Public Speaking Final
tribute
praises qualities of a person, thing, idea, event, or group; subject may be living or historical
considering religion
-a single audience can represent a range of religious commitments -religion often evokes deep emotions -refrain from negative comments, be sensitive
vivid linguistic devices
-alliteration -rhyme -simile -metaphor -personification
considering age
-an era's history, culture, and technology offers members of different generations different perspectives and goals
Monroe's Motivated Sequence
-attention -needs -satisfaction -visualization -action (call for specific action)
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
-basic needs -security and safety -love and belonging -esteem -self-actualization -most behavior is multi-motivated, a combination of levels is active in each situation
basic principles for effective oral style
-be concise -use familiar words -be concrete -build in repetition
typical characteristics of commemorative speeches
-build the speech around a theme -inspire listeners (positive emotions and values) -pay special attention to language (vivid, moving, interesting words/phrases) -when appropriate, use humor -be relatively brief
common types of verbal feedback
-clarification questions- request to clear up confusing ideas -closed questions- request for brief, specific answer -open question -loaded question- question containing implications intended to put the speaker on the defensive (should be avoided) -request for elaboration -comments
4 types of plagiarism:
-deliberate fraud -accidental plagiarists -cut-and-paste plagiarism -improper paraphrase
elements of practicing democratic principles (related to public speaking)
-developing a habit of research -be honest and fair -practice civility
policy claims -definition -3 types
-disputed claim about the need to act or the plan for taking action -behaviors should change, policies should change, policies should stay the same
tips for eulogy
-don't try to summarize person's life -focus on positive, memorable characteristics and accomplishments -consult family members and friends for what to/not to say -humor, used sensitively, can be appropriate and comforting -consider wave pattern and organize around a repetitive theme -consider line's from poetry or lyrics -don't worry about the delivery -5-10 minutes at the most
tips for announcements
-essential information: details regarding time, place, cost, etc. -order: draw attention, provide details of event, give costs and benefits of attending, end with summary of important info
tips for farewell speech
-express emotions (sadness, hope for future) -balance the sadness by speaking about happy times -recognize accomplishments -tell stories
tips for tribute speech
-focus on subject's character and achievements -consider the statement of reasons pattern -not primarily an informative speech, but you should include information about the subject
strategies to practice dialogical listening -3 types -purpose
-giving nonverbal feedback -giving verbal feedback -giving written feedback -attentive listeners can help a speaker become more interesting
examples of powerless language
-hedges -tag questions -disclaimers
invitational rhetoric -definition -3 principles -2 forms
-inviting audiences to enter and understand the rhetor's world and then share their own perspectives; focuses on mutual understanding and mutual influence, not winning or change per se; ethical way of coming to conclusions; usually associated with women -equality, nonhierarchical value of all, self-determination -offering perspectives, creating conditions
tips for introduction speech
-keep it brief -identify newcomer and give details about the person's background and characteristics -close by welcoming the newcomer -to introduce a guest speaker, provide info about the occasion
considering audience motivations (conclusions)
-listeners in a single audience can have various motivations -speaker should try to discover fundamental motivation of most people in the audience and design speeches that take their motivations into account
tips for toast speeches
-make sure all participants have a drink, and hold yours at waist level; look at the honoree throughout; at the end, raise your glass; be brief -state your relationship with the honoree (briefly) -state honoree's name at beginning and end -give reminiscences (avoid embarrassing stories or inside jokes) -end with sincere best wishes
how speaker develops ethos
-paying attention to personal appearance -showing confidence- eye contact, gestures, avoiding vocalized pauses -good character, goodwill good sense, and dynamism
elements of nonverbal feedback
-posture -eye contact -distance -movement
strategies to improve comprehensive listening:
-prepare in advance -use attention-directing strategies (like taking notes) -remember your goals -use elaboration strategies -use strategies that complement your learning style -don't get hung up on delievery
keys to convincing about: -facts -values -policy
-rely on logical arguments -use emotional appeals and appeal to authority -use harm, blame, cure, cost
considering audience demographics (conclusions)
-remember that no one has a single fixed cultural or social identity, although we sometimes generalize about the experiences of different groups -some demographic characteristics are more salient in some situations than in others -instead of stereotyping listeners, use a more inclusive model that recognizes which demographic characteristics are most significant to the topic and situation
common responses to diversity
-resistance -assimilation -accommodation
considering the environment
-room design and equipment can create a pleasant or unpleasant speech setting -make sure everyone can see and hear you -temperature, weather outside, and noise can also affect audience comfort and attention -do what you can to make listeners comfortable and focused
steps in forming a persuasive speech
-select a topic -make a claim -choose a specific purpose (to convince vs actuate)
4 factors that influence motivation
-sometimes you must choose between two goals or emotions -circumstances affect motives -our responses often reflect mixed motives -motivations are group centered
exemplum -definition -use -5 elements
-speech pattern built around a quotation and developed by at least one narrative -inspirational speeches -5 elements: quotation/proverb, identify and explain the author or source, rephrase it in your own words, tell a story that illustrates it, and apply it to the audience
4 common thought patterns during listening
-taking small departures from the communication line (usually most productive) -going off on a tangent -engaging in a private argument -taking large departures from the communication line
3 aspects of time that affect public speaking
-time of day --adjust speech to the challenges that certain times of day pose to audiences -cultural time norms -timeliness of the topic --consider how cultural or social events might affect audience's response to various topics
aspects of using language effectively
-use an oral style -use vivid and powerful language -use language ethically
Standard English
English dialect most commonly used in public speaking in US institutions
claim
a debatable point or proposal, conclusion, or generalization that some people won't accept without some sort of evidence or backing; can be a ____ of fact, value, or policy (all can be effectively blended in one speech)
ethnicity
a group's common heritage and cultural traditions, usually stemming from national and religious backgrounds; often linked to language and dialects
civility
a social virtue grounded in courtesy that chooses to understand and work with others
commemorative speeches
a speech to inspire and reinforce beliefs and values, often entertaining, given at conventions, dinner meetings, and other ceremonies
oral style
characteristics of spoken language compared to written language; less formal and more personalized
listening
active process that receives, distinguishes, attends to, assigns meaning, and remembers what you hear
backing
additional reasons to support or defend a warrant
ad bominem / personal attack
an attack against the source, not the evidence or reasoning; type of fallacy
reversibility of perspectives
an attempt to think from the other's perspectives as well as one's own; part of the creating conditions form of invitational rhetoric
receiver apprehension (RA)
anxiety people experience while listening to messages that make them uncomfortable; personal barrier to listening
ad populum / bandwagon
appeal to popular reason instead of offering evidence; type of fallacy
pathos
appeals or reasons directed toward audience emotions and needs
factual claims
argument about debatable points, causation, or predictions; address questions about what, when, where, why, how
value claim
argument about right or wrong, moral or immoral, beautiful or ugly
logos
arguments from the words of the speech itself; often called rational proofs; verbal arguments you make relating to your subject; includes: analogy, inductive, deductive, and causal reasoning
direct methods
asking audience members directly for their opinions by questionnaires, interviews, and so on
scaled question
asking for responses along a continuum, used to assess attitudes
ranked questions
asking for responses to be placed in an order; good for assessing values
indirect sources
assessing audiences by observation or secondhand sources
psychological profile
assessment of an audience's beliefs, values, and attitudes regarding your topic (can be discerned with direct or indirect methods)
presumption
assumption that change is not necessary until proven otherwise
warrant
assumption that logically links the evidence to the claim; usually implicit
sex
biological categories of male and female
physical factors
bodily conditions that can limit your desire or ability to listen; personal barrier to listening; examples: hunger, hearing loss, sleep depravation
code switching
changing from one dialect to another
improper paraphrase
changing some words of a source but keeping the basic structure and ideas intact without citing the source
causal claim
claim about the relationship links between occurences
claims of prediction
claim that something will or will not happen in the future
2 theories that explain motivations to act
cognitive dissonance theory and theory of reasoned action
mixed metaphor
combining metaphors from two or more sources, starting with one comparison and ending with another
parallel case/literal analogy
comparing likenesses between two similar things; arguing that what happened in a known case will likely happen in a similar case
reasoning by metaphor
comparing two things that are generally different but share a recognizable similarity; inherently dialogical- require listeners to participate actively
false analogy
comparing two things that are not similar enough to warrant the comparison; type of fallacy
analogy
comparison of one item that's less familiar or unknown to something concrete and familiar -can be figurative (metaphor) or literal (parallel case)
identification or co-orientation
concerns shared among speakers and listeners that help overcome divisions and bring diverse people together; contributes to goodwill - ethos - can be more difficult due to diversity
analyzing audience includes:
considering motivations and demographics
cut-and-paste plagiarism
copying material word for word and then patching it together without quotation marks or citations
rebuttal
counterargument the audience might have
re-sourcement
creatively framing a divisive issue or viewpoint in a different way that may be less threatening; part of the offering perspectives form of invitational rhetoric
prior/extrinsic credibility
credibility that speakers bring to the speech because of their reputation and experience
social category
culturally constructed category such as race or gender
gender
culturally constructed concepts about what is feminine, masculine, or andtrogynous
race
culturally constructed social category, often associated with stereotypes, based on physical characteristics
2 major categories of speaking ethically
democratic principles and dialogical principles
D-R-E Method
describe, respond, evaluate; method of giving written feedback that describes content, shares personal responses, and gives evaluation; comments should be phrased objectively and positively
inclusive language
ethical terminology that affirms and includes, rather than excludes, persons or groups of people; not only ethical, but practical because it increases credibility
listening speaker
dialogical speaker who hears audience interests and concerns before, during, and after a speech
speech-thought differential
difference between the rate you think (~500wpm) and the average speech rate (~150wpm); contributes to lack of focus while listening
debatable points
disputable statement about facts of existence or history
persuasive topic should be:
disputable, significant to others, and important to you
heckling
disrupting a speech by interrupting or shouting down a speaker
connotative meanings
emotional overtones, related feelings, and associations that cluster around a word
3 essential components of dialogue
equality- you and listeners respect each other and regard each other's opinions as important enough to consider empathy- you show compassion and identify emotionally with others to understand their perspectives examination- you willingly scrutinize both your assumptions and those of others with an open mind
fallacy
failure in logical reasoning that leads to unsound or misleading arguments
post hoc
fallacy of causation, assumes that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second; type of fallacy
terminal credibility
final impression listeners have of a speaker; can be affected after the speech is over if audience finds out negative things about you or your information
vague word
indefinite term that has imprecise boundaries
ethics of using emotion
generally it is unethical to appeal to emotions in an attempt to bypass logic
tips for award speeches (giving and accepting)
giving award -describe the award's significance -summarize selection criteria and why recipient was chosen -express good wishes to the recipient -in collectivist culture, honor the entire group rather than a single individual accepting award -thank those who honored you and those who helped you -personalize what it means to you -express appreciation for the honor
personification
giving human characteristics to nonhuman entities
open question
giving opportunity for a range of answers or a more lengthy response; allow for explanation
cognitive dissonance theory
humans seek stability or equilibrium; when faced with inconsistency they seek psychological balance; this may motivate them to change in order to be more consistent
ambiguous words
identify more than one object or idea; meaning depends on context
audience analysis
identifying audience characteristics to communicate more effectively
demographic analysis
identifying audiences by populations they represent; common categories: -ethnicity -religion -sex/gender/sexual orientation -age -socioeconomic status, group affiliation, and region
dissonance
inconsistency or clash
faulty generalization
inductive fallacy that extends the conclusion further than the evidence warrants; type of fallacy
rhetorical triangle
inside: speech topic, goal and content 3 sides: -audience -speaking situation -speaker (audience perception of speaker)
characteristics that make up good sense
intelligence, sound reasoning, composure
argument
intentional, purposeful set of reasons created to explain disputed beliefs and conclusions
motivation
internal, individualized factor that results when we understand how topics affect our lives in a personal way
deliberate fraud
knowing, intentional plagiarism
nonparallel language
language that does not treat the two sexes equally; form of sexist language
Toulmin's Model of Reasoning
linear model designed to show six elements of reasoning common in the US Grounds --> Warrant/Backing --> Qualifier --> Rebuttal --> Claim
barriers to listening
linguistic barriers (language and vocabulary differences) cultural barriers (cultural allusions) personal barriers (physical and psychological)
dynamism
linked to extroversion, energy, and enthusiasm; influences ethos
causal reasoning
linking two factors in such a way that the first occurs before the second and regularly leads to the second as a matter of rule
theory of reasoned action (TRA)
links behavioral intentions with attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; assumes we rationally weigh costs and benefits of our actions; adds a social dimension to motivation
hostile audience
listeners who are negative toward the topic or the speaker -speaker should emphasize common ground before addressing areas of divergence
absent audience
listeners who are separated from the speaker and receive the message through some form of media -lack instantaneous feedback of face-to-face audience
homogenous audience
listeners who are similar in attitude
unmotivated audience
listeners who lack a purposeful listening goal
motivated audience
listeners who listen for a reason; self-selected by voluntarily and intentionally choosing to listen to a subject or speaker
credibility
listeners' impressions of your character, intentions, and abilities that make you more or less believable -audience's evaluations begin before the speech, are modified during, and lead to a lasting impression
strategies to overcome cultural barriers
listeners: -jot down allusions to look up later speakers: -explain allusions -choose areas of common knowledge
strategies to overcome linguistic barriers
listeners: -pay careful attention, try to figure out specific words -listen for main points -jot down words to look up later speakers: -translate/explain confusing words, jargon, and slang -display words visually
critical listening
listening that requires you to reflect and weigh the merit of messages before you accept them; build on comprehensive listening skills; applied to persuasive messages
comprehensive listening
listening to understand information
absolute listening
listening without interrupting or inserting oneself into the talk; part of the creating conditions form of invitational rhetoric
fabrication
making up information or repeating information without sufficiently checking its accuracy
psychological factors
mental stressors or distractions that take away from your desire or ability to focus; personal barrier to listening; examples: big test coming up, fight with a friend
verbiage
nonessential language
demonstrated/intrinsic credibility
obvious knowledge the speaker shows during the speech -it's important to do careful research and cite your sources; be prepared to answer questions; be calm and poised
unsupported assertion
offering a claim without any evidence; type of fallacy
enthymeme
omitting part of a syllogism in an argument and letting listeners supply what's missing; inherently dialogical
perceived behavioral control
our opinion about our ability to do a behavior
subjective norms
our perceptions of what significant people think we should do
prejudice
performed biases or judgments, whether negative or positive; hinders listening, personal barrier
ethos
personal credibility or character traits that make a speaker believable and worthy of the audience's confidence; proof that comes from your personal qualities
actuate
persuasive purpose that motivates the audience to do something
convince
persuasive purpose that targets audience beliefs
rightsabilities
phrase coined by Professor Vernon Jensen to highlight the tension between our right to free speech and our responsibility for our speech
hearing
physical process involving sound waves, ear drums, and brain receptors
stereotyping
place someone in a category and then assume the person fits the characteristics of that category; hinders listening, personal barrier
2 forms of academic dishonesty
plagiarism and fabrication
accidental plagiarists
plagiarists who lack knowledge about the rules
demagogue
polarizing speaker who appeals to audiences more on the basis of emotion and personal charisma than on reasoned arguments
plagiarism
presenting the words, images, or ideas of others as if they were your own
pandering
providing messages that audiences want to hear, not necessarily what they need to hear
dismissive language
put-downs; language that discounts the importance of someone's viewpoint
artistic proofs
reasons the speaker creates to accept an argument; what Aristotle called his 3 modes of persuasion- ethos, pathos, logos; found in canon of invention
archetypal symbol
recurring metaphor or simile that arises from shared human and natural experiences
cultural allusion
reference to historical, literary, and religious sources that are culturally specific
region
related to factors such as climate, history, and economic base
socioeconomic status
related to occupation and education
salient
relevant or significant
closed question
request for a brief, specific answer; good for assessing beliefs
assimilation
response to diversity in which you embrace new perspectives and lifestyles and reject or surrender some or most of your previous beliefs and actions; takes place over time and is rarely total
accommodation
response to diversity in which you listen and evaluate the views of others; both sides adapt, modify, and bargain to reach mutual agreements
resistance
response to diversity in which you refuse to change, and you defend your own positions or attack others; not inherently bad
burden of proof
responsibility of the speaker who argues against the status quo to make the case for change
toast
ritual speech that honors a person on a special occasion; typically comes at the end of a meal and involves a ritual drink
antimetabole
saying words in one phrase and reversing them in the next
spinning
selecting material that favors the speaker's interests and point of view
simile
short comparison using 'like' or 'as' to compare two items that are alike in one essential detail
tag questions
short questions tagged on to the end of a sentence; some can be helpful but others are annoying
farewells
short speeches that function to ease the inevitable adjustments that both the departing individual and the group must make
announcements
short speeches that provide facts about upcoming events or developments of interest
introductions
short, informative speeches that provide the facts people need to interact effectively with a newcomer
nominations -definition -2 effective organizational patterns
short, persuasive speeches that introduce your candidate to the group and present brief arguments explaining why he or she should be elected -statement of reasons pattern -criteria-satisfaction pattern
multivocal society
society that actively seeks expression of a variety of voices or viewpoints; produced by accommodation approach to diversity
jargon
specialized technical vocabulary that serves the interests and activities of a particular group
common ground
specific areas or concerns that both speaker and audience consider important; contributes to goodwill - ethos
concrete word
specific, rather than general or abstract, term; creates vivid images and precise meanings
criteria-satisfaction pattern
speech pattern that first sets up standards for judging and then shows how the subject meets the standards
statement of reasons pattern
speech pattern that lists reasons and then explains each one
eulogy
speech to commemorate someone who has died
criteria
standards used for making evaluations or judgments; important to state this when making a value claim
deductive reasoning
starting with a principle (premise) and applying it to a specific case
inductive reasoning
starting with specific instances or examples, then formulating a reasonable conclusion
false dichotomy
stating an issue as either-or choice, overlooking other reasonable possibilities; type of fallacy
slippery slope
stating, without proof, that if one step is taken, a domino effect will cause other negative results; type of fallacy
grounds, data, or evidence
supporting material for claims
persuasion
symbolic process in which a communicator intentionally creates an argument in an attempt to convince others to change their attitudes or behaviors in an atmosphere of free choice
ethical communication
the conscious decision to speak and listen in ways that you, in light of your cultural ideals, consider fair, honest, and helpful to all parties involved
stock issues
the questions a reasonable person would need to have answered before forming a reasoned decision about a topic
situational features that can affect an audience
time and environment
perspective taking
trying to imagine something from another person's point of view
correlation
two things occur together, but one does not necessarily lead to the other
random audience
type of unmotivated audience; listeners are initially doing something else but are attracted by a message that catches their attention -requires speaker to attract and maintain attention long enough to present message; focus on being interesting/relevant, use conversational delivery
passive audience
type of unmotivated audience; listeners listen to accomplish other goals (most public speaking classes) -speaker should select a relevant topic, gain and maintain interest, and help them understand how the topic relates to their lives
lecture capture
use of technology to upload class material in digital format
alliteration
use of words with the same recurring initial sound
warmth
using behaviors that signal positive interest and engagement, especially through pleasant facial expressions; contributes to forming goodwill - ethos
dialect
variant form of a language
language
verbal code consisting of symbols that a speech community uses for communication
word
verbal symbol that stands for or represents an idea
denotive meaning
what a word names or identifies
disclaimers
word or phrase that leads the audience to doubt your confidence or expertise
qualifier
word or phrase that limits the scope of the claim
euphemism
word or phrase that substitutes an inoffensive term for a potentially offensive, embarrassing, or unpleasant thing
epithet
word or phrase with a powerful negative connotation, used to describe some quality of a person or group
hedges
words such as 'kinda' or 'I think' that can lead listeners to distrust your confidence or your knowledge of your topic
rhyme
words that end in the same sound