Qualitative Final Study Set
Data Processing (Editing)
1.) How will the data be adjusted 2.) How will the data be reviewed
Data Processing (Data)
1.) What data? 2.) Who are the research subjects 3.) What tools will be used for collecting data 4.) Where, when and how will it be collected
Data Processing (Analysis)
1.) What type of analysis will be important 2.) What limitations exist
Data Processing (Coding)
1.) Will it be done on the computer 2.) Will it be done manually
Examples of Primary Sources
Original documents such as letters, diaries, or government records Artifacts such as artifacts, photographs, or works of art Audio or video recordings of events or interviews Data collected through experiments or surveys Published research articles that present original data or findings
Three Phases of the research process
Planning: This phase involves defining the research question, reviewing relevant literature, and determining the methods and resources needed to complete the study. Conducting: This phase involves collecting and analyzing data, which may involve conducting experiments, surveys, interviews, or observations. Reporting: This phase involves organizing and presenting the results of the study, as well as interpreting the findings and drawing conclusions.
What interviewing is and what its advantages and disadvantages are:
Interviewing is a method of collecting data through verbal communication between the researcher and the research subjects. Advantages of interviewing include the ability to gather detailed, in-depth information, the ability to probe for clarification or elaboration, and the opportunity to build rapport with the research subjects. Disadvantages of interviewing include the potential for bias or subjectivity, the time and effort required to conduct interviews, and the potential for misunderstanding or miscommunication
Qualitative Content Analysis
It is used to evaluate patterns within the content (e.g. words and phrases) Compared to the other types, it is more deductive and is focused on frequencies E.g. How do people describe their customer experience at XYZ company? Read the transcripts Assign codes to categories/themes Look for patterns/similarities Very time consuming
The use of Qualitative Data Analysis
It is used to explore recurrent themes or hypotheses It can be used for creating survey instruments One of its aims it to develop conceptual models (theories)
Difference between primary and secondary data as well as their examples:
Primary data is data that is collected directly from the study participants, and is typically collected for the specific purpose of the research project. Examples of primary data include survey responses, interview transcripts, and observational data. Secondary data is data that has been collected for a different purpose and is obtained from existing sources, such as published articles, government reports, or databases.
Disadvantages of Primary Sources
Primary sources may be difficult to access, and may require special skills or resources to locate, interpret, or analyze. Primary sources may be biased or incomplete, and may not provide a complete or accurate portrayal of an event or issue. Primary sources may be written in a different language, or use unfamiliar terminology or conventions, making them difficult to understand. Primary sources may require a great deal of time and effort to analyze and interpret, and may not always yield clear or conclusive results.
How to effectively conduct literature review
Define the scope and focus of the review. Search for relevant literature using databases, search engines, and other sources. Evaluate the quality and relevance of the sources found. Organize and synthesize the findings of the literature. Write the review, highlighting the main themes and conclusions
Making Transcripts
Full verbatim transcription à word-by-word transcript which includes fragmented sentences, pauses, rephrasing, repetition, laughter, fillers (uhm, ahh...) Verbatim (intelligent) à same as full verbatim but edited for readability (e.g. excludes fillers) Start transcription right after the data collection Translations (avoid if possible) and anonymization (names, places) of the data might be necessary Submitted (as a hard copy or a digital file) to the coach Not to be included in the final version of the printed paper (e.g. annex) Using tools like ATLAS.ti, Nvivo and EvaSys, one can transcribe data effectively and faster than when done manually
Differences between inductive and deductive approaches to coding
Inductive coding involves starting with the raw data and allowing patterns and themes to emerge as the data is coded. This approach is often used in exploratory research where the researcher has a open-ended research question. Deductive coding involves starting with predetermined categories or themes and coding the data accordingly. This approach is often used in confirmatory research where the researcher is testing specific hypotheses or theories
Research Subjects in a Qualitative Research
Those who have the knowledge to contribute to the research and know about situations and/or are involved in interactions Chosen (among others) through: •Snowball effect/chain sampling •Convenience sampling •Homogeneous sampling
Types of data and data processing steps
Types of data include primary data, which is collected directly from the study participants, and secondary data, which is collected from existing sources. Data processing steps may include data cleaning, data coding, data entry, data analysis, and data interpretation.
Grounded Theory Analysis
•Its main intention is to create theory using data •You begin with analysing a single case or a small number of cases and forming a theory (hypothesis) about it •After studying it carefully, you will look at another group of subjects and see if the theory holds true for them (if not, you will need to adapt your theory) •E.g. What factors might influence people in ___ (country) to look through/read flyers distributed by post? •Criticism: perhaps the less you know about the research question and the population, the less biased your results will be
Disclosure Analysis
•Its main purpose is analysing language in its social context •It analyses language (e.g. a conversation, speech, etc.) within the culture and society it takes place in • E.g. How do lower-level employees talk to their managers and the other way around? •The researcher must be aware of the history and culture of that topic (e.g. the way the employees talk to their managers might depends on the organizational culture/embraced equality)
Summary of the Qualitative Data Processing
•Decide what methods of data collection are the most appropriate for the chosen RQ and the research subjects •Consider which type of analysis will be used and whether you will rely on deductive or inductive approach à e.g. interview guideline might depend on it •Design all the necessary data collection tools, test them and start collecting the data •Arrange your data systematically and make all the transcripts, edit your data •Organize your data à look at the RQs and put your data e.g. in a table according to the objectives •Assign proper codes and start analysing your data
The Coding of Data
•Descriptive information first goes through a process of identifying themes •Issues, topics, ideas, opinions, etc. •Inductive (from the participants) and deductive (from the interviewer)
Narrative Analysis
•It is focused on analysing stories and ways in which they are told •Can be used when trying to understand how people deal with different situations •E.g. How do employees deal with the changes (e.g. reshaping process) in a workplace? •Listening to each story is very time-consuming àleads to a small sample size
Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis
•It is used to understand the experiences of the research subjects (for example, people) in relation to a major life event, experience or situation (e.g. first job, promotion, etc.) •It is purely subject-centred and often has a small sample size •Researcher bias might become an issue (e.g. if the researcher has had similar experiences à can produce bias)
Functions and benefits of the literature review
A literature review helps to identify gaps in current knowledge and areas that need further investigation. It provides a foundation for the research by contextualizing the study within the existing body of knowledge. It helps to identify and avoid duplication of effort in research. It helps to inform research design and methodology by highlighting the strengths and limitations of previous studies. It helps to identify potential sources of funding and collaborators
What literature review is
A literature review is a summary and evaluation of the research that has been published on a specific topic. It aims to provide an overview of the current state of knowledge on the topic and identify any gaps or areas that need further investigation.
primary source definition
A primary source is a first-hand account or original record of an event, concept, or phenomenon. Primary sources are typically considered to be more reliable and trustworthy than secondary sources, which are based on or derived from primary sources.
Research Design
A procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to answer questions validly, objectively, accurately and economically.
What a research problem is and what criteria it must fulfill:
A research problem is a question or issue that needs to be addressed or solved through research. A research problem must be clearly defined, relevant, and feasible to study. It should also be specific enough to be adequately addressed within the scope and limitations of the research project.
What a research proposal is and what components it consists of:
A research proposal is a document that outlines the plan for a research project, including the research question, the research methods, and the expected outcomes. Components of a research proposal may include an introduction, literature review, research question, research design, sample and population, data collection and analysis methods, and a timeline for completing the study
Active Citations
Active citations are used when the specific content or ideas from the cited source are being directly discussed or analyzed in the text. Active citations typically include the author's name and the year of publication, and may also include the page number or other specific information. For example: "According to Smith (2020), the impact of social media on political discourse has been widely studied" is an active citation.
Advantages and disadvantages of primary and secondary data
Advantages of primary data: It is collected for the specific purpose of the research project, and is therefore directly relevant to the research question. It is also more current and can be collected using a method that is tailored to the specific needs of the study. Disadvantages of primary data: It can be time-consuming and costly to collect, and may require specialized skills or resources. Advantages of secondary data: It is often readily available and can be collected at a lower cost than primary data. It can also provide a broad overview of a topic and save time by avoiding duplication of effort. Disadvantages of secondary data: It may not be directly relevant to the research question, and may be outdated or of low quality. It may also be difficult to access or interpret
Secondary Source Definition
Any data collected by someone else for some other purpose that also happens to be useful to you as you pursue your research purposes
Coding of qualitative data:
Coding is the process of organizing and categorizing data in a systematic way, in order to identify patterns and themes. In qualitative research, coding is typically done manually, by reading through the data and highlighting or labeling sections that relate to specific themes or categories. Coding can be done either inductively, by starting with the raw data and allowing patterns to emerge, or deductively, by starting with predetermined categories and coding the data accordingly
Types of qualitative data analysis
Content analysis: Involves systematically coding and categorizing the data in order to identify patterns and themes. Narrative analysis: Involves analyzing the stories and experiences that are conveyed through the data. Discourse analysis: Involves analyzing the language and communication patterns used in the data. Grounded theory: Involves developing a theory that emerges from the data, rather than testing a preconceived theory
Differences between conventional and scientific research
Conventional research is often based on personal opinions, beliefs, and subjective interpretations, while scientific research is based on objective, verifiable evidence. Conventional research may use unscientific methods, such as anecdotal evidence, while scientific research uses standardized, empirical methods to collect and analyze data. Scientific research is more reliable and replicable because it follows a systematic, controlled process, while the results of conventional research may be biased or influenced by the personal experiences of the researcher.
The Coding of Data (The 3 Ways for Themes)
Examine the verbatim responses and integrate them with the text of your report to either support or contradict your argument Assign a code to each theme and count how frequently each has occurred Combine both methods to communicate your findings
Characteristics of focus group interviews:
Focus group interviews involve a small group of people discussing a topic or issue in a facilitated setting. Focus group interviews are typically conducted for the purpose of gathering information about attitudes, opinions, or behaviors. Focus group interviews are often conducted in a relaxed, informal setting, and may involve the use of visual aids or props
Strategies and criteria for selecting a research topic:
Identify areas of personal interest or expertise. Consider the practicality and feasibility of the topic, including the availability of resources and funding. Evaluate the potential impact and significance of the research. Look for gaps in current knowledge or areas that need further investigation. Consider the alignment of the topic with the research goals and objectives of the organization or funding agency.
The deductive approach
Involves analyzing qualitative data based on a structure that is predetermined by the researcher. is focused on looking for relationships. is quick and easy. can be used when a researcher has a fair idea about the likely responses that he/she is going to receive from the sample population.
Quantitative Data
Objective- To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest Sample- Large number of representative cases Data Collection -Structured Data Analysis -Statistical Outcome -Recommend a final course of action Generalization of findings - Can be used to make generalizations to the population of interest Communication of findings - More analytical in nature
Common mistakes when conducting interviews
Not adequately preparing for the interview, including familiarizing oneself with the research topic and the research subjects. Asking leading or biased questions. Failing to create a comfortable and respectful atmosphere for the interview. Not actively listening to the research subjects and not allowing for silence or pause during the interview. Interrupting or dominating the conversation.
Qualitative data
Objective -To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations Sample- Small number of non-representative cases Data collection Unstructured Data analysis Non-statistical Outcome Develop an initial understanding Generalization of findings - Cannot be regarded as conclusive - Cannot be used to make generalizations to the population of interest Communication of findings -More descriptive and narrative in nature
Problems when conducting observations:
Observer bias: The researcher's personal biases or expectations may influence their observations. Reactivity: The presence of the researcher may influence the behavior of the research subjects. Difficulty in accurately interpreting and recording observations: The researcher may not be able to fully capture the complexity or nuances of the observations. Ethical issues: The researcher may need to balance the need for accurate data collection with the privacy and confidentiality of the research subjects.
Participant and non-participant observations
Participant observation involves the researcher actively participating in the group or setting being studied, while also collecting data through observation. Non-participant observation involves the researcher observing the group or setting from a distance, without actively participating. Both participant and non-participant observations have advantages and disadvantages, depending on the research question and the goals of the study
Passive Citations
Passive citations, on the other hand, are used when the cited source is being mentioned in the text, but its specific content or ideas are not being directly discussed or analyzed. Passive citations typically do not include the author's name or the year of publication, and may simply be a reference to the source in general. For example: "Previous research has found that social media has a significant impact on political discourse" is a passive citation.
Differences between qualitative and quantitative data & research:
Qualitative data is descriptive and subjective, and is collected using open-ended methods such as interviews, focus groups, or observations. Quantitative data is numerical and objective, and is collected using standardized methods such as surveys or experiments. Qualitative research is interpretive and aims to understand the meaning behind the data, while quantitative research is more focused on measuring and testing hypotheses.
Checklist for making transcripts
Record the interview audio or video using a high-quality device. Transcribe the entire interview verbatim, including any pauses, filler words, or nonverbal communication. Use a consistent style and format for the transcript, including the use of brackets to indicate any notes or observations made by the transcriber. Check the transcript for accuracy and completeness, and make any necessary corrections or clarifications. Save the transcript in a secure, accessible location
Research Data
Research data is defined as recorded factual material commonly retained by and accepted in the scientific community as necessary to validate research findings
What research design is and what it influences:
Research design is the plan or framework for conducting a research study. It outlines the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing data, and helps to ensure that the research is systematic, controlled, and unbiased. Research design influences the validity and reliability of the research, as well as the conclusions that can be drawn from the study
What research objectives are:
Research objectives are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound goals that a research project aims to achieve. Research objectives define the purpose of the research and provide a roadmap for the research process.
How to formulate research objectives:
Research objectives should be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound. They should be based on the research problem and be aligned with the research question. Research objectives should be realistic and achievable within the scope and limitations of the research project.
Sources of research problems and research questions:
Research problems and research questions can come from a variety of sources, including personal experiences, observations, literature review, current events, and theoretical concepts. Research problems may also be identified through gap analysis, which involves identifying gaps in current knowledge and areas that need further investigation.
How to formulate a good research question
Research questions should be clear, concise, and specific. They should be focused and narrow enough to be adequately addressed within the scope and limitations of the research project. Research questions should be framed in a way that allows for the collection and analysis of data that will provide meaningful answers.
Who research subjects in a qualitative study are and how the sampling is done:
Research subjects in a qualitative study are typically people who have firsthand knowledge or experience related to the research question. Sampling in qualitative research is often purposeful and non-random, with the goal of selecting subjects who can provide rich, detailed information about the research topic. Sampling techniques may include convenience sampling, snowball sampling, and criterion-based sampling
Difference between seminal articles and state of the art publications
Seminal articles are important, influential papers that have made a significant contribution to a particular field of study. These articles are often highly cited and have had a lasting impact on the direction of research in the field. State of the art publications are up-to-date, comprehensive reviews of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. These publications provide an overview of the most recent developments and trends in the field, and may also identify future research directions.
Structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews
Structured interviews are highly standardized, with a set of predetermined questions that are asked in the same order to all research subjects. Semi-structured interviews have a set of predetermined questions, but also allow for flexibility and the ability to explore topics in more depth. Unstructured interviews have no predetermined questions and allow for a more open-ended, exploratory conversation.
Qualifications of the focus group moderator
The focus group moderator is responsible for facilitating the focus group discussion and ensuring that the session stays on track and focused. The moderator should be knowledgeable about the research topic and have good communication and interpersonal skills. The moderator should be unbiased and neutral, and should not attempt to influence the discussion or the participants' responses
Advantages of Secondary Sources
•Access to global knowledge •Narrowing down with keywords (e.g. Google search) •Fast and easy (always depends of course!) •Ready to quote •Does not depends on the respondents' cooperation
Disadvantages of Secondary Sources
•Compatibility/relevance to research - many useless results •Quality is often questionable •Often outdated •No control over accuracy •Accessibility problems •Sufficiency problems
Types of Qualitative Data Analysis
•Qualitative content analysis •Narrative analysis •Discourse analysis •Grounded theory (GT) •Interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)
The inductive approach
•is not based on a predetermined structure or set ground rules/framework. •is focused on looking for similarities/differences in the collected data. •is more time consuming and a thorough approach to qualitative data analysis. •is often used when a researcher has very little or no idea of the research phenomenon.