Psychology Test #3
"we knew it all along" -would have known answer if we had access to information that came available after the event
20-20 Hindsight
-the creation of new ways of responding to objects or looking at the world -according to Piaget the modification of schemas so that information inconsistent with existing schemas can be integrated or understood
Accommodation
-responding to a new stimuli through a reflex or existing habit -According to Piaget the inclusion of a new event into an existing schema
Assimilation
-the stage of formal operations (age 11 or 12) -abstract thought, especially classification, logical thought, and the ability to hypothesize -adolescent egocentrism: press for acceptance of their logic without recognizing exceptions; imaginary audience: the belief that other people are as concerned with out thoughts and behavior as we are; personal fable: the belief that our feelings and ideas are special and unique; belief that we are invulnerable promotes some risk-taking behavior
Cognitive Development (Adolescence)
- hypothesized that children's cognitive processes develop in an orderly sequence of stages
Cognitive Development (Piaget)
-college tends to move people from black and white thinking to a more relativistic understanding of belief systems -begins to become pragmatic understand the need to cope with the world as it is rather than as it should be
Cognitive Development (early adulthood)
-memory function declines in late adulthood -dementia: a dramatic deterioration in mental abilities of thinking, memory, judgment, and reasoning -alzheimer's disease is a progressive form of mental deterioration that affects about 10 % of people over the age of 65; become harder to manage daily tasks, recall names and addresses, and drive; build up of sticky plaque on the brain may contribute to these changes, but may also result from them
Cognitive Development (late adulthood)
-crystallized intelligence increases but fluid intelligence tends to decline
Cognitive Development (middle adulthood)
-ages 7-12 -children typically do better with tangible (concrete) rather than abstract ideas -show the beginnings of the capacity for adult logic but not abstract ideas more tangible -become capable of decentration making them more capable of conservation tasks -become subjective in their moral judgment less egocentric
Concrete Operational Stage
Downplayed the importance of the sexual instinct Collective unconscious, contains primitive images called archetypes, that reflect the history of our species
Carl Jung and Analytical Psychology (neo-freudians)
-6-7 months -characterized by intensified dependence on the primary care-giver
Clear Cut Attachment Phase
-specific examples -prototypes are taught by these
Exemplars
-a statistical technique to test his views -suggested that behaviors we considered intelligent have a common underlying factor -broad reasoning and problem solving skills (G) factor - general -even the most capable people are relatively superior in some areas - (S) factor music, business, poetry, the arts - specific factor
Factor Analysis and Spearman's views/contributions
-8-10 months -children may cry or cling to their parent when strangers try to befriend them
Fear of Strangers Phase
- the baby from the third moth following conception through childbirth, during which time there is maturation of organ systems and dramatic gains in length and weight -at four moths mother begins to feel movement; heart and lungs become increasingly capable of sustaining life
Fetal Stage
Denial-people feel that " it can't be happening to me. The diagnosis must be wrong." Anger- denial usually gives way to anger and resentment toward the young and healthy and sometimes toward the medical establishment, "its unfair, why me?" Bargaining - next people may try to bargain with God to postpone death promising for example to do good deeds id they are given another 6 months or another year to live Depression- with depression come feelings of loss and hopelessness grief at the inevitability of leaving loved ones and life itself Final Acceptance- ultimately an inner peace may come a quiet acceptance of the inevitable. such peace does not resemble contentment. it is nearly devoid of feeling
Five Stages of Dying (Kugler-Ross)
-represents mental flexibility (process information rapidly, to learn and solve new problems)
Fluid Intelligence
-refers to the way in which wording, or the context in which information is present, can influence decision-making -putting a positive spin on things
Framing Effect (decision making)
-the human mind is like an iceberg: the region that pokes through into the light of awareness is called the conscious; pre-conscious mind contains elements of experience that are out of awareness but can be made conscious simply by focusing on them; unconscious mind is shrouded in mystery but has biological instincts
Freud's Theory of Psychosexual Development
-hinders problem-solving -involves tendency to think of an object in terms of its name or its familiar function - limits creativity in problem-solving -not allowing you to think of an object in being used in other ways ex-just thinking of a chair as a chair instead of as a step stool if needed
Functional Fixedness
-generativity involves things such as rearing children, producing on the job, or ,making the world a better place, for example, through church or civic groups -generativity enhances self-esteem -stagnation means treading water, as in keeping the same job at the same rate of pay for 30 years or neglecting to rear one's children; stagnation hurts self-esteem
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson-middle adulthood)
-final stage, find sexual gratification through intercourse with a member of the other gender -begins with re-emergence of feelings for opposite sex parent
Genital Stage
-period from conception to implantation, also known as the "period of the ovum" -dividing mass of cells has not become implanted in the uterine wall
Germinal Stage (prenatal development)
-assess the difference between our current situation and our goals, and then do what we can to reduce this discrepancy (heuristic device) -ex-asking for directions when you're lost
Means-End Analysis
•Take a sample of behavior to predict future behavior •Characteristics of scientific personality tests oValidity: the degree to which the test measures what it is supposed to measure oReliability: the stability of a test's results from one testing period to another oStandardization: a process that checks out the scores, validity, and reliability of a test with people of various ages and from various groups Behavior-Rating scales: trained observers check off each occurrence of a specific behavior within a certain time frame Aptitude assessment
Measures of Personality
-the tendency to respond to a new problem with the same approach that helped solve similar problems -usually this makes the work easier but can mislead us especially if the similarity or the seemed similarity is misleading
Mental Sets
-gender differences: using the Heinz dilemma, boys show high levels of moral development than girls, due to different socialization patterns for boys and girls, not differences in morality; girls are socialized to focus on the needs of others; boys make judgments based on logic ; girls tend to show an emphasis on care in their reasoning while boys show a justice orientation
Moral Development (Adolescence)
-studied how people reach moral judgments rather than the judgments themselves -presented subjects with moral dilemmas and studied their reasoning for their judgments -proposed that moral reasoning follows and specific sequence
Moral Development (Kohlberg)
-startle reflex
Moro (infant reflex)
-the progression from lifting the head to running around offers psychologist a wondrous laboratory for sorting out genetic and environmental influences on development -maturation plays a large role -the age at which children achieve motor milestones may vary, but the sequence is usually the same
Motor Development
-the infant realizes that objects are removed from sight still exist (occurs about 8-12 months)
Object Permanence
-according to Piaget the assignment of blame according to the amount of damage done rather than the motives of the actor
Objective Responsibility
•Present respondents with a standardized group of test items in the form of a questionnaire oResponses are limited to a specific range of answers oForced-Choice Format: respondents are asked to indicate which of two statements is truer for them •Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) contains hundreds of items in a true-false format oUsed to diagnose psychological disorders oMost widely used test in clinical work oMost widely used personality measurement in psychological research oDeveloped empirically rather than based on theory
Objective Test
-fixation time: the amount of time spent looking at one stimulus instead of another -2 month old infants prefer stimuli that resemble a human face -visual cliff (Walk and Gibson) experiments: 6 to 8 month old infants develop depth perception and avoid crawling off the "cliff"
Perceptual Development
-easygoing, warm, and supportive, but poor at communicating (children tend to be immature, impulsive, moody)
Permissive
- the reasonably stable patterns of emotions motives and behavior that distinguish one person from another
Personality
-occurs during the third year of life -oedipus complex: boys want to marry mom, hostility toward dad -electra complex: girls want to marry dad, hostility towards mom -revolution comes when children begin to identify with their same-sex parent -sexual feelings toward the other parent are then repressed for several years
Phallic Stage
revert to a more juvenile way of function
Regression
-scores are consistent from test to test
Reliability
- decision making heuristic in which people make judgments about the events according to the populations of events that they appear to represent
Representative Heuristic (decision making)
push memories down into unconscious
Repression
-people of different ages are observed and compared -most investigators gather data on what the "typical" 6-month old is doing by finding children who are 6-months old today; when they expand their research to the behavior of typical 12 month old, they seek another group of children -does not have some of the same problems of longitudinal studies
Research Methods: Cross-Sectional Studies
-same people are observed repeatedly over time and changes in developmental are recorded -Fels study began in 1929: allowed researchers to observe the developmental of intelligences and its relationship with intellectual and occupational status
Research Methods: Longitudinal Studies
-erikson proposed a state of ego integrity vs. despair; ego integrity derives from wisdom; expert knowledge, balance, and excellence -successful aging; most older adults feel younger than their years; factors connected with successful aging: physical activity, social contacts, self-rated good health, nonsmoking, absence of cognitive impairment, and depression, absence of disabilities, arthritis and diabetes -tend to be optimistic, maintain social contacts, and pursue self-challenges
Social and Emotional Development (late adulthood)
-G. Stanley Hall Described adolescence as a time of storm and stress ranking 73% of all deaths among people aged 12-19: motor vehicle crashes, homicide, suicide, other unintentional injuries -research suggests that hormonal changes affect activity levels but sociocultural influences have a relatively greater impact
Social/Emotional Development (Adolescence)
-major challenge to cross sectional research -a cohort is a group of people born about the same time -children of a particular generation grow up with certain cultural expectations and experiences -as time changes, its influence on developmental changes -participants from the different age groups may not be comparable
The Cohort Effect (cross-sectional studies)
-a relatively stable aspect of personality that inferred from behavior and assumed to give rise to consistent behavior
Trait
-come to expect that our environment will (or will not) meet our needs -we depend on our primary caregivers (usually our parents)
Trust vs. Mistrust
-the parts or elements of our mental representation of the problem relate to one another in a meaningful way -the elements of our mental representations of the problem correspond to the elements of the problem in the outer world -we have a storehouse of background knowledge that we can apply to the problem
Understanding
-leave children on their own make few demands show little warmth or encouragement (children tend to make poor grades and choose high-risk peer groups in adolescence)
Uninvolved
-scores correlate moderately high with variable they are supposed to predict -intelligence test should correlate with academic performance for them to show validity
Validity
-difficulty enlisting participants -attrition:participants fall out of touch as years past, others die -need for patience -need for younger colleagues to continue the work
Drawbacks to Longitudinal Studies
Inferiority complex: feelings of inferiority may lead to a drive for superiority Creative self: a self-aware aspect of personality that strives to overcome obstacles and develop the individual's potential
Alfred Alder and Individual Psychology (neo-freudian)
-a systematic procedure for solving a problem that works invariably when it is correctly applied -specific procedure in solving a type of problem -invariably lead to the solution -ex-mathematical formulas- pythagorean theorem
Algorithms
-infants are the most emotional showing sever signs of distress when their mothers leave and ambivalence upon reunion by alternately clinging to and pushing their mother away
Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment
-gratification is attained through contraction and revelation of the muscles that control elimination of waste products from the body - the general issue of self-control -anal-rententive (excessive self-control) or anal-expulsive (careless, messiness, even sadism)
Anal Stage
-a partial similarity among things that are different in other ways
Analogies
applies the solution of an earlier problem to the solution of a new one -tend to look for things that have helped us in the past to similar situations -ex-completed similar math problem with a formula and try to complete another similar problem with the same formula
Analogy Heuristic
-suggests that there can be a good deal of inertia in our judgments - first impressions- anchor adjusting heuristics see them frequently/get to know them more adjusting your impressions but you still have that first impression -as we receive additional information we make adjustments but tend to remain in the proximity of the anchor
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic (decision making)
-attribute life and consciousness to physical objects like the sun and moon
Animism
-an emotional tie formed between one person and another specific individual -behavior: attempt to maintain contact or nearness -show anxiety when separated
Attachment
-3-4 months -characterized by preference for familiar figures
Attachment in the making Phase
-strict and rely on force; poor communication, cold, and rejecting (children are often withdrawn and aggressive and do poorly in school)
Authoritarian
-strict but willing to reason with their children; most competent children come from this type
Authoritative
-for toddlers through the age of 3 -during this period their relationships with parents and friends can encourage the development of self-direction and initiative or feelings of shame and guilt -children in this stage need to develop feelings of self-control over physical functions, such as toiling, and a sense of independence by refusing to comply with parental requests or commands
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
-a decision making heuristic in which our estimates of frequency or probability are based on how easy it is to find examples of relevant events - based on what we know
Availability Heuristic (decision making)
-infants are least distressed by their mother's departure: play by themselves and ignore their mothers when they return
Avoidant Attachment
-infants fan their toes when the soles of their feet are stimulated
Babinski (infant reflex)
-neuron proliferation and myelination are related to infants' abilities -the brain develops more quickly than any other organ in childhood (90% of adult weight by five years of age) -the frontal part of the brain is most highly involved in the so-called executive functions of planning and self-regulation -dramatic developments take place in middle childhood:control of attention, cognitive, flexibility, goal setting, logical thinking, and problem solving
Brain Development
-basic properties of substances remain the same when you change superficial properties such as shape -according to Piaget recognition that basic properties of substances such as weight and mass remain the same when superficial features change
Conservation
-how everything within language works together to convey a particular meaning
Context
-Moral reasoning is judged by conformity to conventional standards of right and wrong -stage 3: moral behavior is that which meets the expectations of others -stage 4: moral judgments are based on rules that maintain the social order -many people do not mature beyond rules that maintain the social order -many people do not mature beyond this level of reasoning -according to Kohlberg a period during which moral judgments largely reflect social conventions a "law and order" approach to morality
Conventional Level
-thought is limited to present facts - used to answer multiple choice questions -involves narrowing lists down
Convergent Thinking
- represents a lifetime of attainment including vocab and facts -tends to increase throughout middle adulthood, but fluid intelligence declines
Crystallized Intelligence
-Cattell proposed that these intelligence score differences are cultural and developed his own test -caucasians still tended to outscore African Americans and Latinos -failed to predict academic success as well as existing intelligence tests
Cultural Fair Test
-simultaneous focusing on more than one dimension of a problem so that flexible reversible thought becomes possible
Decentration
-repression -regression -rationalization -displacement -projection -reaction formation -denial -sublimation
Defense Mechanisms
refusing to believe some kinds of information because it cause anxiety
Denial
-diverting your own actions or behavior on a less threatening or neutral target
Displacement
-the capacity to communicate information about events and objects in another time or place - talk about things that happened yesterday, next week, years ago, present day
Displacement
-the problem-solver associates freely to the elements of the problem - thinking used to answer essay questions - Creativity? -brainstorming lists of solutions
Divergent Thinking
-stands for reason and good sense -guided by the reality principle may use physiological defense to prevent improper impulses from arising
Ego
-optimism that we can maintain a sense of trust through life; by meeting squarely the challenges of out adult lives, perhaps we can take our leave with dignity ; when our time comes to "join the innumerable caravan" the billions who have died before us perhaps we can depart life with integrity
Ego Integrity (Erikson-death and dying)
-the basic challenge is to maintain the belief that life is meaningful and worthwhile as one faces the inevitability of death -spoke of importance of wisdom; believed that ego integrity derives from wisdom which can be defined as expert knowledge about the meaning of life , balancing ones needs and those of others and pushing towards excellence in one's behavior and achievement; he also believed that wisdom enables people to accept their life span as occurring as a certain pint in the sweep of history and as being limited
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson-late adulthood)
-consequence of one-dimensional thinking -pre-operational children cannot understand that other people do not see things the same way they do -according to Piaget the assumption that others view the world as one does oneself
Egocentrism
-prenatal period of development from implantation until about the eighth week of development -the baby from the third though the eighth weeks following conception during which time the major organ systems undergo rapid differentiation
Embryonic Stage (prenatal development)
Social relationships are more crucial than sexual urges We are the conscious architects of our own personalities Proposed 8 stages of psychological development
Erik Erikson (neo-freudian)
-the set of rules that governs the way people compose and use language
Grammar
-rules of thumb that help us simplify and solve problems -used to simplify decision making - ex- i before e rule- helps but isn't always true -do not guarantee a correct solution to a problem unlike algorithms -permit more rapid solutions than algorithms
Heuristic Devices
-single words that can express complex meanings - if they say god they might mean they want to pet the dog, want the dog to get away etc.
Holophrases
1. Language Ability 2. Logical-Mathematical 3. Bodily-Kinesthetic (dancers, athletes) 4. Musical 5. Spatial Relations 6. Interpersonal - aware of and sensitive to feelings of others 7. Intrapersonal - awareness of your own feelings 8. Naturalist (added recently) ability to look at natural events and insight to nature 9. Existential - philosophical
Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences
Dwell on the meaning of life Humanists Self-awareness People are capable of many things Free choice Self-fulfillment Ethical behavior Existential Emphasize giving personal meaning to things and making personal choices Helped emphasize the importance of personal, conscious experience Conscious experiences is private and subjective, so the validity of formulating theories in terms of the consciousness has been questioned Self-actualization yields circular explanations for behavior Humanistic-existential perspective has little to say about the development of traits and personality types
Humanistic-Existential Perspective
present at birth and represents physiological drives -follows the pleasure principle demand instant gratification
ID
Argued that utile girls do not feel inferior to boys Unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses are less important that social relationships in children's development
Karen Horney (neo-freudian)
-standing back from the problem which may allow for insight some mysterious process within us begin to work on it -ex - talking to someone can't remember their name you walk away and two minutes later you remember their name
Incubation (insight)
-school years (ages 6-12) -children meet academic and social challenges in school -positive outcome contribute to a sense of industry, whilst setbacks can lead to feelings of inferiority
Industry vs. Inferiority
-the capacity to create rather that imitate sentences
Infinite Creativity
-birth-3months -characterized by the indiscriminant attachment (prefer being held or being with someone, but show no preferences for particular people
Initial Pre-attachment Phase
-children through the age of 5 -they begin to assert control over the environment and strive to master adult skills
Initiative vs. Guilt
- it seems as if pieces of information in the problem have suddenly been reorganized so that the solution leaps out at you - Ah Ha! moment
Insight
--erikson saw the establishment of intimate relationships central to early adulthood -young adults may not be able to commit to others until they have achieved ego identity:that is established stable life roles -argued that young adults who do not reach out to develop intimate relationships risk retreating into isolation and loneliness
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Erikson- early adulthood)
-the communication of information by the means of symbols arranged according to rules of grammar -questionable that its only unique to human because researchers have taught apes to use sign language
Language
prepares the nervous system to learn grammar
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
-sexual feelings remain unconcious
Latency Stage
-during the first year of life -conflict center on the nature and extent of oral gratification -adults with oral fixations could experience exaggerated desires for oral activities (smoking, overeating, and nail biting) and may be predisposed to clingy relationships
Oral Stage
-applies to judgment and our belief and decision whether or not it is actually right or wrong -many people refuse to alter judgment even when proven wrong
Overconfidence
-grasping reflex
Palmer (infant reflex)
-Baumrind: studied the connection between parenting style and the development of instrumental competence (ability to manipulate the environment to achieve goals -research focused on 4 aspects: restrictiveness, demands for mature behavior, communication, warmth and support -authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved
Parenting Styles
-babies usually double their birth weight in about five months and triple it by their first birthday -after the first two years, growth occurs more slowly and steadily until adolescence
Physical Development
-growth spurts last for 2-3 years; grow 8-12 inches -puberty: period during which the body becomes sexually mature; secondary sex characteristics body hair, deepening of the voice, rounding of the breasts and hip, menstruation and ovulation -brain development: learning experiences increase the thickness of the parts of the cortex being used in the learning experience; poor judgment is related to immature brain development, especially in the frontal lobes
Physical Development (Adolescence)
-height of sensory sharpness, strength, reaction time, and cardiovascular fitness -young adults are at their tallest and height remains stable through middle adulthood declining in late adulthood
Physical Development (early adulthood)
-sensory changes; Vision: presbyopia, cataracts, and glaucoma are common; Audition: difficulty in hearing higher-frequency sounds; sense of smell and taste decline -changes in bone density; begins in middle adulthood and increases through late adulthood; in osteoporosis, the loss of bone density is so sever that broken bones are a serious risk -changes in sexuality -women tend to outlive men (by 5-6 years); heart disease tends to develop later in women than in men; men are more likely to die from accidents, often due to risky behavior; men tend to be less willing to have regular physical exams or talk to their doctor about health concerns - 7 year difference in life expectancy for high vs. low SES; less nutritious diet; greater stress; less access to healthcare -reasons for aging; programmed theories of aging: result of genetic instructions; cellular damage theories of aging: internal bodily changes and external assaults (e.g., carcinogens, toxins) cause cells to malfunction; wear and tear theory
Physical Development (late development)
-diminished strength, coordination, and stamina, but it is minor -menopause
Physical Development (middle adulthood)
-moral reasoning is more complex and focuses on dilemmas in which individual needs are pitted against the need to maintain social order and on personal conscience
Post-Conventional Level
-the study of how context contributes to word meaning
Pragmatics
-applies to most children through the age of nine -Stage 1: oriented toward obedience and punishment -stage 2: good behavior allows people to satisfy their needs and those of others -according to Kohlberg a period during which moral judgments are based largely on expectation of reward or punishments
Pre-conventional Level
-ages 2-7 -characterized by the use of words and symbols to represent objects and relationships among them -warning: any resemblance between 2-7 year olds and your own logic is pure coincidental -tend to think one-dimensionally to focus on one aspect of a problem or situation at a time
Pre-operational Stage
-Approaches are flash of insight and finding rules -then understanding by focusing on right information, background knowledge also helps
Problem-solving
putting your own undesirable behaviors or characteristics on to someone else
Projection
•People are shown ambiguous stimuli such as inkblots or ambiguous drawings and asked to say what they look like •The Rorschach inkblot test oIndividuals are shown inkblots and asked what they look like oCritics argue that there is little evidence to support the test's validity •The thematic apperception test (tat) oConsists of drawings, and subjects are asked to make up stories about them •Widely used in research on motivation and in clinical practice
Projective Test
-examples that best match the key features of categories -a concept of a category of objects or events that serves as a good example the category -ex bird - what type of bird is first to come to mind? blue bird? cardinal?
Prototypes
-tend to be unaware of how flimsy our assumptions may be -tend to focus on examples that confirm our judgments and ignore those that do not -tend to forget information that runs counter to our judgments (associated with working memory - limited space_ -work to bring about the events we believe in (self-fulfilling prophecies)
Reasons for Overconfidence
-in psychodynamic theory, a hypothesized mental structure that helps explain different aspects of behavior -cannot be seen or measured directly but their presence is suggested by behavior, expressed thoughts, and emotions -three psychic structures are ID, Ego, and Superego
Psychic Structure
-language acquisition involves the interaction of environmental influences such as exposure to parental speech and reinforcement and an inborn tendency to acquire language
Psycholinguistic Theory
prove that your actions are justified or worthy of approval
Rationalization
behaving in a way that is opposite of your true impulse
Reaction Formation
-according to Piaget recognition that processes can be undone and things can be made as they were
Reversibility
-infants turn their head toward stimuli that prod or stroke the cheek, chin, or corner of the mouth
Rooting (infant reflex)
-a pattern of action of mental structure involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge - according to Piaget a hypothetical mental structure that permits the classification and organization of new information
Schema
-infants mildly protests their mother's departure, seek interaction upon return and are readily comforted
Secure Attachment
-the fact that the sounds of a language have meaning
Semanticity
-the study of the meaning of words
Semantics
-lasted until about age 2 -newborn is capable of assimilation -the first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development, characterized by coordination of sensory information and motor activity, early exploration of the environment, and lack of language
Sensorimotor Stage
-sound or gesture of material object or written word that have specific meaning to group of people
Signals
-Erik Erikson's stages of psychological development -trust vs. mistrust -autonomy vs. shame/doubt -initiative vs. guilt -industry vs. inferiority
Social & Emotional Development (Erikson)
- genrativity vs. stagnation according to Erikson generativity: doing things that we believe are worthwhile stagnation: treading water -levinson called this time period "midlife transition" a shift in psychological perspective as people being to think of how many years they have left; this period may trigger a midlife crisis -many americans find these years to be the "prime of life"
Social and Emotional Developemt (middle adulthood)
-fueled by ambition; wanting to advance their careers -the drive to become someone, to leave a mark on history -Erikson proposed that young adults enter a stage of intimacy vs. isolation marked by the establishment of intimate relationships -levinson labeled this time period as the "age 30 transition"; engage in reassessment, asking themselves, "where am i going"
Social and Emotional Development (early adulthood)
Personality cant be understood without reference to aspects of culture Individualists: define themselves in terms of their personal identities and give priority to their personal goals People in the united states and many northern European nations Collectivists: define themselves in terms of the groups to which they belong and give priority to the group's goals Many people from Africa, Asia, and Central and South America Provides valuable insights into the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation Sociocultural factors are external forces that internalized Enhances our sensitivity to cultural differences
Sociocultural Perspective
-eros: aimed at preserving and perpetuating life -libido: psychic energy involving sexual impulses - oral stage -anal stage -phallic stage -latency stage - genital stage
Stages of Psychosexual Development
-french public school system wanted to identify student who were unlikely to benefit from classroom experience - created test for children -created in 1905 and concluded that older children should be smarter than younger children -yielded a score called a mental age (MA) indicating the intellectual level at which the child is functioning -Louis Terman adapted test for use with children in the US ages 2-16 -yielded (IQ) instead of (MA) IQ=MA/CA x 100
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)
-according to Piaget moral judgment that is based on the motives of the perpetrator
Subjective Moral Judgment
transforming energy or anxiety into a different form that is more acceptable
Sublimation
-develops throughout childhood, usually incorporating the moral standards and values of parents -holds out the ideal self and acts as your conscience
Superego
-set of rules by which a person constructs full sentences
Syntax
an algorithm for solving problems in which each possible solution is tested according to a particular set of rules -ex- Anagrams- how many words you can create from the letters NAGDER
Systematic Random Search Algorithm
two-word sentences -similar to telegrams where the unnecessary words are cut out -two types: nouns/pronouns plus verb (mommy go) or verb plus object (roll ball)
Telegraphic Speech
-environmental agents that can harm the embryo or fetus, with exposure being most dangerous during critical periods of development ingest: alcohol, nicotine, illicit drugs, prescription drugs, and caffeine maternal disorders: toxemia and Rh incompatibility, HIV or maternal malnutrition
Teratogens
Extraversion Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness Neuroticism
The Big Five
-proposed that intelligence is comprised of different kinds of intelligences -critics wonder if special talents really are intelligences or just simply special talents
Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)
-developed a series of scales where each subtest measures a different intellectual task - used for children and adults -questions broken down into subsections and each one measured a specific task which was good because it showed strengths and weaknesses -grouped: verbal tasks require knowledge of verbal concepts-vocab, comprehension and performance tasks require familiarity with spatial relation concepts - block design -Base IQ on how a person's answer compared with those attained by people in the same age group and gender - introduced deviation IQ -average level is defined as an IQ score of 100 of any age -IQ scores were distributed so that the middle 50% of them were defined as the broad average range of 90 to 110 -scores plotted on normal curve - mean 100 and standard deviation 15
Wechsler Scales
-infants withdraw from painful stimuli
Withdrawal (infant reflex)