Public Speaking Final

tribute

praises qualities of a person, thing, idea, event, or group; subject may be living or historical

considering religion

-a single audience can represent a range of religious commitments -religion often evokes deep emotions -refrain from negative comments, be sensitive

vivid linguistic devices

-alliteration -rhyme -simile -metaphor -personification

considering age

-an era's history, culture, and technology offers members of different generations different perspectives and goals

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

-attention -needs -satisfaction -visualization -action (call for specific action)

Maslow's hierarchy of needs

-basic needs -security and safety -love and belonging -esteem -self-actualization -most behavior is multi-motivated, a combination of levels is active in each situation

basic principles for effective oral style

-be concise -use familiar words -be concrete -build in repetition

typical characteristics of commemorative speeches

-build the speech around a theme -inspire listeners (positive emotions and values) -pay special attention to language (vivid, moving, interesting words/phrases) -when appropriate, use humor -be relatively brief

common types of verbal feedback

-clarification questions- request to clear up confusing ideas -closed questions- request for brief, specific answer -open question -loaded question- question containing implications intended to put the speaker on the defensive (should be avoided) -request for elaboration -comments

4 types of plagiarism:

-deliberate fraud -accidental plagiarists -cut-and-paste plagiarism -improper paraphrase

elements of practicing democratic principles (related to public speaking)

-developing a habit of research -be honest and fair -practice civility

policy claims -definition -3 types

-disputed claim about the need to act or the plan for taking action -behaviors should change, policies should change, policies should stay the same

tips for eulogy

-don't try to summarize person's life -focus on positive, memorable characteristics and accomplishments -consult family members and friends for what to/not to say -humor, used sensitively, can be appropriate and comforting -consider wave pattern and organize around a repetitive theme -consider line's from poetry or lyrics -don't worry about the delivery -5-10 minutes at the most

tips for announcements

-essential information: details regarding time, place, cost, etc. -order: draw attention, provide details of event, give costs and benefits of attending, end with summary of important info

tips for farewell speech

-express emotions (sadness, hope for future) -balance the sadness by speaking about happy times -recognize accomplishments -tell stories

tips for tribute speech

-focus on subject's character and achievements -consider the statement of reasons pattern -not primarily an informative speech, but you should include information about the subject

strategies to practice dialogical listening -3 types -purpose

-giving nonverbal feedback -giving verbal feedback -giving written feedback -attentive listeners can help a speaker become more interesting

examples of powerless language

-hedges -tag questions -disclaimers

invitational rhetoric -definition -3 principles -2 forms

-inviting audiences to enter and understand the rhetor's world and then share their own perspectives; focuses on mutual understanding and mutual influence, not winning or change per se; ethical way of coming to conclusions; usually associated with women -equality, nonhierarchical value of all, self-determination -offering perspectives, creating conditions

tips for introduction speech

-keep it brief -identify newcomer and give details about the person's background and characteristics -close by welcoming the newcomer -to introduce a guest speaker, provide info about the occasion

considering audience motivations (conclusions)

-listeners in a single audience can have various motivations -speaker should try to discover fundamental motivation of most people in the audience and design speeches that take their motivations into account

tips for toast speeches

-make sure all participants have a drink, and hold yours at waist level; look at the honoree throughout; at the end, raise your glass; be brief -state your relationship with the honoree (briefly) -state honoree's name at beginning and end -give reminiscences (avoid embarrassing stories or inside jokes) -end with sincere best wishes

how speaker develops ethos

-paying attention to personal appearance -showing confidence- eye contact, gestures, avoiding vocalized pauses -good character, goodwill good sense, and dynamism

elements of nonverbal feedback

-posture -eye contact -distance -movement

strategies to improve comprehensive listening:

-prepare in advance -use attention-directing strategies (like taking notes) -remember your goals -use elaboration strategies -use strategies that complement your learning style -don't get hung up on delievery

keys to convincing about: -facts -values -policy

-rely on logical arguments -use emotional appeals and appeal to authority -use harm, blame, cure, cost

considering audience demographics (conclusions)

-remember that no one has a single fixed cultural or social identity, although we sometimes generalize about the experiences of different groups -some demographic characteristics are more salient in some situations than in others -instead of stereotyping listeners, use a more inclusive model that recognizes which demographic characteristics are most significant to the topic and situation

common responses to diversity

-resistance -assimilation -accommodation

considering the environment

-room design and equipment can create a pleasant or unpleasant speech setting -make sure everyone can see and hear you -temperature, weather outside, and noise can also affect audience comfort and attention -do what you can to make listeners comfortable and focused

steps in forming a persuasive speech

-select a topic -make a claim -choose a specific purpose (to convince vs actuate)

4 factors that influence motivation

-sometimes you must choose between two goals or emotions -circumstances affect motives -our responses often reflect mixed motives -motivations are group centered

exemplum -definition -use -5 elements

-speech pattern built around a quotation and developed by at least one narrative -inspirational speeches -5 elements: quotation/proverb, identify and explain the author or source, rephrase it in your own words, tell a story that illustrates it, and apply it to the audience

4 common thought patterns during listening

-taking small departures from the communication line (usually most productive) -going off on a tangent -engaging in a private argument -taking large departures from the communication line

3 aspects of time that affect public speaking

-time of day --adjust speech to the challenges that certain times of day pose to audiences -cultural time norms -timeliness of the topic --consider how cultural or social events might affect audience's response to various topics

aspects of using language effectively

-use an oral style -use vivid and powerful language -use language ethically

Standard English

English dialect most commonly used in public speaking in US institutions

claim

a debatable point or proposal, conclusion, or generalization that some people won't accept without some sort of evidence or backing; can be a ____ of fact, value, or policy (all can be effectively blended in one speech)

ethnicity

a group's common heritage and cultural traditions, usually stemming from national and religious backgrounds; often linked to language and dialects

civility

a social virtue grounded in courtesy that chooses to understand and work with others

commemorative speeches

a speech to inspire and reinforce beliefs and values, often entertaining, given at conventions, dinner meetings, and other ceremonies

oral style

characteristics of spoken language compared to written language; less formal and more personalized

listening

active process that receives, distinguishes, attends to, assigns meaning, and remembers what you hear

backing

additional reasons to support or defend a warrant

ad bominem / personal attack

an attack against the source, not the evidence or reasoning; type of fallacy

reversibility of perspectives

an attempt to think from the other's perspectives as well as one's own; part of the creating conditions form of invitational rhetoric

receiver apprehension (RA)

anxiety people experience while listening to messages that make them uncomfortable; personal barrier to listening

ad populum / bandwagon

appeal to popular reason instead of offering evidence; type of fallacy

pathos

appeals or reasons directed toward audience emotions and needs

factual claims

argument about debatable points, causation, or predictions; address questions about what, when, where, why, how

value claim

argument about right or wrong, moral or immoral, beautiful or ugly

logos

arguments from the words of the speech itself; often called rational proofs; verbal arguments you make relating to your subject; includes: analogy, inductive, deductive, and causal reasoning

direct methods

asking audience members directly for their opinions by questionnaires, interviews, and so on

scaled question

asking for responses along a continuum, used to assess attitudes

ranked questions

asking for responses to be placed in an order; good for assessing values

indirect sources

assessing audiences by observation or secondhand sources

psychological profile

assessment of an audience's beliefs, values, and attitudes regarding your topic (can be discerned with direct or indirect methods)

presumption

assumption that change is not necessary until proven otherwise

warrant

assumption that logically links the evidence to the claim; usually implicit

sex

biological categories of male and female

physical factors

bodily conditions that can limit your desire or ability to listen; personal barrier to listening; examples: hunger, hearing loss, sleep depravation

code switching

changing from one dialect to another

improper paraphrase

changing some words of a source but keeping the basic structure and ideas intact without citing the source

causal claim

claim about the relationship links between occurences

claims of prediction

claim that something will or will not happen in the future

2 theories that explain motivations to act

cognitive dissonance theory and theory of reasoned action

mixed metaphor

combining metaphors from two or more sources, starting with one comparison and ending with another

parallel case/literal analogy

comparing likenesses between two similar things; arguing that what happened in a known case will likely happen in a similar case

reasoning by metaphor

comparing two things that are generally different but share a recognizable similarity; inherently dialogical- require listeners to participate actively

false analogy

comparing two things that are not similar enough to warrant the comparison; type of fallacy

analogy

comparison of one item that's less familiar or unknown to something concrete and familiar -can be figurative (metaphor) or literal (parallel case)

identification or co-orientation

concerns shared among speakers and listeners that help overcome divisions and bring diverse people together; contributes to goodwill - ethos - can be more difficult due to diversity

analyzing audience includes:

considering motivations and demographics

cut-and-paste plagiarism

copying material word for word and then patching it together without quotation marks or citations

rebuttal

counterargument the audience might have

re-sourcement

creatively framing a divisive issue or viewpoint in a different way that may be less threatening; part of the offering perspectives form of invitational rhetoric

prior/extrinsic credibility

credibility that speakers bring to the speech because of their reputation and experience

social category

culturally constructed category such as race or gender

gender

culturally constructed concepts about what is feminine, masculine, or andtrogynous

race

culturally constructed social category, often associated with stereotypes, based on physical characteristics

2 major categories of speaking ethically

democratic principles and dialogical principles

D-R-E Method

describe, respond, evaluate; method of giving written feedback that describes content, shares personal responses, and gives evaluation; comments should be phrased objectively and positively

inclusive language

ethical terminology that affirms and includes, rather than excludes, persons or groups of people; not only ethical, but practical because it increases credibility

listening speaker

dialogical speaker who hears audience interests and concerns before, during, and after a speech

speech-thought differential

difference between the rate you think (~500wpm) and the average speech rate (~150wpm); contributes to lack of focus while listening

debatable points

disputable statement about facts of existence or history

persuasive topic should be:

disputable, significant to others, and important to you

heckling

disrupting a speech by interrupting or shouting down a speaker

connotative meanings

emotional overtones, related feelings, and associations that cluster around a word

3 essential components of dialogue

equality- you and listeners respect each other and regard each other's opinions as important enough to consider empathy- you show compassion and identify emotionally with others to understand their perspectives examination- you willingly scrutinize both your assumptions and those of others with an open mind

fallacy

failure in logical reasoning that leads to unsound or misleading arguments

post hoc

fallacy of causation, assumes that because one thing follows another, the first caused the second; type of fallacy

terminal credibility

final impression listeners have of a speaker; can be affected after the speech is over if audience finds out negative things about you or your information

vague word

indefinite term that has imprecise boundaries

ethics of using emotion

generally it is unethical to appeal to emotions in an attempt to bypass logic

tips for award speeches (giving and accepting)

giving award -describe the award's significance -summarize selection criteria and why recipient was chosen -express good wishes to the recipient -in collectivist culture, honor the entire group rather than a single individual accepting award -thank those who honored you and those who helped you -personalize what it means to you -express appreciation for the honor

personification

giving human characteristics to nonhuman entities

open question

giving opportunity for a range of answers or a more lengthy response; allow for explanation

cognitive dissonance theory

humans seek stability or equilibrium; when faced with inconsistency they seek psychological balance; this may motivate them to change in order to be more consistent

ambiguous words

identify more than one object or idea; meaning depends on context

audience analysis

identifying audience characteristics to communicate more effectively

demographic analysis

identifying audiences by populations they represent; common categories: -ethnicity -religion -sex/gender/sexual orientation -age -socioeconomic status, group affiliation, and region

dissonance

inconsistency or clash

faulty generalization

inductive fallacy that extends the conclusion further than the evidence warrants; type of fallacy

rhetorical triangle

inside: speech topic, goal and content 3 sides: -audience -speaking situation -speaker (audience perception of speaker)

characteristics that make up good sense

intelligence, sound reasoning, composure

argument

intentional, purposeful set of reasons created to explain disputed beliefs and conclusions

motivation

internal, individualized factor that results when we understand how topics affect our lives in a personal way

deliberate fraud

knowing, intentional plagiarism

nonparallel language

language that does not treat the two sexes equally; form of sexist language

Toulmin's Model of Reasoning

linear model designed to show six elements of reasoning common in the US Grounds --> Warrant/Backing --> Qualifier --> Rebuttal --> Claim

barriers to listening

linguistic barriers (language and vocabulary differences) cultural barriers (cultural allusions) personal barriers (physical and psychological)

dynamism

linked to extroversion, energy, and enthusiasm; influences ethos

causal reasoning

linking two factors in such a way that the first occurs before the second and regularly leads to the second as a matter of rule

theory of reasoned action (TRA)

links behavioral intentions with attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control; assumes we rationally weigh costs and benefits of our actions; adds a social dimension to motivation

hostile audience

listeners who are negative toward the topic or the speaker -speaker should emphasize common ground before addressing areas of divergence

absent audience

listeners who are separated from the speaker and receive the message through some form of media -lack instantaneous feedback of face-to-face audience

homogenous audience

listeners who are similar in attitude

unmotivated audience

listeners who lack a purposeful listening goal

motivated audience

listeners who listen for a reason; self-selected by voluntarily and intentionally choosing to listen to a subject or speaker

credibility

listeners' impressions of your character, intentions, and abilities that make you more or less believable -audience's evaluations begin before the speech, are modified during, and lead to a lasting impression

strategies to overcome cultural barriers

listeners: -jot down allusions to look up later speakers: -explain allusions -choose areas of common knowledge

strategies to overcome linguistic barriers

listeners: -pay careful attention, try to figure out specific words -listen for main points -jot down words to look up later speakers: -translate/explain confusing words, jargon, and slang -display words visually

critical listening

listening that requires you to reflect and weigh the merit of messages before you accept them; build on comprehensive listening skills; applied to persuasive messages

comprehensive listening

listening to understand information

absolute listening

listening without interrupting or inserting oneself into the talk; part of the creating conditions form of invitational rhetoric

fabrication

making up information or repeating information without sufficiently checking its accuracy

psychological factors

mental stressors or distractions that take away from your desire or ability to focus; personal barrier to listening; examples: big test coming up, fight with a friend

verbiage

nonessential language

demonstrated/intrinsic credibility

obvious knowledge the speaker shows during the speech -it's important to do careful research and cite your sources; be prepared to answer questions; be calm and poised

unsupported assertion

offering a claim without any evidence; type of fallacy

enthymeme

omitting part of a syllogism in an argument and letting listeners supply what's missing; inherently dialogical

perceived behavioral control

our opinion about our ability to do a behavior

subjective norms

our perceptions of what significant people think we should do

prejudice

performed biases or judgments, whether negative or positive; hinders listening, personal barrier

ethos

personal credibility or character traits that make a speaker believable and worthy of the audience's confidence; proof that comes from your personal qualities

actuate

persuasive purpose that motivates the audience to do something

convince

persuasive purpose that targets audience beliefs

rightsabilities

phrase coined by Professor Vernon Jensen to highlight the tension between our right to free speech and our responsibility for our speech

hearing

physical process involving sound waves, ear drums, and brain receptors

stereotyping

place someone in a category and then assume the person fits the characteristics of that category; hinders listening, personal barrier

2 forms of academic dishonesty

plagiarism and fabrication

accidental plagiarists

plagiarists who lack knowledge about the rules

demagogue

polarizing speaker who appeals to audiences more on the basis of emotion and personal charisma than on reasoned arguments

plagiarism

presenting the words, images, or ideas of others as if they were your own

pandering

providing messages that audiences want to hear, not necessarily what they need to hear

dismissive language

put-downs; language that discounts the importance of someone's viewpoint

artistic proofs

reasons the speaker creates to accept an argument; what Aristotle called his 3 modes of persuasion- ethos, pathos, logos; found in canon of invention

archetypal symbol

recurring metaphor or simile that arises from shared human and natural experiences

cultural allusion

reference to historical, literary, and religious sources that are culturally specific

region

related to factors such as climate, history, and economic base

socioeconomic status

related to occupation and education

salient

relevant or significant

closed question

request for a brief, specific answer; good for assessing beliefs

assimilation

response to diversity in which you embrace new perspectives and lifestyles and reject or surrender some or most of your previous beliefs and actions; takes place over time and is rarely total

accommodation

response to diversity in which you listen and evaluate the views of others; both sides adapt, modify, and bargain to reach mutual agreements

resistance

response to diversity in which you refuse to change, and you defend your own positions or attack others; not inherently bad

burden of proof

responsibility of the speaker who argues against the status quo to make the case for change

toast

ritual speech that honors a person on a special occasion; typically comes at the end of a meal and involves a ritual drink

antimetabole

saying words in one phrase and reversing them in the next

spinning

selecting material that favors the speaker's interests and point of view

simile

short comparison using 'like' or 'as' to compare two items that are alike in one essential detail

tag questions

short questions tagged on to the end of a sentence; some can be helpful but others are annoying

farewells

short speeches that function to ease the inevitable adjustments that both the departing individual and the group must make

announcements

short speeches that provide facts about upcoming events or developments of interest

introductions

short, informative speeches that provide the facts people need to interact effectively with a newcomer

nominations -definition -2 effective organizational patterns

short, persuasive speeches that introduce your candidate to the group and present brief arguments explaining why he or she should be elected -statement of reasons pattern -criteria-satisfaction pattern

multivocal society

society that actively seeks expression of a variety of voices or viewpoints; produced by accommodation approach to diversity

jargon

specialized technical vocabulary that serves the interests and activities of a particular group

common ground

specific areas or concerns that both speaker and audience consider important; contributes to goodwill - ethos

concrete word

specific, rather than general or abstract, term; creates vivid images and precise meanings

criteria-satisfaction pattern

speech pattern that first sets up standards for judging and then shows how the subject meets the standards

statement of reasons pattern

speech pattern that lists reasons and then explains each one

eulogy

speech to commemorate someone who has died

criteria

standards used for making evaluations or judgments; important to state this when making a value claim

deductive reasoning

starting with a principle (premise) and applying it to a specific case

inductive reasoning

starting with specific instances or examples, then formulating a reasonable conclusion

false dichotomy

stating an issue as either-or choice, overlooking other reasonable possibilities; type of fallacy

slippery slope

stating, without proof, that if one step is taken, a domino effect will cause other negative results; type of fallacy

grounds, data, or evidence

supporting material for claims

persuasion

symbolic process in which a communicator intentionally creates an argument in an attempt to convince others to change their attitudes or behaviors in an atmosphere of free choice

ethical communication

the conscious decision to speak and listen in ways that you, in light of your cultural ideals, consider fair, honest, and helpful to all parties involved

stock issues

the questions a reasonable person would need to have answered before forming a reasoned decision about a topic

situational features that can affect an audience

time and environment

perspective taking

trying to imagine something from another person's point of view

correlation

two things occur together, but one does not necessarily lead to the other

random audience

type of unmotivated audience; listeners are initially doing something else but are attracted by a message that catches their attention -requires speaker to attract and maintain attention long enough to present message; focus on being interesting/relevant, use conversational delivery

passive audience

type of unmotivated audience; listeners listen to accomplish other goals (most public speaking classes) -speaker should select a relevant topic, gain and maintain interest, and help them understand how the topic relates to their lives

lecture capture

use of technology to upload class material in digital format

alliteration

use of words with the same recurring initial sound

warmth

using behaviors that signal positive interest and engagement, especially through pleasant facial expressions; contributes to forming goodwill - ethos

dialect

variant form of a language

language

verbal code consisting of symbols that a speech community uses for communication

word

verbal symbol that stands for or represents an idea

denotive meaning

what a word names or identifies

disclaimers

word or phrase that leads the audience to doubt your confidence or expertise

qualifier

word or phrase that limits the scope of the claim

euphemism

word or phrase that substitutes an inoffensive term for a potentially offensive, embarrassing, or unpleasant thing

epithet

word or phrase with a powerful negative connotation, used to describe some quality of a person or group

hedges

words such as 'kinda' or 'I think' that can lead listeners to distrust your confidence or your knowledge of your topic

rhyme

words that end in the same sound