Psychology of adulthood Test 1 (ch1-4)
Continuity Principle
changes that people experience in later adulthood build on the experiences they had in earlier years. - applies to the way we think about their identities - a persons appearance may change but he or she still feels the same.
Biopsychosocial perspective ( Psychological)
cognition, emotions, and personality
exosystem
community, health agencies, school, mass media
age-related losses
primary aging, secondary aging, tertiary aging.
biological aging theories
programed aging theories and random error theories.
Sarcopenia
progressive age related loss of muscle tissue ♣ Decrease in number and size of muscle fibers (fast twitch) involved in speed and strength • Muscle strength peaks in the 20s-30s, stabilizes until 40s-50s, and declines at a faster rate (12-15%) per decade (more pronounced for me) ♣ Isometric strength is retained (muscle endurance) ♣ Minor effects of age on eccentric strength (e.g., lowering arm weights or going down stairs) o Consequences of loss of muscle mass in older adulthood? ♣ Increased risk of falling; Limitations of mobility; Reduced quality of everyday life. ♣ Sarcopenic obesity (loss of muscle along with gains in body fat) o Guess what helps?? ♣ Exercise! Especially strength training (8-12 weeks, 3-4 times/week)
Organismic developmental model
qualitative, active, biological (intrinsic)
Mechanistic developmental model
quantitative, passive, external (environmental)
tertiary aging
rapid decline in function across multiple areas of functioning shortly before death.
telomeres
repeating sequence of proteins that contain no genetic info; protects chromosome from damage due to cell replication.
Cross Sectional Designs
A research design where groups of people are compared with different ages at one point in time ♣ In studies of aging, typically older adults 65+ are compared with younger adults (e.g., of college age). ♣ More frequently used
Longitudinal Design
A research design where people are followed repeatedly from one test occasion to another. ♣ Researchers attempt to determine whether participants have changed over time as a result of the aging process
Validity:
A test's ability to measure what it is supposed to measure
Survivor Principle
The people who live to old age are the ones who manage to outlive the many threats that could have caused their death at earlier ages. - more likely to take care of their health and not engage in risky behaviors. - good genes inheritance - maintained physical abilities - emotional healthy - good support system
factors that influence an individuals performance on a given measure at any point in life
age, cohort, and time of measurement,
Andropause (pros and cons)
age-related declines in testosterone, ~1% per year (also called "late onset hypogonadism"). ♣ Lower testosterone levels more likely in men who are diabetic or obese. ♣ Testosterone supplements are in increasing use. • Benefits include: maintained or improved bone density, greater muscle strength, lowered ratio of fat to lean, lower rates of cognitive decline. • Higher testosterone associated lower CV risk and better cholesterol levels
Modernization hypothesis
industrialization led older adults to become obsolete
types of research methods used in developmental research
laboratory studies, qualitative studies, archival research, surveys, epidemiological studies, case reports, focus groups, daily diary, observational method, meta-analysis.
chronosystem
changes in systems over time.
second aging.
changes over time leading to impairment due to disease.
Optimal aging
changes that improve the individuals functioning.
personal aging
changes that occur within the individuals, reflecting time's passage on the body's structure and functions. (effects on the body)
Microsystem
family, peers, classroom,co-workers
psychological age:
o The performance an individual achieves on measures of: ♣ Reaction time ♣ Learning ability ♣ Memory ♣ Intelligence
3 divisions of the 65+ populations.
o Young-old: 65-74 years o Old-old: 75-84 years o Oldest-old: 85 years and older - cenetarians ( 100) - supercenetarians (110 and older)
Epidemiology
study of distribution of determinants of health related states or events (including disease) and the application of the study ot the control of diseases and other health problems.
Survivor principle (theoretical implication) `
- older adults who participle in research are survivors - with time more of the old population dies - the older, the more selective they become in key characteristics - keep in mind that survivors where a special group when young ,when examining the differences between nows young population. - can't conclude that age causes adults unique characteristics, could have been a special subset of their own group age.
changes in hearing
* presbycusis
How many principles are there for adult development and aging
4.
Reliability:
A measure's consistency and whether it produces the same results each time it is used.
Prospective study
A variant of longitudinal design in which researchers sample from a population of interest before they develop a particular type of illness or experience a particular type of life event ♣ Ex. study widowhood by examining a sample of married individuals while they are still married (assuming that a certain % of these individuals will suffer death of spouse during time of study)
life course theories
Activity , disengagement, continuity theory
is age a true independent variable?
Age is not a true independent variable ♣ Studies on aging are never true experiments because age can't be manipulated or controlled. ♣ Cannot say that aging causes people to receive certain scores on a dependent variable ♣ Can establish whether different age groups vary in responses to the experimental manipulation.
personal aging vs. social aging
Aging process occurs with the individuals but is shaped by events occurring in the individuals context
3 components to Functional Age
Biological age, psychological age, social age
changes in digestive system
Changes is digestive system (varies across individuals) ♣ Minor changes in the stomach and lower digestive tract. ♣ Decreases in saliva production ♣ Less secretion of gastric juices ♣ Stomach empties slower ♣ Decrease in liver volume and blood flow through liver o Smoking status and medications affect digestive functioning in older adults o To maintain digestive health its best to eat a diet balanced with foods containing protein, complex carbs, and fats
change in weight
Fat-free mass (FFM) decreases, body mass index (BMI) increases. In later years, body weight declines due to loss of bone and muscle though some still gain weight or may become obese • Exercise can offset these trends and can boost well-being!
age
D: how many years the person has lived M: change within the individual
time of measurement
D: year or period in which a person is tested M: current influences on individuals being tested.
cohort
D: years (or period) of a persons birth M: Influences relative to history at time of birth
changes in height
Decreases across adulthood, and more pronounced for women. As much as an inch loss over time and due to loss of bone mineral content in the vertebrae, which weakens and leads spine to collapse
Life span perspective
Emphasizes continuity of development from childhood to old age o Included a focus on contextual influences on development o Life span change is function of nature and nurture
functions of the FOXO genes
FOXO genes are a group of genes that may operate to influence rate of cell death. o Certain SNPs in the FOXO3A gene are associated with longevity
Surveys
Gain information about a sample that can be generalized to a larger population typically through short-answer or multiple-choice questions (e.g., US Census).. o Advantages - Provides data that allows researchers gain insight into behavior of large samples of individuals; easily administered o Disadvantages - Subject to bias by respondents; quality of data may be limited.
Epidemiological studies:
Gathers data on the frequency of particular disease in the population. o May use survey methodology; interviews; or collection of biological samples o Results can provide two types of population estimates ♣ Prevalence statistic: estimates of percentage of people who have ever had symptoms in a particular period. ♣ Incidence statistic: estimates of the percentage of people who first develop symptoms in a given period
changes in hair with age
Graying of hair as number of pigmented hair diminishes and does not increase. Hair gets thin (more noticeable in men) o Most common is androgenetic alopecia (95% males; 20% females). Causes hair follicles to stop producing terminal hair and instead produces vellus hair; eventually vellus hair invisible o Solutions: chemicals applied to scalp, herbal remedies, surgical implants, Propecia) (but no cure)
changes in the cardiovascular system
Heart and arteries most affected the left ventricle of heart loses ability to contract well enough to accomplish efficient distribution of blood through arteries. Due to a combination of aging of muscles and changes in arteries. ♣ Arteries accommodate less blood flow , which stresses the left ventricle. (Due to plaque buildup). Cardiovascular efficiency indexed by ♣ Aerobic capacity- max amt of oxygen delivered through blood ♣ Cardiac output-max amt of blood that heart pumps/min • Both indices decline at a rate of 10%/decade from 25+ (more pronounced in females). Maximum heart rate (rate achieved at point of maximum oxygen consumption) decreases with age o Exercise (resistance and aerobic), diet, and not smoking reduces rate of change
symptoms and consequences of hormonal change in females
Hot flashes, fatigue, headaches, night sweats, insomnia, irritability, mood swings, depression, memory loss, difficulty concentrating • Genitals undergo a number of changes that can interfere with sexual intercourse • Bones, cardiovascular disease, and memory may be affected by estrogen decreases
Independent variable
In an experimental study, the factor that the experimenter manipulates
Dependent variable
In an experimental study, the factor that the experimenter observes
Case reports:
In-depth analysis of particular individuals o Data may be integrated from interviews, psychological tests, observations, archival records, journals and diary entries. o Advantages - Provides insight into the lives of individuals as they change over time. o Disadvantages - Relies heavily on clinical judgment by researcher
(1) Changes are continuous over the lifespan
Individuals remain the same even though they change
(4) Normal aging is different from disease.
Intrinsic aging processes are different from those associated with illness.
HRT= Estrogen + Progesterone
Its use is controversial • Alternatives include exercise, quitting smoking, lowering cholesterol and having 1 alcoholic drink/day
Focus groups:
Less formal research method. o Meeting of respondents asked to provide feedback about a certain topic of interest. o Goal is to develop concrete research questions to pursue in subsequent studies o Advantages - Issues can be identified before conducting a more systematic investigation o Disadvantages - Not systematic and data cannot be readily analyzed or systematically interpreted.
changes in the urinary system
Loss of nephrons with age is inconclusive - age differences may be due to other factors that damage nephrons (e.g., smoking, illness, extreme heat or exertion). Older adults have slower excretion rates of chemicals from the body as evidenced by lower Glomerular Filtration Rate (volume of fluid filtered through kidneys - measured by creatine clearance) o With age, loss of elastic tissue of bladder (less capable of efficiently retaining or expelling urine); bladder size does not shrink; hypertrophy of the prostate gland (in men) - 30% of all adults (65+) suffer from Urge incontinence - urinary incontinence in which the individual experiences a sudden need to urinate (or may leak urine) ♣ Related condition is Overactive bladder - urge incontinence and need to urinate more frequently (25% of 65+). ♣ Risk factors: ethnicity, diabetes, depression, estrogen use. ♣ Most older adults are symptom free - incontinence is not a part of normal aging o Treatment: medication (Detrol LA;), behavioral controls, or a combination; kegel exercises; setting regular schedules for bathroom use; eliminating excess fluid intake before bedtime.
Lifespan
Maximum age for a given species o Has no changed for humans
Identity Balance
Most beneficial! (identity assimilation and accommodation operating in tandem): the dynamic equilibrium that occurs when people tend to view themselves consistently (assimilation), but can make changes when called for by their experiences (accommodation). ♣ When operating successfully, individual feels a strong sense of self efficacy
Influences on development fall into 3 categories
Normative-age graded influences, normative history graded influences, non-normative influences.
health Expectancy
Number of years person can expect to love in good health and with little disability if current mortality and morbidity rates persist (also called compression of morbidity)
Daily diary:
Participants enter data on a daily basis such as personal ratings or activities over a period of weeks or months. o Can track small variations in conditions believed to influence people's daily functioning
Laboratory studies:
Participants tested in systematic fashion using standardized procedures, often involving some type of task. o Majority of info about physical and cognitive changes associated with aging comes from lab studies. o Advantages: objective and systematic way in which data is recorded provides researcher assurance that results are due to variables studied than to extraneous factors. o Disadvantages: inability to apply the stimuli presented to real life experiences.
(3) Individuality matters
People vary within and between are groups
Programmed Aging Theories
Propose that aging and death are built into the hardwiring of all organisms and are part of the genetic code. o Support for theories: Different species have different lifespans.
Cross-linking theory:
Proposes that a gene causes deleterious changes in cells that make up the body's connective tissue (e.g., skin, muscle). - the strands of the collagen molecule (left) start to become intertwined, causing the molecules to become increasingly more rigid and smaller. ♣ Results from exposure to certain kinds of sugarswhich leads to glycation, causing formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGE's) - which induce cross-linking. ♣ Evidence supports the increase of cross links in older organisms
Functional Age
Rather than classifying based on chronological age, some gerontologists have devised a new classification based on functional age (or how people actually perform) • concept offers advantages over chronological age.
Experimental Design
Research method in which an independent variable is manipulated and scores are then measured on the dependent variable. o Involves random assignment of respondents to treatment and control groups ♣ Each group represents different levels of the independent variable. ♣ Performance of to groups compared on the dependent variable. ♣ If groups differ on dependent variable, researcher assumes it is due to exposure to different levels of the independent variable.
Observational method:
Researchers draw conclusions about behavior through careful and systematic examination in particular settings. o One type is Participant observation: researcher participates in activities of the respondents. o Elaborate procedures available for creating behavioral records (where researcher precisely defines behavior to be observed and specifies the times during which records will be made. o Procedure may be used to determine whether an intervention is having its intended effects by comparing behavioral records before and after intervention.. After observing effects of
changes in the endocrine system- Growth hormone
Somatotrophic Axis ♣ Growth Hormone (GH): stimulates growth of bones, muscles, regulates growth of internal organs; affects metabolism ♣ Insulin Like Growth Factor 1 (IGF-1) stimulates muscle cells to increase in size and number ♣ Decline in activity of both is called somatopause of aging, and accounts for a number of age related changes in body composition across adulthood, includes • Loss of bone mineral content • Increases in fat, and decreases in muscle mass • Losses in strength, exercise tolerance, and quality of life in general ♣ Age differences in activity of GH: nighttime peak is smaller in older adults; GH rises during exercise (but attenuated in adults 60+) ♣ GH replacement therapy viewed as a treatment to slow effects of aging process (very expensive, potentially harmful side effects)
longitudinal design pros and cons
Strengths: -Can add valuable data on psychological changes in adulthood and old age. -As data accumulates from multiple studies on related variables, a body of evidence can build up that helps inform larger research questions. Limitations: -Cannot differentiate between aging within the individual from changes in social and historical context. - Expensive and logistically difficult- -Final results take many years -Practice effects -Tests become outdated -Attrition
cross sectional design strength and weaknesses.
Strengths: Quick and inexpensive, Latest technologies can be used, Can employ a variety of controls to ensure differences other than age kept to a minimum and that ages selected for study span across adult years. • Findings regarded as tentative descriptions of effects of aging on function of interest. • Can be replicated and verified through longitudinal studies. Limitations: Results reflect age differences not age changes, All participants are studied at one time in history, Selective survival of more able participants, Need to decide on age ranges and how to divide sample, Need to decide on age ranges and how to divide sample
Meta-analysis:
Study that compares the findings across several studies that examine similar phenomena. o Involves a statistical procedure that allows researchers to combine findings from independently conducted studies. o Effect size is calculated - statistic that reflects the extent of the variables effect. o Can be used to estimate across studies, the statistical significance of the outcomes observed in the studies included in the analysis.
where does agism come from?
Terror management theory, Modernization hypothesis, Multiple jeopardy hypothesis
Free Radical Theory
The cause of aging is the increased activity of free radicals that bond to other molecules and compromise the cell's functioning • they are unstable oxygen molecules produced when cells create energy. o Goal is to seek out and bind to other molecules o The attacked molecule then loses its functioning o Antioxidants can fend them off ♣ Active ingredient: superoxide dimutase (SOD).
niche-picking
The concept of niche-picking changed nature-nurture debate o Suggested the genetic and environmental factors work together to influence direction of child's life ♣ Children pick out their niche: area in which they develop their talents and abilities ♣ Once on that path, they experience more than that influence the later development of those abilities
Archival research:
Use existing resources containing data relevant to a question about aging. o May consist of a governmental databank or records kept by an institution, school, or employer; newspapers or magazine reports. o Advantages: - Information is readily accessible o Disadvantages: - Researcher does not necessarily have control over the form of the data; material may not be systematically collected and recorded.
Qualitative studies:
Used when researchers want to explore a phenomena of interest in an open ended fashion o Explores complex relationships in situations that don't lend themselves to restrictions and assumptions of quantitative methods. o Researchers may be working in an area in which conventional methods are neither practical nor appropriate for problem under study o Used in analysis of life history info which is likely to be varied from person to person and not easily translated into numbers. o Main advantage: Provides researchers with alternative ways to test hypotheses
Biopsychosocial perspective.
View of development as a complex interaction of biological, psychological and social perspectives.
Male hormonal change include
andropause and erectile dysfunction
Life expectancy
average length of life for people born in a particular time interval o Death rates or a particular group within population used to project how long it takes for entire group to die completely o Has increased (from 62.9 years in 1940 to 78.7 years in 2010) ♣ Due to reduced death rates for children and adults
Biopsychosocial perspective. ( Biological)
consist of physiological factors and Genetics
types of random error theories
cross-linking theory and free radical theory
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Perspective and the five levels of environment
development is affected by processes at multiple levels. - microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem).
Inter-Individual differences
differences between people. ex: volome of hippocampus in people in their 70's may be the same as of people in their 20's.
social aging
effects of persons exposure to a changing environment
Normal aging Vs. Disease.
growing older does not mean growing sicker - important for practicing and scientific reasons to distinguish between normal aging and disease.
Identity Process theory
identity continues to change in adulthood in a dynamic manner o Theory assumes that indiviudals approach experiences from the vatage pont provided by identity
mesosystem
many microsystem
Erectile dysfunction (ED)
may be treated with a combination of testosterone supplements and Viagra, though there may be risks for men with cardiovascular disease. • Exercise is a safe alternative, at least as initial approach.
female hormonal changes
menopause, perimenopause
changes in skin with age
most vulnerable organ, in the 30's skin starts to wrinkle, looks of resilience, changes in color and texture. Skin becomes more translucent/ discolored, and small outgrowths accumulate. - The epidermis (outer layer) loses skin cells over time, the Dermis (middle layer) collagen levels reduce, skin is less flexible, sebaceous glands become less active therefore skin is dryer and vulnerable to damage. - Subcutaneous fat layer (bottommost layer) begins to thin in middle adulthood; provides less support for layers above it; exacerbates wrinkling and sagging caused by changes in dermis. Blood vessels become more visible.
Interactionistic developmental model
multidirectional/ multidimensional, active, reciprocal.
primary aging (normal aging)
normal age-related changes over time that occur die to universal, intrinsic, and progressive alterations in the body system.
Selective Optimization with Compensation Model (SOC)
o Adults attempt to preserve and maximize the abilities that are of central importance and put less effort into maintaining those that are not. o Older adults make conscious decisions about how to spend their time and effort in the face of losses in physical and cognitive resources. o Model implies that at some point in adulthood, people deliberately begin to reduce efforts in one area in order to focus more on achieving success in another. o Model overall emphasizes ways that people adapt to loss; and people adapt to changes by readjusting goals and in process can maintain a sense of well being.
Biological Age
o Age of an individuals bodily systems ♣ Heart rate ♣ Blood pressure ♣ Glucose levels ♣ Muscle and bone strength
social age
o Calculated by evaluating where people are compared to the typical ages expected for people to be when they occupy certain positions in life ♣ Parental, grandparental status ♣ Work role ♣ Retirement status
Programed aging theories (Telomere theory)
o each cell replication reduces the length of telomeres until the chromosome's tips are no longer protected. ♣ Results in fusion of adjacent chromosomes, the halting of the cell cycle, and cell death. ♣ Evidence linking telomere length to mortality in humans suggests that telomeres may hold key to understanding the aging process ♣ But Telomere length also linked to social factors (e.g., occupation, BMI, smoking, lack of exercise)
activity theory
older adults are better adjusted when they remain involved in their social roles
Multiple jeopardy hypothesis
older individuals who fit more than one discriminated against category are affected by biases against each of these categorizations
age related gains
optimal aging.
developmental psychology models
organismic, mechanistic, interactionist.
Reciprocal Principle
people influence and are influenced by the events in their lives
Perimenopause
period preceding menopause • Estrogen and progesterone gradually decreases. • Anterior pituitary sends out FSH and LH to compensate • Hypothalamus sends out less gonadotrophin-releasing factor (GnRH)
macrosystem
political system, economics, society, cultures, nationality
Quasi-experimental design
represents studies of aging - where researchers compare groups on predetermined characteristics (e.g., age, sex, ethnicity, SES). o Cannot conclude that age caused variations in the dependent variable, but can use results to describe differences between age groups. o Can try to rule out other alternatives that may account for differences in happiness (e.g., control for other variables). o If differences repeatedly demonstrated (controlling for other variables) then researchers can cautiously infer that living situation had an influence on variables of people's Happiness scores.
Terror management theory
seeing older adults reminds us of our mortality
Selective Optimization with Compensation Model (SOC)
selective, optimize, compensate
Ageism
set of beliefs, attitudes, and social institutions, and acts that denigrate individuals or groups based on chronological age
Identity
set of schemas a person holds about him/herself; includes views about their physical self, cognitive abilities, personality characteristics, and social roles, connection to cultural heritage
Biopsychosocial perspective (sociocultural)
social content, history, and culture
Plasticity
the course of development may be altered depending on the nature of the individuals specific interactions with the environment - stimulated through o Mental and physical exercise o Taking steps to prevent causing harm to bodies by avoiding engaging in risky behaviors
Menopause
the end of menstruation (mean age=50 years)
continuity theory
the individuals personality determines whether activity or disengagement is optimal
Identity Assimilation
the interpretation of new experiences in terms of a person's existing identity.
disengagement theory
the normal course of life is for older adults to loosen their social ties
(2) Only the survivors grow old
the people who live to old have managed to outlive the many threats that could have cause their death. Aging individuals are increasingly self-selected
Identity Accommodation
the process of making changes in identity in response to experiences that challenge people's current view of themselves
Intra-Individual differences
variations in performance within the same individual. - some functions may increase over time, others, degrees, and others stay in time - development is multidirectional (development can proceed in multiple directions within the same person).
normative age-graded influences
♣ Ages expected to be associated with certain life events ♣ Ex. Graduation, getting married, retiring, becoming grandparents ♣ Partly linking to the biological aging process (especially in area of family)
Types of validity:
♣ Content validity: provides an indication of whether a test designed to assess factual material accurately measures that material ♣ Criterion validity: indicates whether a test score accurately predicts performance on an indicator measure. ♣ Construct validity: used to assess extent to which a measure is intended to assess psychological constructs is able to do so • Convergent validity: needed to determine if the measure relates to other measures that are theoretically similar. • Discriminant validity: demonstrates that the measure does not relate to other measures that have no theoretical relationship
normative history graded influences
♣ Events that occur to everyone in a certain time period within a certain culture or geopolitical unit (regardless of age)
non-normative influences
♣ Random, idiosyncratic events that occur throughout life ♣ Can be positive or negative
Types of reliability:
♣ Test-retest reliability: determined by giving a test on two occasions to assess whether respondents receive similar scores across both administrations ♣ Internal consistency: indicates whether respondents answer similarly on comparable items.