Race/Racism Midterm

DNA Basics (M2- Lecture)

-DNA = key source of variation -Mutations accumulate in DNA sequences over generations -can compare DNA to measure genetic similarity (degree of relatedness) -molecular dating can be used to account for DNA differences -ape-human split (5-7 MYA)

Population Genetics Basics (M2- Lecture)

-Darwinian Evolution and Mendelian inheritance -evolution as change in frequency of alleles in population from one generation to the next -Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium (random mating, no evolutionary change)- shows variation is preserved over generations

Development of Race Definition (Gould 1994)

-Blumenbach (On Natural Variety of Mankind- 1775) established racial classifications and invented name for Caucasian based on 1) maximal beauty of people from this region, 2) probability that humans were first created in this area -believed in human unity, ironically least racist thinker; thought aesthetic created superiority not internal causes -1795 asserted taxonomy based on 5 groups (geography and appearance); originally derived from classification of Linneaus in taxonomy -5 groups depended on proximity to whiteness (original race) on a continuum; degenerations = Africans and Mongolians with necessary intermediates Americans and Malay

English Society (M5- Lecture)

-16th/17th century enthnocentrism core to English society, especially with the establishment of Anglican church -Northern Europeans had only distant knowledge of people beyond Europe (no cultural relativism); opinions based on slavetraders- hyper sexuality/laziness (Tempest by Shakespeare, Africans as beasts) -economic changes created social inequality by wealth; possessive individualism- right of man to own property (divide authority) -property rights above human rights -long-standing conflict with Irish, religious mission to conquer inferior (foreshadow)

Context of Development- Racial Science (M6- Lecture)

-18th-19th century englightenment- science used to justify slavery -polygenism vs monogenism (multiple species, single origin) -hard-line American view = polygenism -Benjamin Franklin (cultural inferiority of blacks); TJ (biological inferiority and cultural inferiority); Lincoln (superior position of white race)

Heritability not Heredity (M4- Lecture)

-1994 Hernstein/Murray- Bell Curve (claim that intelligence is genetic- rather than addressing environmental causes OR validity of testing); misinterpret the term heritability -heritability- relative measure of genetic and environmental variation within a given population (ratio); does not describe differences BETWEEN groups -if there is no environmental change within groups, heritability is 1

Hypertension (M4- Lecture, Textbook)

-50% more common among black than whites -research efforts have not produced any evidence in widespread disparities in cardiovascular health according to "race" -in literature, biological determinism extremely common; assume genetic susceptibility with no genetic testing ("suggestive" of genetic differences) -PR, different understandings of race based on color/social status interaction: as SES increases, worse health for darker people (more encounter with racism)

Anthropologic Figures Fight Scientific Racism (M8- Lecture)

-Franz Boas- 1910 report for congress on immigration policy; showed headshape (common foundation for scientific racism) changed in first generation of immigrated family undermining biological determinism and asserting biological plasticity; trained future anthropologists -Ruth Benedict- debunked claims of Eugenics -Herskovits (Myth of Negro Past)- documented rich cultural heritage of Africans (and culture in US), asserting NOT degradation of culture -Zora Neale Hurston- anti-racist scholar, again- richness of African American culture -Ashley Montagu; 1950- statement on race; shift in scholarly understandings

Race-Based Medicine (TEDTALK)

-GFR estimate interpret kidney function by race- assumption black Americans have more muscle mass -convenient proxy even though it is often irrelevant (especially with expanding knowledge of genetics); blind to symptoms, family history -black people half as likely to receive pain meds (less pain, exaggeration/make up pain) DANGEROUS -assumption takes away from legitimate social deterministic factors- exposure to toxins, incarceration, racial discrimination, lack of resources

Servitude -> Slavery (M6- Lecture)

-Indentured servitude- unfree labor, determined by contract; turned into chattel- personal property -Bacon's rebellion- demanded more equitable division of land (poor whites AND africans); threatened wealthy property-owning whites, established permanent slavery in 1641 -race-based slavery emerged as an economic solution 1) secure social structure- divide between poor whites 2) increasing demand, very cheap cost 3) preferred: more civilized than Irish (knew land), immune to Old World diseases (unlike Natives), could be recognized visually

Eugenics/Nazis (M8- Lecture)

-Madison Grant- Passing of Great Race (1916) asserted races vary intellectually/morally; supremacy of Nordic races; rewrote history as rise/fall civilizations as consequence of interchange of Nordic blood (basis of immigration act) -Adolf Hitler (1924)- Mein Kampf; highest aim of humanity = conservation of race; inspiration was Madison Grant -US leaders and intellectuals praised Hitler and Nazis, high pace of sterilizations in Germany, "getting things done" -Provided materials and support: Henry Ford, Chase Bank, AT&T, Coca-Cola; Nazis inspired more American Eugenics -Allied forces defeated forced that used "racial forces"; obvious contradictions given state of segregation in US, many black people served in war

Monogenic vs. Polygenic Traits (M2-Lecture)

-Monogenic- single-gene, mendelian; only have 3 possible genotypes (combinations) -Polygenic- multiple genes contribute to phenotype, complex; distribution of continuous traits (height) -pleiotropy- one gene has multiple effects; polygenic- many genes contribute to one effect; non-genetic environmental factors also influence gene expression ***population differences are not necessarily genetic in origin 1) not distributed along "racial" lines- inherited independently from other traits 2) most important traits are complex, polygenic 3) traits are subject to environmental influence -ex. Sickle Cell in African-Americans- regional response to Malaria in Africa; no such thing as "African" blood

Ancient DNA (Gibbons 2015)

-Neanderthals have interbred with Asians/Europeans at least once (SNPs unique to them) -may have added advantageous genes: skin absorption of Vitamin D, pathogen resistance -DNA evidence can tell us much more than morphology -people in geographic regions now are very different from ancestors ***understanding of human variation is changing, many complex factors contribute

Darwin- Race (M7- Lecture)

-Origin of Species (1859) addressed monogenism and polygenism -Descent of Man (1871)- common descent of apes and humans (NOT great chain of being) -contradicted views of polygenism as natural selection accounts fro evolution -did not reject race entirely but pointed out clinal variation, arbitrary nature of classifications based on inconsistent criteria (graduate into one another) -though he undermined polygenism/creationism; prevailing view became mongenism AND racist

History of Slavery (M5- Lecture)

-Slavery and race developed independently (did not used to be race-based) -Greece- division in social class; Romans- integrated in society; African status was based on social status -beliefs of superiority but not based in slavery -700s-1600s W Africa Trade- were involved in trading goods and humans -1600s etymology of race emerges- applied to distinct populations but varied meanings (generation, groups)

Origins of Racial Worldview (M6- Lecture)

-Smedley- race is a modern idea, derived from folk beliefs in 16th-19th centuries; violence and hate existed between physically similar groups (not "racially" motivated) -Gossett- believes race is an ancient idea; primordialism tendency to interpret physical differences between populations as socially meaningful -Great Chain of Being (Aristotle), misconstrued but originally argued for environmental causes of variation -N. Europeans had only distant knowledge of people beyond Europe: early capitalism (and merchant capitalism) as well as possessive individualism changed economy -S. Europeans had complex trade networks; Muslim travelers were much more expansive- covered territory, saw different cultures

Spanish and Africans (Martinez 2004)

-Spanish concept of purity of blood- association of black with disloyalty to crown and catholic faith -Chimalphahin conspiracy account of plans to kill Spaniards and assert Africans- led to brutal killings; triumph of "blackness" -1542- extinction of encomienda (natives more pure) and replacement with African slaves -racial and sexual violence eventually led to intermixing of coloring in S. America

Origin of Eugenics (M7- Lecture)

-after 1859, previously held beliefs recast with pseudoscience -Gobineau- theory of Nordic superiority; decline of great civilizations are the result of hybridization; disgenesis- racial degeneration -Francis Galton (Eugenics in Britain)- comparative worth of different races; because of innate difference, intelligence should be graded on a scale; defined EUGENICS- science of improving human stock by giving the more suitable races a better chance of prevailing speedily over less suitable -Charles Davenport (US, organized eugenics records office)- laid out programs aimed to improve race by inducing young people to make more reasonable selection of marriage mates; led to sterilization procedures; inspiration for eugenics in Nazi Germany

Evolutionary Forces Basics (M2- Lecture)

-atler allele frequencies 1) mutation- source of all new genetic variation 2) natural selection- filters new variation depending on fitness (can be directional or balancing) 3) genetic drift- reduces variation over time within populations (increases between), causes fixation and elimination of new alleles; depends on population size; bottlenecks (random elimination), founder effects (sample becomes basis) 4) gene flow- introduces new variation within population (less variation between), exchange of genetic material

Early Views of Africans (Kendi 2016)

-belief that Africans allowed slavery because they are "dumb animals" -had beliefs about "natural slaves" like Africans and Slavs -debate between climate (Africans could move up N and become white) and curse

Colonialism and Race (M6- Lecture)

-colonialism- practice by which a political power exerts control over another country/region, subsequent exploitation of people and resources -English: transferred cultural attitudes of Irish savagery to colonial Americans -divine rights: natural rights vs. civil rights- right to land you have improved (argued Natives have not improved land) -settler complex: whites relied on Native Americans for land, acted like they had "emotional ties" to it, divine right -Puritans were self-righteous, thought savages should be punished (wanted Church of England to separate even more from Catholicism)

Travel to New World (M5- Lecture)

-colonists explained differences according to heritage, religion not "race" -Native Americans viewed as able to be civilized, conversion necessary (different, but able to assimilate) -interaction with indigenous people asserted that savagery was inherited, prefaced arguments over land/property -economic interests eventually establish the image of Africans as savages

Biological Determinism (M4- Lecture)

-common fallacy that population differences are genetic in origin (applied to aptitude, intellect) -would have to be tested in which environments are exactly the same; impossible in US due to systemic racism (gene x environmental effect determines phenotype) -circular reasoning- begins with assumption that races are biological, then biological differences between races are interpreted as proof; common in scientific literature ***1) use phenotype to infer genotype, 2) environmental processes at play, and 2) often do not identify race/population

Pre-Darwinian View of Human Variation (M6- Lecture)

-creationism view, Great Chain of Being (linear evolution) -Linneaus- (1750s) founder of taxonomy, rejected great chain of being in favor of nested organization; identified four geographic varieties based on appearance and behavioral/cultural characteristics; pattern of differences among species -Buffon- reasserted great chain of being; posited adaptation but asserted creationism (single origin of our species); process of human variation -Blumenbach (1781)- father of physical anthropology; skeptical about racial classification and anticipated clinal variation; still asserted 5 Gracies derived from Causcasian type

COVID-19 (Gravlee 2020)

-death rate from COVID is 2.4 times greater for AF AM than whites -assuming black white/difference, perpetuating production of result we assume exists

Lineage -> Race in Early US (M5- Lecture)

-descent- main identifier, differences intertwined with religion, culture, location (ten lost tribes) -religious thinking- human beings descended from Noah, son Haam's children cursed- lineage is Natives/Africans -lineage showed purity of blood- marriage was crucial component for social rank; white marriage = civilization racial mixture- interbreeding denied Native claims to land; also a way to "civilize" -race emerged from prejudice/white superiority complex, economics, also trying to assert dterm-36escent (pure lineages)

Mendel Basics (M2-Lecture)

-expanded on Darwin to debunk blending model of inheritance -published 1866, re-discovered in 1900; true-breeding garden peas -genotype does not equal phenotype 1) particulate heredity- transmission by independent particles in pairs (chromosomes) 2) segregation- split during production of gametes 3) independent assortment- traits are inherited separately -recombination during meiosis shuffles genetic material (contributes to variation) ***human variation is not even direct product of parents

Darwin Basics (M2- Lecture)

-framework for understanding human variation -1859 Origin of Species, Darwin/Wallace work together 1) finite ability of environments to support growth (with resources) 2) variation within populations that affect ability to survive 3) variations are passed down from parent to offspring -natural selection = variation + retention; selection acts on variation; directional or balancing

5. Human Variation is Clinal (M3- Lecture)

-frequency is distributed continually; no major breaks geographically -trend is that populations near each other are more similar; distance from East Africa explains 85% of variance (especially if accounting for likely migration routes)

2. Human Variation reflects Population Movement

-genetic variation is not consistent with race concepts -human variation is much better explained by patterns of population movement -distance from East Africa explains 85% of variance in genetic diversity, strengthened further if accounting for likely migration routes

1. Human Variation is Small (M3- Lecture)

-human variation is small among us AND compared to other species -species likely 200,000 YA and migration out of Af. 50,000 YA (not enough time for evolution of genetic differences) -other species have had 4-7 MY to develop genetic distinctions; magnitude of our variation is minimal

Germ Theory- Jim Crow Era (Patterson 2009)

-medicalization of racism- tendency to accept biological determinism instead of considering racial caste society in SOuth -blacks experienced double mortality rate (infant as well) of whites -TB, heart diseases, maternal mortality extremely high -eugenics- negro problem working itself out (somewhat ignored)l not being born in the first place was best solution; no hospitals available during segregated times (limited sterilization) and no racial intermixing in first place -germ theory, disease-causing microorganisms did not discriminate against victim (democratic germs) -blacks were a liability: could spread to whites, economic concerns- ill health of South's labor forces -had to reinforce racist beliefs to experience advantages of support -Better babies program (reduce infant mortality)- complicated relationship between black mothers and white nurses; Tuskegee Syphilis Study (1932); distrust of physicians -Margaret Sanger- leader in eugenics (Negro Project)- birth control; goal of exterminating community, hidden under appeal to religion

History of Humankind (M3- Lecture)

-molecular data and fossil evidence shows that we separated from apes 6 MYA -theories: 1) out of africa model- modern humans 200 KYA; single, recent speciation event only in Africa -anagenesis: Species A to B 2) multiregional- evolving lineage with ancestors in various regions -cladogenesis- Form A, B, C -more supportive of race concept *evidence mostly supports out-of-Africa model, and then multi regional late in human history: bulk of ancestry in Africa (according to DNA and morphological data); most genetic diversity within Africa- almost ALL; would have taken a lot of time to accumulate differences

Polygenism vs. Monogenism (M6- Lecture)

-monogenism- upholds scriptural unity of humankind in creation event; human races are degeneration from perfection (ex. Blumenbach) -polygenism- human races are separate species (different "Adams"), USA 1) Nott- extermination thesis, best interest to be enslaved as they would become extinct (worked with Gliddon) 2) Morton- asserted a racial hierarchy on basis of cranial capacity (which he stuffed with mustard seeds) 3) Agassiz- visceral experience of black people (uses no science)- racial realism: confronting differences; relative value- black people made for hand work (white people- mind work)

Skin Color and Race (Textbook, M3- Lecture)

-most racialized trait, does not show global variation -has an evolutionary function (Jablonski/Chaplin)- adaptation to UV radiation balance need for vitamin D and protection against degradation of folate -dark skin selected to block photo destruction of folate (light skin- high UV radiation, low levels of folate) -light skin allows for more UV radiation to come in where it is weaker (temperate climates) ***1) skin color is continuously distributed and based on natural selection 2) skin color variation does not predict other traits- only weakly correlated 3) skin color is polygenic: relies on many genes for pigmentation (melanin difference); skin color is subject to environmental change- age, location, exposure 4) Inconsistencies: categorically changes in different regions; between-group variation is not reflection of majority of other traits

Anthropology Basics (M1- Lecture Material)

-originally helped construct race, since the 20th century has helped assert that what we know about variation does not translate into race -study of humankind, seeks to comprehend human experience (cross-cultural and evolutionary difference in human experience) -holistic perspective- 1) all humans across time/space, 2) all aspects of human experience -4 subfields: cultural, archaeological (past), linguistic, biological

Eugenics History in US (M8- Lecture)

-polygenism morphed into eugenics -Eugenics Record office (Davenport)- received funding for projects aimed at "unfit"; promoted segregation, limited immigration, promoted forced sterilization, based on biological determinism (born to be burden), teaching "heredity" based on improper mendelian genetics -History: 1896- marriage law, early 20th century- 33 states allow involuntary sterilization; 1924- inspired immigration act (immigration form S/C/E Europe); 1927- Buck v. Bell (raped woman who was "feeble-minded); 1954 Brown v Board- desegregated public health, involuntary sterilization of black people higher than white people after four years (same trend in Native American women); Shift to sterilization of women, especially black women (not repealed until 2003 in NC); recently, CA prisons illegally sterilizing female inmates -Key Trends: manipulation of healthcare problems, placing blame of disparities on those who experience (denying environmental factors); targeted people of color Kalikak Family- Eugenics writing and "story-telling", received with acclaim by public/science; distorted story of "Wolvertons"; constructed by Goddard/Kite; cited as evidence for hereditary basis of "feeblemindedness"; used in Supreme Court case (Buck v. Bell) to determine that involuntary sterilization of mentally defective = under constitution Bell Curve (1996)- conflates heritability and genetic determination to assert racial genetic basis for intelligence

Health Inequalities (Textbook)

-race is not cause of human biological variation, but does have biological consequences: -discrimination: stresses of racism start prenatally (epigenetics), lead to higher rates of illness and death -providers treat people of races differently (stigmas, communication- language barrier) -lack health insurance and access to health care/resources -distrust of medical professionals- Tuskegee study of untreated syphilis (1932-1972) ISSUES -Af Ams suffer higher rates of almost every medical condition -low birthweight/infant mortality: babies born to African women have birthrights almost the same as white women (changes after one generation) -life expectancy: 4 years less -hypertension- high blood pressure in Af. Ams but not case in W. Africa; ascribed color not pigmentation accounts for high blood pressure -environmental racism- toxins and pollutants in poor communities w POC; race = biggest predictor of amount of hazardous waste, ex. post-Katrina

Race and Biology (Gravlee 2013)

-racial genetic model- scientific racism of racist physicians- white superiority; suggests that susceptibility to disease can be predicted along racial lines -assumption that SES capture all non-genetic influences on complex health outcome, though even when controlled for black/white Americans still differ -epigenetic- discrimination passed along generations -Puerto Rico, cultural model of color: darker skin in higher SES - higher blood pressure (more stress) -Vicarious racism, anticipatory stress

Biological Consequences of Systemic Racism (M4- Lecture)

-residential segregation and neighborhood poverty contribute to racial inequalities (can explain hypertension, birthweight) -intergenerational transmission of health disparities- fetal health determined by maternal health- 2.5 times greater preterm delivery (accounts for racial differences in blood pressure) -vicarious discrimination- low weight baby 34% higher for Arabic-named women before/after 9/11

Genetics Lab- Dr. Mulligan Key Points

-tiny subset of genes that account for physicality do not reflect all variation -fewer than 1% of bases in genome show any variation -variation reflects differences in frequency not present (no gene identifies one population) -epigenetics- modification that do not change the genome, just the way it is expressed; change over lifetime (mental health, trauma) -can be passed down over generations- biological pathways induced by environment; crime, poverty cycles (passed down without an individual ever experiencing poverty)

3. Human Traits are Discordant (M3- Lecture)

-traits vary independently of one another in response to selection 1) traits respond to different selective pressures 2) not all on same chromosomes -ex. sickle cell (adaptation to environmental condition), lactose intolerance (variation corresponds to dairy farming for survival)- Fulani in Africa not lactose intolerant;

Complex Traits (M2- Lecture)

-variation in population = evolution -variation in individual = disease risk; personalized medicine (no need to assume prevalence) -complex diseases- cancer, mental illness; multiple genetic and environmental risk factors -complex phenotypes- height, personality -extremely elaborate, we know very LITTLE

Dr. Kendi Interview Key Points

-well meaning people believe racist ideas (even MLKJr) -racist ideas come from racist policies -racist ideas ingrained in American common sense; ex. academic achievement gap 1) segregationist- nature, 2) assimilationist- nurture, 3) anti-racist- neither -pattern: racist policies challenged by anti-racist, create sophisticated racist policies (ex. slavery, Jim Crow, mass incarceration) -racist policies should be defined by outcome not intention -civil rights bill (1964)- loopholes; standardized tests used in the same way -intersectionality is crucial!

5 Reasons Human Variation NOT= Race (Textbook)

1) evolution explains human biological variation- not fixed 2) human variation is continuous- clinal 3) traits vary independently- discordant 4) gene variation within races much greater that variation between 5) no way to consistently classify human beings by race (socially determined classification)

Adaptive Mechanisms (M4- Lecture)

1) genetic adaptation- population change in allele frequencies that influence survival 2) acclimation- short-term physiologic response to stress (mins to hours) 3) acclimitization- long-term physiologic responses to stress (days to months) -developmental plasticity *biology is not all genetics ex. UV radiation- genetic (skin pigment), acclimation (tanning), acclimitization (culture- clothing, behavior, sunscreen)

5 Reasons to Race NOT = Variation (M3- Lecture)***

1. Human variation is very small 2. Human variation reflects history of population movement 3. Human traits are discordant 4. Human variation within groups is larger than between groups 5. Human variation is clinal

10 Facts about Human Variation (Marks 2010)

1. human groups distinguish themselves culturally 2. variation is continuous 3. clustering populations is arbitrary 4. populations have biological distinctions, not races 5. populations are still constructed socially 6. much more variation within groups then between groups 7. people are similar to those close, different from those far 8. racial classification does not reflect natural biological patterns 9. humans have little genetic variation 10. racial issues are not biological

Social Darwinism (M7- Lecture)

Herbert Spencer- 1820, published 1855 Principles of Psychology (progressive social evolution) -Key distinctions: 1) Requires supernatural forces of progressive evolution (to finer forms) 2. Tautological "survival of the fittest"- those that survive are fittest (no testable prediction) 3. Lamarckian social evolution- acquired traits, biologically deterministic 4. Fails to consider genetic/environmental causes of phenotypic variation (phenotypes are coded for entirely in genes)

4. More Variation within Populations (M3- Lecture)

Lewontin (1972)- studied global distribution of blood groups -variation between regional populations- 10% -within regional populations- 90%, another 5% explained by local populations *DNA studies- 5% or less variation corresponds to "race" (Rosenberg) *almost ALL variation can be found in Africa *averages vary, human variation does NOT represent race concept