Psychology of Advertising- Chapter 14

Segmentation and Targeting (pg.402-403)

Marketers can use lifestyles to identify consumer segments for specific offerings. -Marketers also monitor lifestyle changes to identify new opportunites.

Marketing Implications (pg.392-393):

Marketers need to understand how consumer values effect consumption patterns, market segmentation, new product development, ad development strategy, and ethics. -Consumption Patterns -Market Segmentation -New Product Ideas -Ad Development Strategy -Ethical Considerations

-*Terror Management Theory* (pg.387)

Materialism is rooted, in part, in consumers' drive to relieve anxiety over the inevitability of death by deriving self-esteem and status from acquiring and possessing things.

-*Voluntary Simplicity* (pg.402)

Means consciously limiting acquisition and consumption for a less materialistic, more eco-friendly lifestyle.

VALUES (pg.383-395):

Values are so ingrained that people are usually not conscious of them and have difficulty describing them. The way that we behave in a given situation is often influenced by how important one value is to us relative to others. Because values are among the first things that children learn, value systems are often in place by age 10. ~People learn values through the process of socialization, which results from exposure to reference groups and other sources of influence. -Because individuals learn values through exposure to others in institutions and cultures, people within the same group often hold similar values.

New Product Ideas (pg.393)

Values can also influence consumers' reactions to new and different products. ~The more a new product is consistent with important consumer values, the greater the likelihood of its success.

How Values Can Be Described (pg.385-386):

Values can vary in terms of their specificity. -At the broadest level are *global values,* which represent the core of an individual's value system. -Also notices in Exhibit 14.2 that values tend to be polarized: Consumer who place a high value on on set of terminal values place less value on the set on the opposite side of the figure.

-Global-Specific Values (pg.386)

Values that may only apply to a particular area of activities. ~Global values are different from *domain-specific values,* which are relevant only to particular areas of activity, such as religion, family, or consumption. -Although they differ, global and domain-specific values can be related in that achievement of domain-specific values (such as health) can be instrumental to the achievement of one or more global values (such as inner harmony or self-respesect).

Voluntary Simplicity (pg.402)

Voluntary simplicity is NOT the same as frugality. ~Whereas frugality is a personality trait reflecting disciplined spending and consumption of goods and services, voluntary simplicity is a lifestyle choice for consumers who do not want the accumulation of possessions to be the focus of their lives. -Instead, those who follow this lifestyle will borrow items when needed, buy used or share product with family and friends, pay in cash to avoid debt, and reuse items (such as coffee mugs) rather than buying disposable products.

Individualism (pg.388)

Western cultures generally place a high value on individualism. The traditional "rugged individualist" consumer values independence and self-reliance, tending to see the individual's needs and rights as a higher priority then the group's needs and rights. ~Despite the frontier roots of individualism in America, some consumers worry about violence and other possible negative consequences of unbridled (uncontrolled) individualism.

Lifestyle and Behavior Patterns (pg.401-402):

What people do in their spare time is often a good indicator of their lifestyle. -Consumer who engage in different activities and have differing opinions and interests may in fact represent distinct lifestyle segments for marketers. -Lifestyle research can help marketers understand how a product fits into consumers' general behavior patterns. ~Importantly, consumers in different countries may have different characteristics lifestyles.

LIFESTYLES (pg.401-404):

Whereas values and personality represent internal states of characteristics, *lifestyles* are manifestations or actual patterns of behavior. In particular, they are represented by a consumer's *activities, interests, and opinions (AIOs).*

-*Creativity* (pg.399)

"a departure from conventional consumption practice in a novel (unique) and functional way."

Need for Uniqueness (pg.399)

A Need for Uniqueness Covers 3 Behavioral Dimensions: -Creative Choice Counterconformity -Unpopular Choice Counterconformity -Avoidance of Similarity

-Psychographics (pg.383)

A description of consumers based on their psychological and behavioral characteristics. "A description of consumers on the basis of their psychological & behavioral characteristics." -Marketers use psychographics to gain a more detailed understanding of consumer behavior then they can get from demographic variables like ethnicity, social class, age, gender, and religion.

-Global Values (pg.385)

A person's most enduring, strongly held, and abstract value that hold in many situations. ~Which represent the core of an individual's value system.

-Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) (pg.395)

A survey that measures instrumental and terminal values. -This questionnaire is standardized, and everyone responds to the same set of items, a procedure that helps researchers identify the specific values that are most important to a given group of consumers, determine values are changing over time, and learn whether values differ for various groups of consumers.

-List of Values (LOV) (pg.395)

A survey that measures nine principal values in consumer behavior. ~Consumers are presented with nine primary values and asked either to identify the two most important or to rank all nine values by importance. The 9 Values Are: 1.) Self-Respect 2.) Warm Relationships with Others 3.) Sense of Accomplishment 4.) Self-Fulfillment 5.) Fun and Enjoyment in Life 6.) Excitement 7.) Sense of Belonging 8.) Being Well Respected 9.) Security -Compared with RVS, the LOV is a better predictor of consumer behavior, is shorter, and is easier to administer. Finally, the LOV is useful for identifying segments of consumers with similar value systems.

-Means-End Chain Analysis (pg.394)

A technique that can help to explain how values link to attributes in products or services.

-Dogmatism (pg.399)

A tendency to be resistant to change or new ideas. -Dogmatic, or close-minded, consumers are relatively resistant to new products, new promotions, and new ads.

-Need for Cognition (NFC) (pg.399)

A trait that describes how much people like to think.

Inferring Values from the Cultural Milieu (pg.393-394)

The least obstructive way to measure values is to make inferences based on a culture's milieu. ~Advertising has often been used as an indicator of values. -Marketers can infer values just by looking at product names. ~Values are also reflected in magazine titles (such as Money), book and movie titles, Tv programs, the types of people regarded as heroes or heroines, and popular songs. -One criticism of cultural milieu as an indicator of values is that researchers never know whether culture reflects values or creates them. ~In light go this problem, researchers have introduced other methods to measure values.

-National Character (pg.400)

The personality of a country.

Competitiveness (pg.401)

The personality trait of competitiveness has been associated with the desire to outdo others through conspicuous consumption of material items such as electronic gadgets. ~It also plays a role in consumers' wanting to do better than others in a direct way (ex. through a sport to by gambling) or an indirect way (such as watching a sporting event). -Marketers who want to appeal to competitive consumers often use message emphasizing the opportunity to be among the first to try to buy a new product or service. ~Note that when lower-status consumer focus on conspicuous consumption and are aware of their potential for gains relative to higher-status consumers, this creates a competitive mindset and stimulates them to increase consumption.

-Hedonism (pg.389)

The principle of pleasure seeking.

Research Approaches to Personality (pg.396-398):

The social sciences provide various approaches to studying personality. 5 Approaches that Consumer Researchers Apply: - Psychoanalytic Approaches - Trait Theories - Phenomenological Approaches - Social-Psychological Theories - Behavior Approaches

-Activities, Interests, and Opinions (AIOs) (pg.401)

The three components of lifestyles.

-Instrumental Values (pg.385)

The values needed to achieve the desired end states and cheerfulness. (shown with a plus sign; Exhibit 14.2 (pg.385))

-*Compliant* (pg.397)

Individuals who are dependent on others and are humble trusting, and tired to a group.

Communications (pg.403)

Marketers can design ad message and promotions to appeal to certain lifestyles, featuring products int he context of desires lifestyles.

-Values (pg.383)

Abstract, enduring beliefs about what is right/ wrong, important, or good/bad. ~As enduring beliefs, your values serve as standards that guide your behavior across situations and over time.

Psychoanalytic Approaches (pg.396)

According to psychoanalytic theories, personality arises from a set of dynamic, unconscious internal struggles within the mind. -The famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud proposed that we pass through several developmental stages in forming our personalities. ~Oral: The infant is entirely dependent on other for need satisfaction and receives oral gratification from sucking, eating, and biting. ~Anal: The child id confronted with the problem of toilet training. ~Phallic: The youth becomes aware of his or her genitals and must deal with desires for the opposite-sex parent. ^Freud believed that the failure to resolve the conflicts from each stage could influence one's personality. -Although some of Freud's theories were later questioned by many researchers, the key point is that the subconscious can influence behavior.

PERSONALITY (pg.396-401):

Although individuals with comparable backgrounds tend to hold similar values, it is important to remember that people do not always act the same way even when they hold the same values. ~Therefore, consumers vary in terms of their personality or the way in which they respond to a particular situation.

Determining Whether Personality Characteristics Affect Consumer Behavior (pg.398-401):

Although studies have attempted to find a relationship between personality and consumer behavior, personality is not always a good predictor of consumer behavior. ~One major problem is that researchers developed many of the trait measurement instruments for identifying personality disorders in clinical settings, so these instruments may not be applicable for identifying traits related to consumption behaviors. -Also, the association between personality and consumer behavior may be stronger for some types of consumer behavior than for others. -Marketers may also find personality more useful for targeting some product and service categories than others. -Finally, certain types of personality traits ma be more related to consumer behavior than others. Personality Characteristics & Consumer Behavior (CB): -Optimal stimulation level -Dogmatism -Need for Uniqueness -Creativity -Susceptibility to Influence -Frugality -Self-Monitoring -National Character -Competitiveness

-Personality (pg.396)

An internal characteristic that determines how individuals behave in various situations. -Consists of the distinctive patterns of behaviors, tendencies, qualities, or personal dispositions that make on individual different from another and lead to a consistent response to environmental stimuli. ~These patterns are internal characteristics that we are born with or that results from the way we have been raised. ^The concept of personality helps us understand why people behave differently in different situations.

Social-Psychological Theories (pg.397-398)

Another group of theories focuses on social rather than biological explanations of personality, proposing that individuals act in social situations to meet their needs. -The researcher Karen Horney, for instance, believed that behavior can be characterized by three major orientations. ~Compliant ~Aggressive ~Detached ^These three orientations are measured by the CAD scale. -In social-psycholigcal theory, researchers distinguish between state-oriented consumers, who are more likely to rely on subjective norms to guide their behavior, and action-oriented consumers, whose behavior is based more on their own attitudes.

Value Questionnaires (pg.395)

Marketers can directly assess values by using questionnaires. Some types of questionnaires, such as material values scale, focus only on specific aspects of consumer behavior. ~Other cover a range of values.

Means-End Chain Analysis (pg.394-395)

Attributes of product are important. Marketers can use *means-end chain analysis* to gain insight into consumers' values by better understanding which attributes they find important in products. -Armed with this information, researchers can work backward to uncover the values that drive consumer decisions. -Marketers can use means-end chain analysis to identify product attributes that will be consistent with certain values. ~The means-end chain model is also useful for developing advertising strategy. ~By knowing which attributes consumers find important and which values they associate with those attributes, advertisers cans ensign ads that appeal to these values and emphasize related attributes. ^ Note that the ad need not explicitly link a given tribute with a motive, but it can allow consumers to implicitly make the linkage. -Finally, marketers can use the means-end chain to segment global markets and appeal to consumers on the basis of specific benefits and related values.

Why Values Change (pg.391):

Because societies and their institutions are constantly evolving, value systems are also changing. In addition to key trends already discussed, U.S. values are moving toward casualness in living, greater sophistication in behavior, a change in sex roles, and the desire to be modern. -Although the United States was different from Western Europe 100 years ago, both cultures (and to certain extent Japan as well) are now more similar in values, even though differences still exist. [and Japan]

-*Unpopular Choice Counterconformity* (pg.399)

Choosing products and brands that do not conform to establish distinctive despite possible social disapproval.

Youth (pg.389-390)

Compared with other cultures, the United States has long placed a high value on youth, as evidenced by the wide range of offerings for combating or reducing signs of aging (think of wrinkle creams, hair coloring, and hair transplants). ~Cosmetic surgery is one of the fastest-growing medical specialties for both men and women. -Marketing communications also indicate the value place on youth and products that help consumers feel youthful.

Marketing Implications (pg.402-404):

Consumer lifestyles can have important implications for: -Market Segmentation -Communication -New Product Ideas

Susceptibility to Influence (pg.400)

Consumers also vary in their susceptibility to persuasion attempts, especially those who are interpersonal or face to face. -Some consumers have a greater desire to enhance their image as observed by others and are therefore willing to be influences by them. ~Consumers with lower social and information processing confidence tend to be more influenced by ads than are those with higher self-confidence.

Hedonism (pg.389)

Consumers are increasingly operating on the principle of *hedonism,* or pleasure seeking, searching for goods, services, and experiences that simply make them feel good, such as luxury cars, home entertainment centers, and exciting kitchens.

Technology (pg.390)

Consumers in many cultures are fascinated by technological advances. -Consumers appear to value technology for what it can do to make their lives easier rather than for its own sake, making technology an instrumental rather than a terminal value.

-*Idiocentric* (pg.388)

Consumers tend to put more emphasis on individual freedom and assertiveness. -Idiocentric consumers in the United States exhibit more interest in sports and adventure, financial satisfaction, gambling, and brand consciousness.

Ethical Considerations (pg.393)

Consumers use values to gauge the appropriateness of others' behaviors---including the behavior of marketers. -Consumers also evaluate marketers' behavior for fairness, ethics, and appropriateness. ~Marketers should be aware that consumers may boycott, protest, or complain about practices that seem inconsistent with their values of fairness.

Consumption Patterns (pg.392)

Consumers usually buy, use, and dispose in manner consistent with their values. ~Thus, marketers can know more about what consumers like if they understand their values. However, marketers sometimes adopt an ethnocentric perspective, assuming that consumers in other culture hold values similar to their own.

Need for Cognition (pg.399)

Consumers who enjoy thinking extensively about things like products, attributes, and benefits are high in the *need for cognition (NFC).* -Specifically, those with a high need for cognition enjoy products and experiences that carry a serious learning and mastery component such as chess, educational games, and TV shows like *Jeopardy.* ~They derive satisfaction from searching for and discovering new product features and might also scrutinize messages more carefully then other consumers do, considering the credibility or merits of the message.

-*Allocentric* (pg.388)

Consumers who prefer interdependence (mutually reliant on each other) and social relationships. -Allocentric consumers exhibit more interest in health consciousness, group socializing, reading, and food preparation.

Family and Children (pg.388)

Cultures also differ in the values that they place on their families and children. Photo related goods and services are high in demand as indulgent parents capture images of their children to save and view in the future.

-*Value Laddering* (pg.394)

Determining the root values related to product attributes that are important to consumers.

Social Class and Values (pg.392)

Different social class hold specific values, which in turn affect their acquisition and consumption patterns.

The Environment (pg.390)

Environmental protection has become an important value among the U.S> and European countries, whoa re interested in conserving natural resources, preventing pollution, and supporting environmentally friendly goods, services, and activities. ~Businesses can profit from many aspects of environmental friendly goods, services, and activities.

Ethnic Identification and Values (pg.391-392)

Ethnic groups within a larger culture can have some values that differ form those of other ethnic subcultures. -Consumers in different countries may have different ethnic values.

Ad Development Strategy (pg.393)

Examining the target segment's value profile can help marketers design more appealing ads. -The compatible the ad copy is with consumers' values, the more likely consumers are to become involved in the message and find it relevant. ~Clearly, marketers must connect product attributes and benefits to consumer values because these represent the end state consumers desire to achieve---the deriving force behind their consumption of the product. -Marketers must also avoid communications that conflict with cultural values within one nation or when reaching audiences in multiple nations.

The Values That Characterize Western Cultures (pg.386-390):

Given that values are an important influence on behavior, marketers need to understand some of the values that characterize consumption in Western societies. These Include: -Materialism -Home -Work and Play -Individualism -Family and Children -health -Hedonism -Youth -Authenticity -Environment -Technology

-Terminal Values (pg.385)

Highly desired end states such as social recognition and pleasure. (shown with an asterisk; Exhibit 14.2 (pg.385))

Influences on Values (pg.391-393):

How do values differ across groups of consumers? This section explores the ways that culture, ethnicity, social class, and age influence our values.

-Locus of Control (pg.397)

How people interpret why things happen (internal versus external).

Behavior Approaches (pg.398)

In contrast to other explanations of personality, behavioral approaches propose that differences in personality are a function of how individuals have been rewarded or punished in the past. ~According the behavioral approaches, individuals are morel likely to have traits or engage in behaviors for which they have reined positive reinforcement. They are less likely to maintain characteristics and behaviors for which they have been punished. Ex. An individual might be extroverted because parents, caretakers, and other individuals reward outgoing behaviors and punished introverted behaviors.

-*Detached* (pg.397)

Individuals are independent and self-sufficient but suspicious and introverted.

Self-Monitoring Behavior (pg.400)

Individuals differ in the degree to which they look to others for sues on who to behave. High Self Monitors: Are typically sensitive to the desires and influences of others as guides to behavior ~Are more responsive to image-oreinted ads and more willing to try and pay more for products advertised with an image consistent with high self-monitoring. Low Self Monitors: Are guided more by their own preferences and desires in their responsiveness to advertising appeals. ~Are generally more responsive to ads that make a quality claim and are more willing to try these products and pay extra for them. -Marketers can prime awareness of self-monitoring through techniques such as calling the consumer by name. ~In turn, this higher awareness can encourage the consumers to make decisions that better fir their personal preferences and therefore improve satisfaction.

-*Aggressive* (pg.397)

Individuals need power, move away from others, and are outgoing, assertive, self-confident, tough minded.

-*Frugality* (pg.400)

Is the degree to which consumers take a disciplined approach to short-term acquisitions and are resourceful in using products and services to achieve longer-term goals. -Such consumers are less materialistic, less susceptible to the influence of others, and more conscious of price and value.

-*Acculturation* (pg.384)

Is the process by which individuals learn the values and behaviors of a new culture. -Consumers are more likely to adopt the values of a new culture if they view that culture as attractive and as having values similar to their own. -Acculturation also happens faster when people in the new culture are cohesive, give a lot of verbal and nonverbal signals about what their values are, and express pride in the values that they hold.

-*Avoidance of Similarity* (pg.399)

Losing interest in possessions that become commonplace to avoid the norma and hence reestablish distinctiveness.

Health (pg.389)

Many U.S. consumers place a high value on health due to reasons of self-esteem (the way the body looks) and concerns about longevity and survival. -Growing concern about pesticides, additives, food-related illnesses, and contaminants has enhanced U.S. demand for organic foods year after year. -Moreover, consumers who value health tend to be less price sensitive than consumers who do not hold that value---an important consideration because organic foods sometimes cost more than nonorganic foods. -The emphasis on health has also paved the way for walk-in medical clinics located inside popular stores such as CVS and Walmart. -Values and behaviors can differ, however.

Home (pg.387)

Many consumer place a high value on home and believe in making it as attractive and as comfortable as possible. ~Because the outside world is becoming more complex, exhausting, and dangerous, consumer often consider their home a haven, but they also look for opportunities to connect with others. [people spend more time at home now a days] -The home is "command central"---a place to coordinate activities and pool resources before family members enter the outside world.

Age and Values (pg.392)

Members of a generation often share similar values that differ from those of other generations. Note that it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish values we acquire with age from those we learn from our era. ~Nevertheless, differences by virtue of age or cohort ( a group or company) do exist, and they influence the way that we behave as consumers.

Work and Play (pg.387-388)

Not everyone in every culture shares the same values of work and play. In the United States, consumers are working harder and longer than ever before, partly due to corporate downsizing and an emphasis on productivity. ~In fact, when career-minded consumers go on vacation, nearly half regularly communicate with work colleagues through cell phone, e-mail, and fax. ~However, consumers increasingly value work for its instrumental function in achieving other values such as a comfortable lifestyle, family security, and accomplishing their life goals. -When people work longer hours, they value leisure time as much as they value money, and they will pay for services so that they can spend more non work time on leisure activities. ~For instance, the online grocery retailer Peapod, owned by the Dutch supermarket company Royal Ahold, has built multimillion-dollar business catering to U.S. consumers who have better things to go than go to the supermarket to pick out tomatoes and tissues. -Many consumer make leisure-time choices with the express purpose of getting completely away form work, a goal that has made remote vacation spots and spas more popular in recent years.

New Product Ideas-404)

Often marketers can develop new product and service ideas by uncovering unfilled needs of certain lifestyle segments.

VALS (pg.404)

One of the most widely known psychographics tools is VALS, formerly known as *Values and Lifestyles,* and is owned by Strategic Business Insights. -VALS analyzes the behavior of U.S. consumers to create segments based on two factors. 1.) Resources, including income, education,self-confidence, health, eagerness to buy, intelligence, and energy level. 2.) Primary motivation. Responses to a proprietary survey place a consumer in one of 8 categories (innovator, thinker, believer, achiever, striver, experiencer, survivor, maker) The survey is available at:

Materialism (pg.386-387)

One value that has become increasingly prevalent in Western culture is *materialism.* -In a materialistic society, people gauge satisfaction of what they have or have not acquired in life in terms of desired possessions. ~In contrast, symbolic items such as a mother's wedding gown, family mementos, and photos are more important to those low in materialism. -Materialistic consumers might believe that they would be happy if they has a bigger house, a nicer care,or more expensive clothes---beliefs that can lead to stress if family or life changes disrupt their finical situation. ~Yet research actually indicates a weak connection between material possessions and happiness. -During the recent recent recession, finally strapped consumers who previously place a high value on materialism began shifting away from this value. ~Refocusing on experiences makes sense because the happiness associated with acquired possessions fades quickly, while the positive feelings associated with experiences lingers longer. ~Another explanation for the movement away from materialism is that the value conflict between the individual orientation of materialism and the group orientation of family-oreinted values is associated with a reduced sense of well-being. -In a materialistic society, consumers will be receptive to marketing tactics that facilitate the acquisition of goods, such as phone-in or online orders, special pricing, convent distribution, and communications that associate acquisition with achievement and status, like ads for a Rolex watch. ~Consumers also want to protect their possessions, creating opportunities for services such as insurance and security companies that protect consumers against loss, theft, and damage.

-Value System (pg.383)

Out total set of values and their relative importance.

Culture and Values (pg.391)

People in different countries are exposed to different cultural experiences, a situation that leads to cross-cultural differences in values. In a classic study, Geert Hofstede found that cultures can vary along 4 main value dimensions: -Individualism versus Collectivism -Uncertainty Avoidance -Masculinity versus Femininity -Power Distance ^All cultures can be classified according to these four dimensions. Understanding where a given culture falls may provide insight into cross-cultural differences.

-*Optimal Stimulation Level (OSL)* (pg.398)

People prefer things that are moderately arousing to things that are either too arousing or not arousing at all.

Authenticity (pg.390)

People value authentic things, either the original article (such as the actual furniture that George Washington owned, which is displayed in his Mount Vernon home) or a faithful reproduction (such as furniture to look like that of George Washington and shown in a museum or available for purchase). ~Cheap knockoffs or counterfeits tend to be valued much less.

-Lifestyles (pg.401)

People's patterns of behavior.

National Character (pg.400-401)

Personality traits can sometimes be used to stereotype people of particular country as having a *national character.* -These characterizations represent only very board generalizations about a particular country; obviously individuals vary a great deal. -Researchers have characterized how countries differ in their needs for achievement, levels of introversion and extroversion, perceptions of human nature, and flexibility. ~Marketers must consider how differences in national character may influence reactions to advertising an other communications.

Phenomenological Approaches (pg.397)

Phenomenological approaches propose that personality is largely shaped by an individual's interoperation of life events. ~A key concept of the phenomenological approaches os *locus of control,* or people's interpretations of why specific things happen. Internal: Attribute more responsibility to themselves for good or bad outcomes, so they might blame themselves or see themselves as having been careless when product fails. External: Individuals place responsibility on other people, events, or places rather than themselves. ~Thus, they might attribute product failure to faulty manufacturing or poor packing. -Locus of control can heavily influence consumers' perceptions of satisfaction in a consumption experience and determine how the consumer feels. Ex. Consumers who blame themselves for product failure might feel shame, whereas those who blame product failure on an external sour might feel anger and irritation. -In addition, someone's life theme or goal's (concerns that we address in our everyday lives) can greatly influence the meanings that he or she derives from ads.

-Materialsim (pg.386)

Placing importance on money and material goods.

Optimal Stimulation Level (pg.398-399)

Some activités have the potential to provide some sort of physiological arousal. -Things that are physical stimulating, emotionally energizing, or novel have arousal-inducing potential. ~However, highly stimulating activities are not always desirable. -Even though people generally prefer moderate levels of stimulation, individuals differ in the level of arousal they regard as moderate and optimal. -Individuals with high and low needs for stimulation also differ in the way in which they approach the marketplace. ~Those with high stimulation needs tend to be the first to buy new products, to seek information about them, and to engage in variety seeking (buying something different)>

-*Creative Choice Counterconformity* (pg.399)

The consumer's choice reflects social distinctive yet is one that others will approve of.

-*Individualism versus Collectivism* (pg.391)

The degree to which a culture focuses on the individuals rather than the group.

-*Power Distance* (pg.391)

The degree to which a society's members are equal in terms of status.

-Need for Uniqueness (NFU) (pg.399)

The desire for novelty (uniqueness) through the purchase, use, and disposition of products and services.

-*Nostalgia* (pg.402)

The desire for old things.

-*Uncertainty Avoidance* (pg.391)

The extent to which a culture prefers structured to unstructured situations.

-*Masculinity versus Femininity* (pg.391)

The extent to which a culture stresses masculine values (as defined by Hofstede) such as assertiveness, success, and competition over feminine values such as quality of life, warm personal relationships and caring.

-Value Segmentation (pg.392)

The grouping of consumers by common values. ~Marketers can identify groups of consumers who have a common set of values that differ form those of other groups, a process called *value segmentation.*

-*Means-End Chain* (pg.394)

This entire process is called *means-end chain* because the attribute provides the means to desired end state or terminal value (in this case, self-esteem).

PSYCHOGRAPHICS: COMBING VALUES, PERSONALITY, AND LIFESTYLES (pg.404-406)

This last section provides a brief description of several psychographic applications in marketing.

How Values Can Be Measured (pg.393-395):

To segment the market values, marketers need some means of identifying consumers' values, gauging their importance, and analyzing changes or trends in values. ~Unfortunately, values are often hard to measure.

Trait Theories (pg.396-397)

Trait theorist propose that personality is composed of characteristics that describe and differentiate individuals. -Psychologist Carl Jung developed one of the most basic trait theory schemas, suggesting that individuals could be categorized according to their levels of introversion and extroversion. Introverts: Introverts are shy, prefer to be alone, and are anxious in the presence of others. They tend to avoid social channels and may not find out about new products from others. They are also less motivated by social pressure and more likely to do things that please themselves. Extroverts: Extrovertas are outgoing, sociable, and typically conventional. -Research in Social Psychology has found that 5 Major Personality Traits Tend to Account for the Most Variance in Personality: ~Agreeableness ~Conscientiousness ~Emotional Stability ~Openness ~Extraversion -Recent work has also found that trait of stability, or consistency in behavior, when combined with the introversion/ extroversion dimension, can be used as a basis to represent various personality types.

-*Value Conflict* (pg.383)

when you do something that is consistent with one value but inconsistent with another equally important value.