to as the "cocktail party effect."

Retrieval

Process of getting info out of memory storage

Chunking

Process of grouping items into familiar, meaningful units (chunks) to make them easier to remember. (phone numbers)

Perception

Process of organizing and interpreting our sensations, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Perceptual constancy

Process of perceiving an object as unchanging even though the stimuli we receive from it change. Accounts for our ability to recognize a familiar object without being deceived by changes in its size, shape, brightness, or color.

Psychotherapy

Professional relationship consisting of interactions between a trained therapist using psychological techniques and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

Basic research

Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

Median

Sore that falls in middle of a distribution of numbers arranged from lowest to highest

Stage 2 sleep

Stage of sleep characterized by brief bursts of brain activity called sleep spindles

Stage 3 sleep

Stage of sleep during which there are virtually no eye movements

NREM sleep (Non-rapid eye movement sleep_

Stages of sleep (e.g. 3 and 4) during which rapid eye movements typically do not occur. Dreaming occurs far less frequently during NREM sleep than during REM sleep.

Norm

Standard that reflects the normal or average performance of a particular group of people on a measure such as an IQ test

Resting potential

State in which a neuron is not transmitting a nerve impulse. A neuron in this state has a net negative charge relative to its outside environment, and this state of potential energy prepares it to be activated by an impulse from an adjacent neuron.

Hypnosis

State of altered consciousness characterized by a deep relaxation and detachment as well as heightened suggestibility to hypnotist's directives

REM sleep

State of sleep characterized by rapid eye movements, and often associated with dreaming. The muscles are relaxed but other body systems are active.

Correlation coefficient

Statistical measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either factor predicts the other

Conditioned reinforcer

Stimulus that takes on reinforcing properties after being associated with a primary reinforcer

Behavior genetics

Study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

Split-brain research

Surgical cutting of the corpus callous to study the effects of disconnecting the right and left brain hemispheres- specifically, the independent functioning of the two hemispheres

Bystander effect

Tendency for any given person to be less likely to give aid if other people are present (diffusion of responsibility)

Spacing effect

Tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention that is achieved through massed study or practice

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

Tendency for people who first agree to relatively minor request to later comply with more major request

Arousal theory

Theory of motivation that states that we need certain levels of stimulation and we are driven by curiosity to explore our environment to satisfy need for sensory stimulation

Law of effect

Theory originally proposed by Edward Thorndike that is the foundation of the operant conditioning theory: Behavior followed by reinforcement will be strengthened while behavior followed by punishment will be weakened.

Social exchange theory

Theory that our social behavior is a cost-benefit process, aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

Attribution theory

Theory that we attempt to make sense out of other people's behavior by attributing it to either dispositional (internal) causes or situational (external) causes

Psychoanalysis

Therapeutic technique developed by Freud in which primary aim is to bring unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness through historical reconstruction of childhood experiences

Behavior therapy

Therapy based on assumption that maladaptive behavior has been learned and can be unlearned. Applies learning principles such as counter-conditioning and exposure therapy to eliminate unwanted behavior.

Cerebral cortex

Thin outer layer that covers the cerebral hemispheres that is the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

Critical thinking

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

Long-term memory

Third memory system which is the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

Concrete operations stage

Third stage of cognitive development in Piaget's theory (ages 7-12), during which children first develop the ability to think logically about events, mastering the concepts of conservation and reversibility, though abstract thinking is not yet present.

Weber's law

Thresholds for detecting differences are a constant proportion of the size of the original stimulus

Two-factor theory

To experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively interpret and label the arousal

Punishment

Unpleasant consequence of a particular behavior (i.e. something you don't want is forced upon you or something you want is taken away) that decreases the strength or probability of that behavior occurring again

Empiricism

View that (1) knowledges comes from experience via the senses, and (2) science flourishes through observation and experimentation

Behaviorism

View that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Graded potential

Voltage change in a neuron's dendrites that is produced by receiving an impulse from another neuron or neurons.

Third variable problem

Weakness in correlational studies caused by the fact that a correlation between any two variables may be caused by an unknown third variable.

Fundamental attribution error

When analyzing another person's behavior, tendency to overestimate dispositional (internal personality) causes and to underestimate situational (external) causes of their behavior

Latency period

stage of psychosexual development (6-puberty) during which sexual drives remain unexpressed or latent

Phallic stage

stage of psychosexual development (age 3-6) during which pleasure zone is genitals

Anal stage

stage of psychosexual development (between 18-36 months) during which pleasure zone shifts from mouth to bladder and bowel elimination; coping with demands for control