Qur'an Exam 2 (Final) Study Guide
Halal
translates to, "permissible"; one of the five rulings associated with Muslims acts
Soteriology
doctrine/theory of salvation (soter=salvation)
Awra
naked region that needs to be covered
Maqasid / Maqasid al-Shari'ah
"Goals of the Sharia"- the goals of God's laws: 1. Mercy 2. Attainting benefit, avoiding harm 3. Preservation of: religion, family, property, intellect, life - Premodern scholars would say: justice, equality, dignity, freedom - Example: prohibiting Muslims from getting vaccines due to the Gelatin made from pigs that they contain doesn't preserve life, intellect, etc., so it is not reasonable to prohibit it)
Sunna
"the way"/"customary habit" (Muslims believed that Muhammad's sunna was one to follow)
Ijtihad
(Jihand: "to struggle") the human struggle to figure out what God wants
Fiqh
(literally, "human understanding") the human attempt to understand what God really wants - If you hear about something bad someone did under Islamic law, most Muslims would say it's really bad fiqh, not what God really wants - Muslims want to be governed by what God really wants
Conquest of Mecca
(pretext: ally of the Quraysh attacked ally of Muslims - broke Treaty of Hudaybiyyah) What: Mecca was conquered by group of Muslims led by Muhammad Why: He enters the Ka'ba and destroys idols - Mecca is now monotheist; Muhammad grants mass amnesty/forgiveness to Meccans When: January 630 AD
What challenges do the Qur'an's guidelines on looking at the opposite gender present for modern Muslims today?
- A bank teller may not look at a customer that they find attractive during their whole interaction out of respect - which the customer may find weird and other people in the Western world may find weird too - Websites, TV, Magazines etc. don't accommodate Muslims
Naskh (its meaning in law, not art)
- A tool for resolving apparent conflicts between verses; the abrogation of one verse by another - When one verse is replaced by another (what one verse says replaces/overrides the other)
How is the Qur'an organized? Discuss its subdivisions, the number of chapters, the naming of chapters, and the ordering of chapters. (Mattson, Saeed).
- About the size of the New Testament (4/5ths) - 114 Surahs (chapters) - About 6,000 ayats (verses) - A single book - Generally longest to shortest chapter order - NOT chronological - Not grouped thematically - Chapter titles can be misleading (ex: chapter called "the cow" talks about the cow very briefly) - Surahs are named after a distinctive element, but often include multiple themes (almost all surahs contain all of the 4 types of texts discussed) - Surahs themselves often contain verses from different time periods
Hijab (el-Fadl)
- Arabic word meaning "barrier or protection; a veil worn by some Muslim women which usually covers the head and chest - The term can refer to any head, face, or body covering worn by Muslim women that conforms to Islamic standards of modesty
Describe the state of stories about biblical figures in Arabia during Muhammad's life time (a period sometimes referred to as "Late Antiquity"). How did these stories circulate? Who told them? Was the Bible translated into Arabic yet? Discuss the state of the evidence for an Arabic Bible translation in Muhammad's day (Griffith).
- Bible was not translated into Arabic - Late Antiquity - period after the fall of the Roman empire - Circulating in prayer halls orally - General agreement by Jews and Christians on what was authentic - Canonical: part of a collection of inspired writing - Extra Biblical: outside of Bible
What guidelines does the Qur'an give regarding looking at the opposite gender? Discuss key terms and phrases in the Qur'anic text itself (See Qur'anic verses and their commentary in the Study Qur'an).
- Don't look lustfully at people who are not your spouse ("lowering your gazes" is a way to do that) - You are not responsible just because you notice someone is attractive - "Khimar": cloth that covers the head or neck - kerchief or headscarf - "Ornaments": women should not shake her body to reveal her ornaments - Hijab: headscarf - Burqa: full body covering, mesh over eyes
What guidelines does the Qur'an give regarding dress for both sexes? Discuss key terms and phrases in the Qur'anic text itself. (See Qur'anic verses and their commentary in the Study Qur'an)
- For Women: traditional view was that it's all but a women's face and hands; some would say their feet as well - many Muslim men will also dress to this standard; it is not unique to women - For Men: navel to knees (culture may dictate more than that e.g. at the beach) - not just in front of women but other men, too
Discuss the role of the Qur'an in dealing with death. How is the Qur'an used to console the dying? How is it used in the funeral service? (Mattson)
- Funeral prayer - Guides Muslims on funeral etiquette - The body is washed directly after death and covered by a sheet - Muslims believe that a funeral is a very spiritual occasion - Offers hope for a good afterlife for the deceased
Give an overview of the standard Muslim account of the written compilation of the Qur'an. Why did Uthman decide to produce an official edition? How did he do it? Why was his decision controversial? (Mattson)
- Islamic tradition says that the driving force behind this transcription was a concern over the conflicts that were emerging over the proper recitation of the Qur'an - Uthman ordered Zayd and a group of other companions to form a committee to write out a complete transcription of the Qur'an - The difference was that the dialect of the Quraysh would be preferred in the transcription - According to the dominant Islamic tradition, what was lost in the standardization of the Qur'an were some of the variants (ahruf) in which it was recited - These variants were allowed by the Prophet to facilitate the learning of the Qur'an in different tribal groups
When and how did the Qur'an first come to America? (Mattson)
- It first came to America from slaves being exported from West Africa (15-30% were Muslim - meaning a majority of African Americans in America today most likely have Muslim background) - There is evidence of Muslim prayer happening on a plantation in 1837 - Slaves who had memorized the Qur'an wrote it down
Discuss how Muslim scholars sought to deal with the problem of multiple interpretations of the same Qur'anic verse (Mattson)
- Legal matters are analyzed in tafsirs that focus on the laws derived from the Qur'an - Conflicts between verses were often resolved by limiting the application of one of the texts (For example, some texts were deemed to be general, while others applicable only to a specific group of people) - Analyze two related Qur'anic verses on the same subject - Another way scholars reconciled apparent conflicts between verses was through the principle of "abrogation" (Naskh) (historical context) - The use of analogical reasoning (qiyas)
How does the present order of the surahs in the Qur'an relate to the original order in which they were revealed? How does the present order of the verses within surahs relate to the original order in which they were revealed? Where do Muslims believe the present ordering of surahs and verses within surahs came from? (Mattson)
- Muslim scholars say that the verses are placed in a way so that they make a larger argument - The Qur'an is a collection of the revelation - Muhammad received from God, Muhammad did not "compose" the Qur'an - As long as the Prophet Muhammad was alive, new verses were revealed and inserted before, after or in-between existing verses within any surah according to the instructions of God
Where do Muslims place the Qur'an? Why? How do Muslims dispose of old unwanted Qur'ans? (Saeed) (Matson)
- Muslims place the Qur'an in an elevated space > a symbol of respect Disposal: - Bury it - ideally somewhere people won't walk over it - Tie a rock to it and drop it in a body of water - Burn it - Shred it/recycle it (for little papers or pamphlets with Qur'anic verses)
Explain Muslim understandings of the previous scriptures. Which previous scriptures are specifically mentioned by the Qur'an? How do Muslims interact with them today and why? (Muslim's viewpoint on interacting with the Bible)
- Muslims' view - Positive: Bible contains revelation from God; the New Test. is described as guidance and light and a confirmation of what comes before - Muslims' view - Critical: Qur'an makes an allegation that people have corrupted parts of the Biblical text - they believe that the text is partly divine revelation and partly of human origin; many Muslims respect the Bible (many recommend ritual washing before touching it) -Muslim scholars say Muslims should not affirm or deny what they read; God knows best -they use it for storytelling, to pull details/fill gaps; NOT for law or theology
Ahruf/Qira'at (Variant Readings of the Qur'an)
- Qira'at: refers to variants in the recitation of the Quran. There are ten different recognized schools of qira'at, each one deriving its name from a noted Quran reciter or "reader" (Qari). - Ahruf: According to hadith literature, the Quran is revealed in seven Ahruf (the plural of harf) or styles; Ahruf are distinct from Qira'at; Muhammad approves of each of them; Ahruf is wording which differs but has the same meaning.
What role might the Qur'an have played in the history of the abolitionist movement? (Ware)
- Qur'an teachers were being taken and enslaved from West Africa (1770s) -Many from the area were outraged because they claim it was desecrating the book of God -Abdul Qadir Kan and Sulayman Bal lead revolutions in 1776 to restructure society and were one of the first to outlaw slavery -Used the Qur'an to argue against slavery -Influences western abolitionist
What lines of evidence have led most academic scholars to argue that the Qur'anic text we have today dates to the 7th century (Sinai)?
- Several sheets of Qur'anic manuscript have been subjected to radiocarbon dating (giving a 95% probability that the parchment is older than 660 C.E.) - Controversy over Uthman's measures of transcribing the Qur'an - Qur'an displays a number of measures that indicate fairly rapid stabilization - There is an impressive Pan-Islamic unanimity on the link between the Qur'an's standard rasm and the caliph Uthman
How do the stories of the Prophets in the Qur'an differ from those of the Bible? (Esack)
- The Quran does not include stories of the prophets committing sins - Ex: Lot's daughters get him drunk and have sex with him which is not mentioned in the Qur'an - Ex: David is an "adulterer" but the Quran does not mention it - Abraham builds Ka'ba with Ishmael; Bible doesn't mention - Adam - Theological differences about whether or not they can sin - Story of Joseph - Quran is very short (more like a sermon), Bible is very long (more historical narrative)
Khimar (plural is khumur)
- There is a debate about what this translates to - a covering of the head, does that include neck, temples? - The modern interpretation/modern scholars argue: women's hair is part of her awra (Any piece of cloth that is used in some way or the other to cover the head is referred to as Khimar. A hijab is more like a head scarf that is secured around the head and covers the neck, hair and the whole of the head and the hair. It is usually not so long and just reaches the shoulders)
Ijaza
- a certificate of mastery authorizing you to teach the recitation of the Qur'an - Includes an isnad - Is from a person, not an institution like a diploma From quiz: "a document certifying that one's memorized recitation of the Qur'an matches that of Muhammad)
Qiyas
- analogical reasoning/analogy; this allows the rules of the Qur'an to be continually adapted to new circumstances
Iltifat
- grammatical shifts - when you shift perspective - Example: shifting from 1st to 3rd person or from 3rd to 2nd person - Example: shifting from singular to plural or from plural to duel (plurality) - When you use 2nd person, you're facing the person you're talking about, but when you use 3rd person, you aren't - the metaphorical face of God is turning away because he is so displeased
Inimitability / I'jaz
- inimitability (impossible to imitate) - the Qur'an claims it is impossible to imitate - one medieval and modern interpretation of the verse about this in the Qur'an is that the Qur'an's eloquence is so high it can't be copied
Tajwid
- the science of correctly pronouncing the Qur'an the way Muhammad said it - tongue placement, vowel length, nasalization
Occasions of Revelation (Mattson pp. 201-204, review Mattson, pp. 27-33)
-Circulated during most of the first century of Islam -Occasions of revelation are verses of the Qur'an for which there are reports claiming a connection between a revelation and a particular historical incident -These reports form a subcategory of prophetic hadith and are not contained within the text of the Qur'an in any way - reports about historical context of a verse - a connection between revelation and a particular historical context - Example: prohibition applies from that point on - if you believed and did good deeds before then it's okay you ate and drank
How might the Qur'an's understanding of religious toleration have possibly influenced Thomas Jefferson? Discuss the role of the George Sale translation of the Qur'an that Jefferson had purchased. (Prange and Ahmad). For the final exam (but not a quiz), please also discuss the possible influence of the Qur'an's understanding of religious toleration on Jefferson via John Locke (Class discussion).
-Jefferson bought George Sales copy of the Quran when he was 22 years old in law school -Also bought Arabic grammar books -Could've been bought to learn about the Muslim pirates in Northern Africa or for intellectual reasons in school -Sale has a 200-page introduction arguing that Islam is more tolerant than Christianity in practice -Jefferson approved, in theory, of a Muslim president and freedom of practice in autobiographical writings -didn't think that Muhammad was a real prophet -argues that Christians, historically, have been more intolerant than Muslims and Jews (Jews were being pushed out of Europe and resettling in Jewish world) -Christians were the MOST intolerant of all - Jefferson loves John Locke, and Locke influenced Jefferson for the 1st amendment (Locke's idea of religious tolerance) - Locke was influenced by his Arabic Professor
What is the spiritual and emotional significance of the Qur'an for Muslims?
-The Qur'an is as important to Muslims as Jesus is to Christians -It is not equal to the Bible - because to Christians, -Jesus is more important than the Bible -The Hadith is more comparable to the Bible
How does the Qur'an describe treaties? (Dagli; review Mattson 62-65)
-Treaties are described as an important dimension of Islamic law as they pertain to war and peace -Muslims are willing to live in a state of peace with their neighbors regardless of religion -They take treaties very seriously
Abdul Qadir Kan
-a Pakistani engineer -a key figure in Pakistan's nuclear weapons program who was also involved for decades in a black market of nuclear technology
Rasul
-a messenger -God communicates with them and gives them messages to deliver to the community -Every messenger is a prophet, but not every prophet is a messenger -Ex: Moses > Torah > Israelites (1st five books of the Old Testament)
Nabi
-a prophet -God communicates with them
Canon
-a set of texts (or "books") which a particular religious community regards as authoritative scripture -any rule or standard by which things could be compared or judged -Canon law is the body of laws and regulations made by or adopted by ecclesiastical authority, for the government of the Christian organization and its members
Explain the role played by Muhammad in Muslim piety. How do Muslims pattern their life on his? Give at least three examples (Hanson).
1. Considered to be the ultimate human being 2. Muhammad is not divine, he's still a man, a human being 3. "WWMD" - Sunna = "the way"/"customary habit - Muhammad's Sunna is worth copying to Muslims - Examples: the way he prays, eats, made love, sleeps, uses the restroom, combs his hair, wakes up/daily remembrances 4. A role model, and he should be listened to 5. He suffers over our sufferings/worries over us - creates a sense of gratitude 6. On the Day of Judgement, God can give you salvation out of his love for Muhammad - Muhammad cannot give salvation, but he can ask God to give it to you 7. Muslims very often ask God to send blessings to the Prophet
How did Muslim scholars define the proper conduct of war based on the hadith tradition? List at least five prohibitions (Dagli)
1. Do not act brutally 2. Do not kill children 3. Do not kill women 4. Do not kill old men 5. Do not mutilate the dead 6. Do not mutilate animals (Majority: war should be defensive; Minority: war could be offensive)
How are the unique aspects of the Qur'an's version consistent with its own larger understanding of what God is like, what prophets are like, and the nature of humanity?
1. God is forgiving: forgives Adam and Eve 2. Prophets can make mistakes, but don't commit major sins - (When they eat the fruit it's because they forgot; it's not intentional, so it is not a sin) 3. Nature of humanity: Fitra; no original sin
How is Muhammad similar to and different from the other prophets sent by God according to the Qur'an? (Esack)
1. He is the last prophet and messenger - "The Seal" 2. Muhammad is sent to all of humanity 3. God will not allow Muhammad's message/the Qur'an to be corrupted or forgotten (Islam will be preserved; there is no need for another prophet)
Who was the son that God commanded Abraham to sacrifice in the Qur'an? Explain the candidates for this role and the evidence for and against each of them, drawing upon the Qur'an and the Bible.
1. In the Qur'an, God does not specify which son Abraham should sacrifice, but most Muslims believe that it was Ishmael. Q 37:113 hints that it was Ishmael as it reads, "And We blessed him and Isaac" 2. In the Bible, God commands Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. This is clear in Genesis 22:2 that states, "He said, 'Take your son, your only son Isaac, whom you love, and go to the land of Moriah, and offer him there as a burnt offering on one of the mountains that I shall show you."
What interpretations did Muslims theologians give regarding who will be saved in the next life? List and explain the three major schools of Muslim thought, by focusing on: b) What evidence did each school cite for its argument? (Be able to cite at least one important Qur'anic phrase or concept that each school drew upon)
1. Inclusivists cite: Q17:15, which says, "And never would We punish until We sent a messenger," meaning that you could still go to Heaven if you did not receive the message 2. Pluralists cite: Q2:111-112, which is a possible response to the belief that "no one will enter Paradise unless he is a Jew or a Christian," saying that isn't true, "whoever submits his face (aslama) to God, while being virtuous, shall have his reward with his Lord" 3. Exclusivists cite: Q3:85, which says "If anyone desires a religion other than Islam, never will it be accepted of him; and in the Hereafter He will be in the ranks of those who have lost" (All spiritual good).
What are some of the challenges of translating the Qur'an into English? Identify at least five challenges (Lumbard)
1. It is very hard to maintain rhyme scheme when translating accurately 2. The sound of the words is part of the meaning - Example: less syllables = more danceable) (hard to capture feelings of comfort/commands/etc. in a different language - how do you reproduce the auditory aspect in a new language? 3. Words in two languages are never exact equivalent - Example: the words for house, tranquility and knife all have a SKN in Arabic, so they consider them to be related (all to tranquility) - they associate the word house with the idea of tranquility - if you translate that to the word "house," it doesn't capture the whole meaning of the word 4. Every translation is an interpretation - Example: ""eats shoots and leaves" can mean two things, but in Spanish they're translated totally differently, so you have to know the intended meaning before you translate it 5. Iltifat - grammatical shifts - Example: shifting from 1st to 3rd person or from 3rd to 2nd person - Example: shifting from singular to plural or from plural to duel (plurality) - When you use 2nd person, you're facing the person you're talking about, but when you use 3rd person, you aren't - the metaphorical face of God is turning away because he is so displeased
According to the Qur'an, was Jesus crucified and killed on the cross? Explain three possible interpretations of the Qur'anic verses on this question (Lumbard; Esack reading from last class; footnotes in Study Qur'an to Q 4:157-159).
1. Jesus did not die on the cross; He was nailed to the cross, but only lost consciousness and was taken down and placed in the tomb; He did not die a physical death 2. The "Substitution Theory": Jesus was never crucified. He was assumed directly into Heaven. Someone else was made to look like Jesus, and the Romans crucified that person in his place; Some believe this was punishment to Judas, others believe one of his disciples volunteered to take his place 3. Jesus was crucified, but not by the Jews; The Romans crucified Him
Why is Abraham so important for Muslims? What role does he play in Islamic thought? (Revisit Esack from last week):
1. Muhammad is believed to be a descendant of Abraham via Ishmael, and Ishmael is part of the covenant according to Muslims, therefore making Abraham part of the covenant (from Muslim POV) 2. According to the Qur'an, Abraham built the Ka'ba and cleared it of the idols 3. Abraham is a monotheist, and the word Muslim just means "one who submits to God" - Abraham is a not a Jew or Christian (because he came before Moses and Christ); He is a Muslim" 4. If Jews and Christians respect Abraham, and Abraham was a monotheist like Muhammad, why can't they respect Muhammad as well?
Explain the origin and nature of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an (qira'at): What types of variations exist in the transmitted ways of reciting the Qur'an? How significant are these differences for the meaning of the text? What is the range of opinions on the origin of these variant readings? Discuss both the standard Muslim explanation and skeptical revisionist interpretations (Mattson, von Denffer)
1. Muslims have transmitted the Qur'an with isnad using different: vowels, pronunciations, consonants and rarely, whole words (the first two are most common) 2. Muslim account: God authorized multiple original versions of the Qur'an to accommodate dialectical variations of the Arabs - Qur'an written without vowels and without dots during Muhammad's time - Could be because Arabs used writing as a quick memory aid (ex: abbreviating items on your to-do list bc you will know what you meant when you look back) - Or maybe it was intentional; they didn't want to make it easy to read; for control - only people who have memorized it can read it without dots and vowels 3. Skeptic viewpoint/account: - May say that Muslims imperfectly memorized the Qur'an - Variations are from their inability to agree with what a manuscript w/o dots and vowels really said (Although, there is strong evidence that it's memorized well because there are few variations)
Explain the five possible rulings that Muslims scholars gave to all human acts. What are they, and what type of scriptural evidence do they require? (Al-Tayyib)
1. Obligatory: (example: praying 5x/day) If you do: rewarded, if you don't: punished 2. Recommended: (example: make cookies for your neighbor) If you do: rewarded, if you don't: nothing happens 3. Permissible: (example: eating eggs for breakfast/wearing a red shirt/etc.) If you do: nothing happens, if you don't: nothing happens 4. Disliked: (example: divorce) If you do: nothing happens, if you don't: rewarded (if you decide to work through your marital problems instead) 5. Prohibited: (example: alcohol, murder, pork) If you do: BIG punishment, if you don't: reward (only if you were tempted)
In what ways does the Qur'an engage with the Bible? For what purposes does it do this? (Griffith).
1. Paraphrase/quotation: (1) gives legitimacy/authority to the Qur'an and (2) shows continuity/connectedness in the revelations from all prophets of all religions 2. Allusion: (Qur'an does not give details like the Bible does; just alludes to the story) strengthens an argument by using something familiar that has authority 3. Parody: a very rhetorically powerful way to criticize/discredit someone or something; establishes a sense of authority/claims; similar to sampling in Music
For what purposes does the Qur'an authorize violent force? Identify at least three purposes given by the Qur'anic text. (Dagli; review Mattson 62-65)
1. Purpose of war: self-defense/sometimes offensive war is needed in defense 2. Defense: oppression and persecution 3. To maintain worship/in defense of faith (You can't attack people to convert them)
What are the main sources of Islamic law? Identify three (al-Tayyib)
1. Qur'an 2. Sunnah (Hadith) 3. The example of the first generations of Muslims (who were believed to have followed the prophet) 4. Qiyas
What are the religious implications of the Qur'anic version for Muslims? Explain at least two major implications for issues such as the nature of women and the means of salvation.
1. The Nature of Women: - Because of the Qur'an version of Adam and Eve, it is harder to argue: that women are derivative from men, to argue for monasticism bc the Qur'an never has Adam without a partner (marriage is highly encouraged), to argue that women are the source of corruption/temptress 2. Means of Salvation: - To Muslims, humanity's fundamental problem is forgetfulness/not keeping God on one's mind/not being mindful - Question is is there a difference between genuinely forgetting vs. willful disregard?
In the Islamic tradition, what qualifications did a Muslim scholar need to have before they were "qualified" to interpret the Qur'an? (see handout)
1. The proper intention to please God and guide others 2. Fear of God and immediate repentance upon the performance of a sin 3. Knowledge and mastery of all the relevant sources of tafsir, e.g. knowledge of all relevant hadith of a particular topic and their levels or reliability 4. Knowledge of the different transmitted recitations (qira-at) of the Qur'an (with their minor variations in consonants, vowels, and occasionally words) 5. Knowledge of the methods on interpretation (hermeneutics / usul) 6. Knowledge of the chronological order of revelation 7. Knowledge of which verses abrogated (replaced) others (naskh) 8. A gifted intellect
Describe the process by which many Muslims today study and become licensed to orally transmit the Qur'an to others. (See the example of Reem in Mattson)
1. They memorize the Qur'an and learn to recite it either with a teacher or on their own 2. Then they recite it to a Hafiz, a literature "protector" - memorizer of the Qur'an - They have to see if their recitation matches the way the Hafiz has memorized it 3. Then you receive a Ijaza, a certificate of mastery
What are the challenges in reconstructing the historical context of a Qur'anic verse? (Saeed 186-189; review Mattson, pp. 27-33)
1. Timing of the revelation of each verse is unknown 2. Surahs contain verses that were revealed at different times (no chronological order) 3. Quran itself does not narrate the life of the prophet or the history of the community 4. Lack of artifacts
Give an example of a story about Abraham in the Qur'an that is also found in extra-Biblical material.
Abraham smashes idols: found in Talmud (collection of Jewish teachings)
List examples of one Arab prophet and the people he was sent to (other than Muhammad) and three non-Arab prophets and the people they were sent to, according to the Qur'an. (Lumbard, Esack)
Arab Prophet: Muhammad > all of humanity Non-Arab Prophets: 1. Moses > Torah (1st five books of OT) > Israelites 2. Jesus > Gospel > Israelites 3. Adam 4. Joseph 5. David > Psalms
Why is it helpful to know the historical context of a particular Qur'anic verse when interpreting it?
Because you must know what was being referred to at the time to understand the correct meaning of the Qur'anic verse; example: there verse that says "those who believe and do good deeds will not be blamed for what they may have consumed as long as they are mindful of God..." does not mean you can drink alcohol as long as you do good deeds, it was answering the question people were asking: if they would be blamed if they drank before the prohibition rule was put into place - Need to know what abrogates what; ie: which cancels out which (naskh) - To know what an ambiguous reference might refer to - Helps to decide if historical verse applies to us today (Qiyas)
Summarize Muhammad's overall impact on Arabian society. Identify at least three areas of change.
Before: Polytheism → after: monotheism Before: no belief in an afterlife → belief in an afterlife (moral accountability) Before: no system of law, disunited, warring tribes → Muhammad's teachings united Muslim community (ummah) - lives are inviolable
Adam
Believed to be the first human and nabi on Earth Father of the human race (Islam Prophet) Wife, "Haawa"/Eve, = mother of mankind
What interpretations did Muslims theologians give regarding who will be saved in the next life? List and explain the three major schools of Muslim thought, by focusing on: a) Who did each school argue would be saved?
Exclusivist: only my faith leads to Heaven (if followed) Inclusivist: only my faith leads to Heaven, but followers of other faith might be excused under certain conditions and go to Heaven Pluralist: multiple religions lead to Heaven
Haram / al-Haram
Forbidden/any act forbidden by Allah, and is one of the five Islamic commandments that define the morality of human action.
Isa (Jesus) (revisit Esack reading from last week; see also Lumbard)
How the Qur'an thinks about Jesus's Identity: - Called the Messiah/Christ - implies the role of king, prophet, priest (In Hebrew, Messiah means "anointed" - "Son of Mary" - arguing that he's not divine; He is merely human - In the Qur'an, referred to as A Word, implying that he is one of the prophets; The Bible refers to Him as THE Word, implying that he is the only one - "Word" means the truth, the way, God's revelation personified - In the Qur'an, Jesus is created; He had a beginning. In the Bible, Jesus became flesh, He was not "created"
Does the Qur'an call upon Muslims to conquer and subdue the world? Discuss the arguments made by Muslims terrorists and critics of Islam on the one hand, and moderate defenders of Islam on the other. Be sure to address the issues of abrogation (naskh) and changing geopolitical contexts in your answer. (Dagli; review Mattson 62-65)
How to deal with verses that are believed to endorse violence: 1. It is important to use historical context to look at verses in the Qur'an that may appear to endorse violence. For example, Q 9:36 says, "Fight the polytheists all together as they fight you all together, and know that Allah is with those who guard (against evil)." When looking at the historical context for this verse, it would become clear that this verse was referring to the conflict going on with the Quraysh at the time. - The premodern world was very different from the modern world today. - Premodern: No UN, no territorial sovereignty (people always fighting for land), no religious freedom in Europe, everyone was always attacking neighbors, "offense is the best defense" - only way to expose your religion is to take over - Modern: Post WWII, UN, Geneva Conventions, territorial sovereignty, religious freedom (including Europe) 2. Read the surrounding verses for context/make sure the entire verse is cited and nothing is left out that could change the meaning 3. Just War: (when is it just to go to war)/Casus Belli: the legitimating grounds for war - ¾ major schools of legal interpretation - 1 opinion: casus belli = to repel violence/ self-defense - 1 opinion: casus belli = to end disbelief (a popular premodern opinion) (In a way, this could still be considered self-defense bc in the premodern world, a disbelieving neighbor was a threat) 4. Look at Muhammad's example - He is the master of interpretation
Which of the three major schools of thought was historically the most popular? (Khalil)
Inclusivist was the most common historically - most Muslim scholars were inclusivists
What is the difference between studying a religion from an insider's (confessional) and an outsider's (academic) perspective? Identify the methodological difference and a pro and con of each approach (assuming each method is executed well) (Kessler) Be able to explain the methodological differences in terms of their different goals, assumptions, and typical questions.
Insider/confessional: that of the participant in a religious tradition; Promotes an understanding that will lead to greater commitment > first order activity; The teaching of religion - Goals: grow in faith, be a better Christian/Muslim/etc., transmit a worldview, to defend the faith - Who: a member of that faith - Where: Church, Sunday school, seminary, mosque, etc. - Questions asked: "how should I _____ (moral questions)?" "What should I believe about ____?" "Is it permissible to _____?" - Language: Example - "What does God say in Qur'an Ch. 3?" - Assumptions made: our denomination is correct, God exists, Qur'an/Bible/etc. really is God's words and is correct (really is scripture), miracles happen - Pros: more intimate understanding of the daily life lived in that religion (emotional side), know scripture better - Cons: often only get one perspective, could be bias, bias could manifest as suppressing or ignoring evidence contrary to accepted belief, a lack of comparative viewpoint Outsider/academic: the academic study of religion; studying religion using the methods and standards associated with the academic disciplines of public school - Goals: to learn about a religion to study religion, scripture, religious people objectively, accurately, and in a balanced/fair manner - Who: anyone (often non-members of the faith, but not always) - Where: library, university, public school etc. - Questions asked: "How do _____ (Muslims) ____ (pray)?" "What do Muslims believe about ____?" "Do Muslims think it's permissible to ____?" - Language: Example - "What does the Qur'an say in Ch. 3?" - Assumptions made: not assuming one's denomination is correct (also not denying it), not assuming the existence of God (or denying it), Qur'an not assumed (or denied) to be revelation, NOT ASSUMING OR DENYING anything - Pros: less bias, impersonal judgement and observation, detached analysis, broader perspective (though no one is truly ever "outside"/void of any bias) - Cons: radical depersonalization, the religion can lose its vitality bc it's can be so clinical and scientific while studying it that you can't understand why anyone would follow it, lack of intimate understanding
Why did Thomas Jefferson purchase a copy of the Qur'an? What evidence do we have for his motivation? (Prange and Ahmad)
Jefferson had his bookshelves group by category, and evidence shows that his copy of the Qur'an was shelved under jurisprudence (law); He was in law school at the time, so it probably used it to study law around the world.
Shariah
Literally means, "path to a watering hole"; source of mercy/life; Islamic law; what God really wants
How do Qur'anic verses revealed in Mecca before the Hijra differ from those revealed in Medina after the Hijra in their subject matter? Discuss the relative prevalence of legal verses in each. (Al-Tayyib)
Meccan verses: focuses more on establishing fundamentals of faith, whilst consisting of relatively short symbolic stories that convey warnings against wrong actions, moral and spiritual lessons Medinan verses: focuses on the promulgation of laws for professional affairs, society and the state. They are relatively long focusing on fundamental changes in society.
What interpretations did Muslims theologians give regarding who will be saved in the next life? List and explain the three major schools of Muslim thought, by focusing on: c) If there was any diversity of thought within a school, be able to give multiple viewpoints as well. (Khalil)
Multiple viewpoints within Inclusivist: 1. Ibn Taymiyya: excused if you have never heard of Islam 2. Ghazdi: excused if you have never heard an accurate description/presentation of Islam or if you die before choosing/reaching end of search 3. Ibn Arabi: excused if you never knew in your heart that Islam was true
How have Muslims and critical academics explained the similarities and differences between the Qur'an's stories of the prophets and those of the Bible?
Muslim Model: (Muhammad communicates with God) 1. Part of the Qur'an matches the Bible bc it really happened - God knows things Muhammad doesn't 2. Some parts of the Qur'an don't match the Bible bc the Bible has been corrupted, and the Qur'an is right 3. The Qur'an includes some information/stories that match outside sources that aren't the Bible because the Bible doesn't have a monopoly on truth and the Qur'an is right Skeptic Model: (Muhammad does not communicate with God; Muhammad is just a man is history) 1. Part of the Qur'an matches the Bible bc Muhammad took it from the Bible or from someone who knew about the Bible 2. Some parts of the Qur'an don't match the Bible bc Muhammad changed the story or endorsed a story someone else changed 3. The Qur'an includes some information/stories that match outside sources that aren't the Bible because Muhammad took stories from extra-biblical literature
How did Muslims define a "good" interpretation of the Qur'an that uncovers its "true" meaning? That is, how did they think a sincere believer could be guided by the Qur'an, rather than manipulating it? (see Mattson, pages 193 and following)
Muslims agree that the best interpretation of the Quran is the Quran itself. The Quran is a flawlessly reliable source of truth because it's the accurately preserved record of the word of God.
What steps did Muslims take after Uthman to elaborate the way the Qur'an was written and thereby more fully capture its spoken form? (Mattson)
Muslims created a system of textual markers to indicate the correct grammatical endings of words and a system of dots was developed
How have the Qur'an's guidelines on dress for men and women been interpreted by Muslim scholars? Discuss the range of interpretations given by scholars in both the pre-modern Muslim world in modern Western societies (Qur'anic verses and their commentary in the Study Qur'an, el-Turk, el-Fadl). List at least two arguments per interpretation.
Purposes of guidelines: - Modest clothing keeps sexual energy in marital relationship - Focuses the courtship process on inner qualities -- Convenient Avoids body image issues/anxiety - Centers male-female interactions on ideas instead of looks - To not be abused It teaches shame (you feel embarrassed when naked) Is modesty contextual? - Modesty for business meeting is different from modesty for birthday party - If it leads to abuse, then it is accomplishing the opposite of the Quran's goal - Khimar - can mean kerchief (which would mean you don't have to cover your hair) or headscarf (which means you have to cover your hair) Purposes of Modesty Regulations: Regulating sexuality Muslims would say, sex is a powerful force for good and evil Improves marriages Spouse's body is the only one you've seen Many men will marry a woman and all they've seen is her face and hands, might not have even touched each other before Can talk about things that actually matter Give attention to ideas not bodies
How did Muslim jurists seek to adapt the Qur'an's message, initially given to Muhammad's community in seventh-century Arabia, to new times and places? (Mattson; al-Tayyib, "Flexibility of Texts," 1701-1703)
Qiyas: analogy (example: wine vs. vodka or camel vs. car) (Wine is prohibited - vodka did not exist at the time, so people question whether or not vodka would also be prohibited. Scholars must identify the reason wine was prohibited and if vodka has that same effect) 1. Asl: the original case (wine) 2. Hukum: the ruling/law (wine is prohibited) 3. Far': new case (vodka) 4. Illa: effective cause (intoxication) 5. Wisdom: what is the wisdom of prohibiting intoxicating things? (avoid harm such as, DUI murder, spousal abuse, making bad decisions, liver failure) - Muslim scholars would say the law is based off of the illa, not the wisdom, in part bc the law has to apply to everyone.
Give an example of a story about Jesus in the Qur'an that is also found in extra-Biblical material. (Qur'anic verses; Infancy Gospel of Thomas). Hint: look in the assigned verses found in chapter 3 of the Qur'an.
Qur'an 3:49: Jesus shapes a bird out of clay and then breathes life into it, which is also found in the Infancy Gospel of Thomas
In what ways do Muslims experience the Qur'an in daily life? Give three examples of where the Qur'an might be seen and three examples of where it might be heard (Mattson).
Seen: 1. Decoration: verses as decals on the wall 2. Qur'anic calligraphy as decoration on things like a lamp 3. Talismans: Qur'an that you'd wear/carry (ex: the mini Qur'an) Heard: 1. Qur'an radio and tv stations - In many Muslim countries; some play only the Qur'an constantly 2. Common Phrases - Example: "god-willing" 3. Choral performance 4. Shops - Many shops play Qur'an station - Controversial because some say it is not appropriate bc you're not actually listening, it's just on in the background
Compare and contrast the story of Abraham in the Bible and in the Qur'an. Identify three significant similarities and three significant differences. (Bakhos, also Qur'an passages in syllabus, Genesis chapters in syllabus).
Similarities: 1. Abraham has a son named Issac 2. Abraham marries Sarah 3. Abraham casts out Ishmael and Hagar 4. preforms a sacrifice Differences: 1. Builds ka'ba with Ishmael; not mentioned in Bible 2. Muhammad is his descendant 3. The Bible talks about the circumcision of Abraham and Ishmael 4. The Qur'an doesn't specify which son was sacrificed; Bible says Isaac
Compare and contrast the story of Jesus in the Bible and in the Qur'an. Identify three significant similarities and three significant differences. (Lumbard; Esack reading from last week; passages from the Qur'an and the New Testament).
Similarities: 1. Both the Qur'an and the Bible affirm the virgin birth (that Mary was a virgin) 2. Both the Qur'an and the Bible mention these miracles performed by Jesus: heals the blind, healing the leper, raising the dead 3. Called The Messiah 4. Mother is Mary Differences: 1. The Qur'an says that Jesus was sent to the children of Israel. The Bible says that Jesus was sent to all nations 2. Muslims believe that Jesus will return as the Messiah who descend in the Holy Land and destroy all symbols of a "corrupted" Christianity 3. The Qur'an does not believe that Jesus is the son of God 4. In Quran, Jesus said that Muhammad will come (Most Muslims believe that His death cannot atone for someone's sins, and that God forgives man directly)
How is the Qur'anic story of Adam and Eve similar to and different from the biblical story in Genesis chapters 2 through 4? Identify three similarities and three differences in the stories. (Genesis 1-4; Qur'anic verses - see syllabus):
Similarities: 1. In both the Qur'an and the Bible, Adam and Eve both eat the fruit 2. In both, there is a tree 3. In both, there is the "fall" after they eat the fruit Differences: 1. In the Bible, Eve comes from Adam's rib; the Qur'an doesn't mention where she comes from 2. In the Bible, Eve ate the fruit first; the Qur'an doesn't mention who ate the fruit first 3. In the Bible, they eat the fruit because of the serpent's temptation - Eve desires/delights in it, the snake misleads her - It is the ORIGINAL SIN 3. (Qur'an side) In the Qur'an; Iblis (the devil) is the tempter, not a snake - Adam FORGETS - Big question: is forgetting a sin? No, so there is NO ORIGINAL SIN
What is the Qur'an's "prophetology?" That is, what do prophets and messengers do and not do according to the Qur'an, why are they sent, and what common teachings did they bring to humanity? (Lumbard, Esack)
Theory of Prophets -who? what? why? - God sends messengers and prophets to everyone/every nation What Do They Preach? Common Messages: 1. moral accountability 2. don't worship idols/no idolatry 3. worship God
What must Muslims do before they can touch the Qur'an? Discuss both the physical, and ideally, spiritual, steps required. Why? (Mattson)
To be pure: 1. Be ritually pure - (physical) washing beforehand - Wudu: guides on how to/the ritual of washing 2. Be spiritually pure - repent/prayer practice
Explain the difference between tradition-based and reason-based exegesis (Saeed, pp. 178-182)
Tradition-based exegesis: aims to restrict the use of independent reasoning in understanding and the interpretation of the text , emphasizing its importance by referencing the Qur'an Reason-based: allows for interpretation of texts based on independent reasoning, albeit with certain limitations
Ibrahim (Abram/Abraham) (revisit Esack reading)
Who: A prophet and a messenger of God Why: Fulfilled all the commandments and trials; Bc of his unwavering faith in God, he was promised to be a leader to all the nations of the world; respected monotheist prior to Judaism and Christianity; had covenant with God through circumcision; built the ka'ba, and made Mecca monotheist Where: died in Hebron When: descendent of Muhammad
Muhammad
Who: Descendant of Abraham, the prophet Known among the Quraysh as a man of honesty and integrity (before he became the prophet) and was called "The Trustworthy" When: April 571 AD - June 632 AD Where: Born in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. Died in Medina, Saudi Arabia. Why important: the last prophet of Islam
Explain the statement, "Every translation is an interpretation." Give an example of a word or phrase from the Qur'anic text that can be translated in multiple ways.
no translation can be exactly right because translations can''t always capture the entirety of a word's meaning since it is not the same language ex: Naziat
Extra-Biblical
sources not in the Bible/found outside of the Bible
Jihad
struggle or exertion (especially with a praiseworthy aim)
Wudu (Ablution)
the Islamic procedure for cleansing parts of the body, a type of ritual purification
Fitrah
the original disposition of humans to believe in God/Allah; Muslims believe that everyone is born with an innate nature to believe in God
Intertextuality
the study of the relationship between two texts and how one text engages the other
Uthman
who: a companion of Muhammad who married his two daughters where: born in the Hijaz (Arabia); died in Medina why: he was the third caliph of the Muslims after the death of Muhammad; introduced economic reforms
