Public Speaking Study Guide #1

- most speeches two or three - never more than five, as a general rule

number of main points

- listening for pleasure or enjoyment, as when we listen to music, to a comedy routine, or to an entertaining speech

appreciative listening

- ethos: ethics; personal credibility (which is composed of character, confidence) - pathos: emotions - logos: logic (the conclusions you draw based on the inartistic proofs)

artistic proofs: ethos, pathos, logos

- keeping the audience foremost in mind at every step of speech preparation and presentation

audience centeredness (Lucas' definition)

- who wrote the info? - is the author identified? - what is the author's qualifications? - if you cannot answer these, AVOID

authorship

- a method of generating ideas for speech topics by free association of words and ideas

brainstorming

- a specific case referred to in passing a illustrate a point - aka specific instances

brief example

- a method of speech organization in which the main points show a cause-effect relationship - two main points: one dealing with the causes of an event and the other dealing with its effects - can be used for both persuasive speeches and informative speeches

causal order

- a one-sentence statement that sums up or encapsulates the major ideas of a speech - aka the thesis statement, the subject sentence, or the major thought the concise statement of what you expect to say a simple, declarative sentence that refines and sharpens the specific purpose statement guidelines - it should 1) be expressed in a full sentence 2) not be in the form of a question 3) avoid figurative language 4) not be vague or overly general

central idea and guidelines

1) is the author of the document clearly identified? 2) if the author is identified, is he or she an expert on the topic? 3) if the author is not an expert, can his or her opinions be accepted as objective or unbiased? 4) if the author is not identified, can the sponsoring organization be determined? 5) does the sponsoring organization have a reputation for expertise and objectivity? 6) does the document include a copyright date, publication date, or date of last revision? 7) if a date is included, is the document recent enough to cite in my speech?

checklist: evaluating internet documents

- a method of speech organization in which the main points follow a time pattern - may narrate a series of events in the sequence in which they happened - may also be used in speeches explaining a process or demonstrating how to do something -useful for informational speeches

chronological order

- grouping topics like people, places, things, events, processes, concepts, natural phenomena, problems, and plans and policies. - try to free associate

clustering

- chronological: information is grouped on some time-based strategy - spatial - causal: used in persuasive speeches (cause & effect) - problem-solution: used in persuasive speeches problem (⅔) convince audience that there is a problem, solution (⅓) - topical

common organization patterns

- listening to understand the message of a speaker, as when we attend a classroom lecture or listen to directions for finding a friend's house

comprehensive listening

- coordination: equal importance - balance: equal time allocation - subordination: must support the main point

coordination, subordination, and balance

- listening to evaluate a message for purposes of accepting or rejecting it, as when we listen to the sales pitch of a car salesperson or the campaign speech of a political candidate

critical listening

- an extended example is just like a story or narrative; it's impact depends as much on delivery as on content - speak faster here to create a sense of action, slower there to build suspense; raise your voice in some places, lower it in others; pause occasionally for dramatic effect - most important, maintain eye contact with your audience

delivery to enhance extended examples

- step 1: identify general demographic features of your audience - step 2: determine the importance of those features to the speaking situation - avoid stereotyping: assuming all members of a group are the same - demographic analysis is a starting point for gauging audience interests, beliefs, values, etc. variables: - age - gender - sexual orientation - racial, ethnic, cultural experiences - religion - group membership (jobs, sororities, etc) - other variables

demographic analysis (method & variables)

methods: - interviewing - questionnaires - focus groups variables: - interests - knowledge - attitudes - motivation

dispositional analysis (method & variables)

- the tendency of people to be concerned above all with their own values, beliefs, and well-being

egocentrism

- listening to provide emotional support for the speaker, as when a psychiatrist listens to a patient or when we lend a sympathetic ear to a friend in distress

empathic listening

- credibility is mostly a matter of being qualified to speak on a given topic - and of being perceived as qualified by your listeners - your credibility need not be based on firsthand knowledge and experience- it can come from reading, friends, etc - establishing your goodwill: try to defuse hostility at the start of the speech

establish credibility and goodwill

- the belief that one's own group or culture is superior to all other groups or cultures - because of this, we identify with our group or culture and see its values, beliefs, and customs of other groups or cultures, which we tend to think of as "wrong" or "unnatural" - can lead to prejudice and hostility toward different racial, ethnic, religious, or cultural groups

ethnocentrism

- testimony from people who are recognized experts in their fields - citing the views of people who are experts is a good way to lend credibility to your speeches - it is even more important when a topic is controversial or when the audience is skeptical about a speaker's point of view - testimony from ordinary people with firsthand experience or insight on a topic -it is especially valuable because it gives a more personal viewpoint (more emotional and authentic) on issues than can be gained from expert testimony

expert and peer testimony

- a story, narrative, or anecdote developed at some length to illustrate a point - by telling a story vividly and dramatically, they pull listeners into the speech

extended example

- invention: the discovery of argument; finding why something is or is not true - arrangement: putting things in order - style: word choice - memory: how to craft something to engage your audience - delivery: emphasis on words, sarcasm in speech or not

five canons of rhetoric

1) listen for main points 2) listen for evidence 3) listen for technique (intro, language, delivery)

focus your listening - three suggestions

- gaining audience attention: interesting starter - establishing your credibility: character (how the audience perceives your attention to their goodwill - does the audience think I have their best interest at heart?) and competence (the audience's' perception of do I know what I'm talking about? do they think I have the ability/education to know what I'm talking about?) - revealing the topic: "today I'm going to talk about..." - previewing the main points: "today I'm going to talk about this by A... B.... C...."

four objectives of introductions

- when your general purpose is to inform, you act as a teacher or lecturer. your goal is to convey information clearly, accurately, and interestingly. you aim is to enhance the knowledge and understanding of your listeners - to give them information they did not have before - when your general purpose is to persuade, you act as an advocate or a partisan. you go beyond giving information to espousing a cause. you want to change or structure the attitudes or actions of your audience.

general purpose : inform and persuade

- a speaker can quickly lose an audience if she or he doesn't use the introduction to get their attention and quicken their interest - look directly at the audience without saying a word ; your listeners will be attentive - keeping the attention of your audience once you start talking is more difficult - methods to use: 1) relate the topic to the audience 2) state the importance of your topic 3) startle the audience 4) arouse the curiosity of the audience 5) question the audience 6) begin with a quotation 7) tell a story

getting attention and interest

- stealing a speech entirely from a single source and passing it off as one's own - the most blatant and unforgivable kind of plagiarism

global plagiarism

- an outline that helps you prepare the speech - putting your speech together - deciding what you will say in the introduction, how you will organize the main points and supporting materials in the body and what you will say in the conclusion 1) state the specific purpose of your speech 2) identify the central idea 3) label the introduction, body, and conclusion 4) use consistent pattern of symbolization and indentation 5) state main points and sub points in full sentences 6) label transitions, internal summaries, and internal previews 7) attach a bibliography 8) give your speech a title, if one is desired

guidelines for the preparation outline

- a brief outline used to jog a speaker's memory during the presentation of a speech - the most widely recommended form of notes for extemporaneous speeches - the aim is to help you remember what you want to say 1) follow the visual framework used in the preparation outline 2) make sure the outline is legible 3) keep the outline as brief as possible 4) give yourself cues for delivering the speech

guidelines for the speaking outline

- an example that describes an imaginary or fictitious situation

hypothetical example

- increases audience's comprehension - increases audience's retention - increases speaker's credibility - increases speaker's confidence

importance of good organization

- proofs that are not created by a speaker - proofs that are applied rather than invented

inartistic proofs

- failing to give credit for particular parts of a speech that are borrowed from other people - the most important of these particular parts are quotations and paraphrases

incremental plagiarism

- a statement in the body of the speech that lets the audience know what the speaker is going to discuss next - more detailed than transitions - often combined with transitions

internal previews

- a statement in the body of the speech that summarizes the speaker's preceding point or points - the reverse of internal previews - reminds listeners of what they have just heard - usually used when a speaker finishes a complicated or particularly important main point or set of main points - excellent way to clarify and reinforce ideas

internal summaries

- the richly texture example supplies everyday details that bring the example to life - the more vivid your examples, the more impact they are likely to have on your audience

making examples vivid

- self-actualization needs: things that we do in order to become the better us - esteem needs: do I like myself - belonging needs: do i have friends or family - safety needs: can I pay my rent, do i have a job, do i have security, do i have a good source of food - physiological needs: do I have food, shelter, sleep, air, water

maslow's hierarchy of needs

- the use of language to defame, dean, or degrade individuals or groups - a destructive social force because it helps reinforce attitudes that encourage prejudice, hate crimes, and civil rights violations

name-calling

- stealing ideas or language from two or three sources and passing them off as one's own

patchwork plagiarism

- an inventory of your experiences, interests, hobbies, skills, beliefs, and so forth

personal inventory

- presenting another person's language or ideas as your own - to give the impression you have written or thought something yourself when you have actually taken it from someone else

plagiarism

- if you don't cite internet sources, you are just as guilty of plagiarism - make sure to keep a record of 1) the title of the internet doc 2) the author or organization responsible for the doc 3) the date on which the document was last updated 4) the date on which you accessed the site - While presenting, you must specify the author and the website

plagiarism and the internet

- rhetoric is just something you do, a knack - only produces gratification with the audience. - rhetoric is so evil that we use it to even confuse ourselves; - it is akin to self-flattery - it feeds on audience ignorance; it is not an art and it lacks virtue

plato's views on rhetoric

- controlled nervousness that helps energize a speaker for her or his presentation - "stage excitement" or "stage enthusiasm"

positive nervousness

- tell your listeners in the introduction what they should listen for in the rest of the speech - you must be sure your audience is not left guessing about the main points they should listen for as the speech unfolds

preview the body of the speech

- a method of speech organization in which the first main point deals with the existence of a problem and the second main point presents a solution to the problem - most appropriate for persuasive essays

problem-solution order

- recent info is critical - does not mean that the source should be ignored (comparisons, historical backgrounds) - always consider the context and need for recent info - look for copyright date, publication date, or last date updated

recency

- summarize your speech - end with a quotation - make a dramatic statement - refer to the introduction

reinforce the central idea

- what a speaker wants the audience to remember after it has forgotten everything else in a speech

residual message

- in the process of gaining attention, be sure to state clearly the topic of your speech - even if they already know your topic, you should restate it clearly and concisely at some point in the introduction

reveal the topic

- "in conclusion" - by the use of the voice - its tone, pacing, intonation, and rhythm- a speaker can build the momentum of a speech so there is no doubt it is over - musical crescendo or the dissolve ending (a conclusion that generates emotional appeal by fading step by step to a dramatic final statement)

signal the end of the speech

- a very brief statement that indicates where a speaker is in the speech or that focuses attention on key ideas - frequently, they are just numbers (ex: the first cause..) - can be expressed as a question

signpost

- simplicity: word main points simply - parallel wording: repetitive word pattern

simplicity and parallel wording

- audience analysis that focuses on situational factors, such as the size of the audience, the physical setting for the speech and the disposition of the audience toward the topic, the speaker, and the occasion - identifies traits of the audience unique to the speaking situation at hand

situational audience analysis

- a method of speech organization in which the main points follow a directional pattern - the main points proceed from top to bottom, left to right, front to back, inside to outside, east too west, or some other route - useful for informational speeches

spatial order

- sponsoring organization: an organization that, in the absence of a clearly identified author, is responsible for the content of a document on the internet - who is the sponsoring organization? - does it have a reputation for accuracy, expertise, and objectivity? - is it biased? - URLS: . gov and .edu are credible typically

sponsorship

- unless there is an important reason to give exact numbers, you should round off most statistics; using visual aids can make your statistics easier to comprehend

statistics: round off; use visual aids

- insert statistics only when they are needed, and then make sure they are easy to grasp - instead of drowning your audience in a sea of statistics, use only those that are most important

statistics: use sparingly

The Rhetoric

the title of Aristotle's classical work on rhetoric

- confidence is mostly the well-known power of positive thinking - the ratio of positive to negative thoughts should be at least five to one

think positively

- a method of speech organization in which the main points divide the topic into logical and consistent subtopics - works for both informational and persuasive speeches - used more often than any other method of speech organization

topical order

- a word or phrase that indicates when a speaker has finished one thought and is moving on to another - states both the idea the speaker is leaving and the idea she or he is coming up to

transitions

- signaling the end of the speech - leaving a strong final impression

two objectives of conclusions

- 1) identifying the general demographic features of your audience and 2) gauging the importance of those features to a particular speaking situation

two steps of demographic analysis

- personal reference - rhetorical questions - startling statement - pertinent quotation - humorous story - real or hypothetical story

types of opening devices

- mental imaging in which a speaker vividly pictures himself or herself giving a successful presentation - closely related to positive thinking

visualization