Reading and Writing
Summarizing
Teach students to summarize the content. Students should be able to pull together important information from the text and put it into their own words by paraphrasing. Teachers should scaffold summarizing skills to focus students on including only the main points, rather than in-depth details. Prompts to help students focus on the key points can be provided. For example, students could be provided the following framework to generate a summary: Somebody... wanted... but... so... then...
Listed below are instructional strategies that promote fluency development:
Teacher-Modeled Reading: Choral Reading: Supervised Oral Reading: Rereading Familiar Text: Independent Reading: Partner/Small Group Reading Audio/Video-Assisted Reading: Readers' Theater:
Entertainment Media
movies, television programs, computer games, and electronic games
Spoken english is accompanied by
auditory and visual cues (body language or intonation, for example) so the meaning of the same words when written can be misinterpreted
Persuasive Media
commercials, political ads, newspaper ads, and editorial cartoons that seek to convince the reader/viewer to believe the author's message
Teachers should read aloud to students and provide....
many opportunities for them to respond through discussions and retelling.
Comprehension is not actually a single skill, but a number of different skills working together. These include:
prior background knowledge language background and vocabulary previous reading experiences ability to read fluently ability to use skills, such as self-monitoring and understanding of the characteristics of specific texts
Students need help moving from learning to read to
reading to learn
Students must develop and correct their fine motor skills in order to...
write legibly - Other related skills that need direction are paper position and the beginning strokes of forming letters
When assessing students for accuracy, prosody, and speed in their reading
you will need to listen to them read aloud.
Teaching Transitional Spellers
-Creating various forms of the same word (catch, catcher, catching) -Begin proofreading self and peer writing for spelling errors -Identifying spelling patterns in multisyllabic words
Process of Learning - Spelling Stages
1. Precommunicative spelling 2. Prephonemic spelling 3.Phonemic spelling 4. Transitional spelling 5. Conventional spelling
Teaching Pre-phonemic Spellers
-Grouping words based on like spelling or syllable sounds -Continue practicing phoneme identifications
Conventional Spellers
-Introducing common Greek and Latin roots -Word maps that include definitions and variations of the word
Teaching Phonemic Spellers
-Lessons on common spelling patterns, including silent letters or unique spelling patterns -Identifying spelling patterns in one- and two-syllable words
Teaching Precommunicative Spellers
-Tracing and copying letter forms on writing paper -Coloring activities that involve writing specific letters -Matching words with like spellings to each other
Browsing time
-facilitating student opportunities to explore preselected books of various genres and topics - Students rotate through the selection of books, spending a few minutes looking at and reading the front and back covers and reading the first page and a random page. This provides them a few minutes to gauge their interest and the difficulty of multiple books before making a choice.
Transition words (or transitional words) and phrases
-are essential for communicating meaning through writing - simple: first, second, next, finally - complex: even though ___, the evidence shows ____
traditional extrinsic motivators for independent reading
-reading logs with minute requirements, but there are also various other strategies that can promote purposeful independent reading
The Research Process
1. Develop a research question or questions. This will become a thesis statement in later grades. 2. Locate reliable sources with information to answer the research questions 3. Create notes with paraphrased and summarized information from the research. 4. Organize the well-documented information into graphic organizers, a visual presentation, and/or use it to write an expository essay. Cite sources.
Start a KWL:
A great tool to use before reading is a KWL. A KWL is a graphic organizer used to record what students know, what they want to know, and what they learned about a topic. Fill in the K and W portions before reading, and come back to the L section after.
Readers' Theater:
A readers' theater is a dramatic enactment of a play or book. It is presented in the form of a script. When students are assigned a role to act out, they have a unique opportunity to add expression to their reading.
Literature Circles
A strategy in which a teacher organizes students into small groups to discuss a common text.
gradual release
As with many concepts, scaffolding students through a gradual release of responsibility is a great framework for your teaching. This is also known as an "I do, we do, you do" method of instruction.
STAGE 4 of writing
CONVENTIONAL STAGE Ages 6-7
Sentence Stems
Common sentence starters provided to students to use when generalizing, summarizing, or transitioning between ideas.
Writing: Pre-Conventional Stage
First stage of writing (ages 2-5). Child is aware that drawings and prints have specific meaning.
Writing: Conventional Stage
Fourth stage of writing (ages 6-7). Demonstrates more control over many aspects of the writing process.
Questioning:
Good readers will actively ask themselves questions while they are reading. Teachers should provide students the opportunity to ask and answer text-dependent questions about what is being read. Students can also generate their own questions while reading. These questions provide focus and purpose to the reading, and can also be used after reading for review. Questions can focus on different elements of the text, such as: Main Idea - What is the text mostly about? Cause and Effect - Why did _______ happen? - What was the effect of _______ ? Making Predictions - What do I think will happen next?
Using Graphic Organizers:
Good readers will be able to translate what they are reading into a visual representation by using graphic organizers. Teachers should provide students different organizational tools for mapping the structure of a text or making connections between ideas. Some example tools include: Sequencing maps Concept maps Venn diagrams
Choral Reading:
In choral reading, the class first listens to the teacher read a short passage aloud, and then the class and the teacher all read it aloud at the same time. This is sometimes referred to as "echo reading." The students will hear fluency modeled by the teacher, and also receive the benefits of both rereading a text and reading aloud. It is also a low-pressure opportunity for struggling readers to read aloud in class.
YOU DO:
Independent practice/application: Students utilize the strategy independently in the context of a specific reading task or project.
Text to Text
Making connections to their reading: connect their reading to ideas read in other texts. For example, "This article says bullying can impact a child's academic success. I read a book once where the character was being bullied and stopped attending school."
Text to Self
Making connections to their reading: connect their reading to their own thoughts and experience. For example, "This article says bullying can impact a child's academic success. I remember that time someone made fun of me at school and it was very difficult to focus on my classes for a while."
Text to World
Making connections to their reading: connect their reading to what is happening in the world or society outside of themselves. For example "This article mentions bullying can impact a child's academic success. I wonder if dropout rates would decrease if we did a better job preventing bullying in schools."
Think Alouds:
Modeling
Audio/Video-Assisted Reading:
Play an audio recording of a book or show an animated illustration of a book while students read along. Select books at the students' independent reading levels. First, direct students to point to the words as the text is being read. Next, have the students read along with the audio. This is another hear and then practice strategy.
critical thinking skills such as:
Problem-solving Evaluation Analysis Synthesis Reflection
Before Reading All Texts
Schema Development: Good readers connect their schema (background knowledge) to the information that is being read. Teachers should activate, review, and/or develop background information before starting to read a text. Viewing and discussing relevant videos, pictures, etc. Ask pre-reading questions "Have any of you ever...? Can you tell us something about...? What do you know about
Teaching Dialogue
Teaching students how to properly and consistently punctuate dialogue in their writing is essential. Students need to understand when punctuation is necessary and why unpunctuated dialogue can confuse readers.
Organizational Structure
Text structure can include cause/effect, problem/solution, main idea/details, and/or sequence
Writing: Transitional Stage
Third stage of writing (ages 5-6). Writes a single letter (often the beginning consonant of the word) to represent an entire word or syllable; begins to understand and use basic punctuation
Stage 3 of Writing
Transitional Stage (Sometimes called: Early Stage) Ages 5-6
Spoken Discourse Leaves no record vs
Written Discourse Can be easily retrieved
Spoken Discourse Communicates information quickly vs
Written Discourse Communicates information slowly
Spoken Discourse Does not require literacy vs
Written Discourse Requires literacy
Index
a catalogue list at the end of the text containing all of the topics discussed
connotations
implied meanings Students need to be shown when pronouns are appropriate, and when to restate the nouns so as not to confuse their readers.
Precise (Writing)
in writing, a sentence that contains specific details and avoids wordy descriptions
Paralanguage
includes intonation, pitch, and volume
At-home reading expectations
- Communication with parents can increase the likelihood of daily home reading. Reading logs can help, but it is also important to encourage parent investment in the importance of reading. Encourage parents to read with their children and have their children read to them.
Venn Diagram
- A venn diagram is a graphic organizer with two or more overlapping circles used to illustrate/examine similarities and differences between two subjects.
Outlining
- After evidence is gathered, organize like details and begin outlining how the information will be organized using the regular writing process techniques.
I Chart
- An I Chart is a type of graphic organizer especially used for inquiry and research and usually used beginning in upper elementary grades. There are three phases to this method of organizing information: "Planning," "Interacting," and "Integrating/Evaluating." The chart looks similar to the following example but with more columns for additional questions and rows for additional sources. This kind of chart can enhance students' abilities to glean information in the content area using known reading strategies.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PRE-CONVENTIONAL STAGE
- Aware that drawings and print have specific meanings; may try to "read" what the squiggles that they draw mean - Scribbles, first randomly and then in a more linear fashion (e.g., from left to right); begins holding a pencil more like adults - Draws symbols that represent letters -Understands the difference between print and drawing, sometimes relying on these pictures and symbols to assign meaning - Writes "mock" letters which are letter-like forms and sometimes their own unique form of letters; shapes look somewhat like letters but are not formed correctly - Relies on own experiences to generate messages
Book reports
- Book reports can be useful to assess student independent reading and provide in-class accountability.
Assessing Reading Comprehension for ELL Students
- Consider that students' schema may be vastly different depending on their cultural, linguistic, and family background. - When assessing the reading comprehension of an ELL student, the subject of the text, and therefore the vocabulary used, can have a significant impact on student performance. Choose assessment texts that will offer accessible context for all students.
Using a word wall
- Continue increasing words on a Word Wall to include irregular words such as: of, the, you, they, one, two, what, with, and would. - Refer daily to the Word Wall in order for students to see, hear, and practice the use of irregular words along with new vocabulary from any reading and also from content areas. - In addition, parts of speech can be put in separation sections: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Another addition to the Word Wall could be a section for contractions.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONVENTIONAL STAGE
- Demonstrates more control over many aspects of the writing process - Can adjust writing for different purposes such as for information, biographies, and narratives - Uses an increasing number of known vocabulary words - Has more control over proper spelling of words, punctuation, and capitalization - Demonstrates greater usage of simple, compound, and complex sentences - Uses various strategies to attempt to spell new and unknown words
Strategies to apply conventional knowledge
- Develop sentence-building activities with word cards, plastic/magnetic words, or on a marker board. Sentence-building activities promote both word recognition and proper syntax. - Provide ongoing practice in identifying errors in punctuation, spelling, and grammar including subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, and pronoun agreement. ---- For a daily warm-up activity, some teachers put a short writing sample on the overhead or slide; when students come into the classroom they know to immediately start writing and making appropriate corrections. Editing writing is an integral skill in helping students revise their own and others' writing. - Provide direct instruction along with appropriate materials and activities in English writing conventions, including grammar, spelling, capitalization, and punctuation. --- Examples might be capitalization of proper nouns and the beginning of sentences, spelling of irregular words from a Word Wall, or verb usage. - Provide students with many different kinds of reading materials, including poetry, novels, mystery, etc., and nonfiction like biographies, stories found in magazines and newspapers, and school textbooks. As students develop their literacy skills (especially in grades 4-6), these types of printed materials will provide models for their writing. - Scaffold previously taught writing and spelling conventions by adding additional conventions for upper elementary grades as appropriate. --- Examples include using quotation marks, acknowledging sources (such as bibliographies), and clarifying the use of paraphrasing instead of plagiarism. - Post the writing process on the wall or bulletin board and review/model it regularly. Show "good" examples of each step and "bad" examples that can be corrected; the corrections can first be done as a class from a slide and then individually by students. - Correct comma usage is a skill that needs to be scaffolded and taught over many years. Beginning with commas between compound sentences and working up to commas in lists, after subordinate clauses, introductory phrases, to introduce dialogue, to separate modifiers, separate adjectives, and inside addresses. - Build into the classroom ways for students to use and master commas in small chunks.
dialogue tag
- Direct quotations often use a dialogue tag like he said, she exclaimed, or they asked, followed or preceded by a comma or punctuation mark, with quotation marks around the quotation.
Provide and discuss various forms of persuasive media:
- Direct students to first only look at the pictures rather than the text to try to determine what the writer/illustrator is trying to say. Model this with slides or printed materials asking students to determine the connotative and denotative meanings of the examples. - Next, have students create their own advertisements after discussions about how visuals enhance meaning through various colors, style, pictures, or media.
Independent Reading
- Done by students independent of the teacher - reading can be assigned or student selection
Drawing conclusions from their research
- Effective research means students can not only identify important details, but they can take that information and apply it to their driving question. - It's not enough to restate found information; students need to explain why this information is important.
AT STAGE 1, TEACHERS CAN
- Encourage children to make marks with writing/drawing material. In addition to initial "writing," this enhances the development of gross motor skills. - Ask children to dictate while the teacher writes on the Smart Board or chart. The teacher then reads back the sentence(s) while pointing to each individual word. - Allow children to "read" their drawings/markings. Teach them to point to where they start and to each word. - Point to text on charts, big books, etc., while reading it orally to class. This helps children understand that print carries meaning. Always refer to directionality - that print and reading move from left to right. - Label items in the classroom, in the child's home language when possible. Call on individual students to find and "read" the labels. This is sometimes called "environmental print." - Place name cards on desks and during center time.
AT STAGE 4 of Writing , TEACHERS CAN
- Foster a positive learning environment that nurtures the enjoyment of writing and writers. - Discuss and model reasons for the use of certain kinds of text, including ideas that are included or omitted from the text. Provide opportunities for students to practice writing these kinds of text. - Discuss, model, and provide practice in the planning of writing, such as with graphic organizers and/or storyboards - Extend students' knowledge and use of punctuation (e.g., periods, question marks, and apostrophes). - Build students' vocabulary, including knowledge of word parts, spelling strategies, and use of new words.
AT STAGE 5 OF WIRTING, TEACHERS CAN
- Foster a positive learning environment that nurtures the enjoyment of writing and writers. - Discuss, model, and provide practice in the building of organized paragraphs based on the purpose of students' writing. - Enhance the use of spelling strategies, including the use of prefixes, suffixes, base words, and irregular spellings. - Encourage students to use new and appropriate vocabulary to clarify meaning. - Provide opportunities for students to share their writing with others. - Discuss, model, and provide practice in editing their own work and the writing of others.
AT STAGE 2, TEACHERS CAN
- Foster a positive learning environment that nurtures the enjoyment of writing and writers. - Write real-life, on-going stories or messages on wall charts or in Big Books. This might be about the weather, certain class activities, upcoming field trips, or holidays. - Look for words in print and discuss the words and letters and what they mean during transition times (e.g., office, nurse, restroom, boys, girls, other classrooms, etc.) - Write messages to students (e.g., directions for center work). - Show familiar word cards and ask individuals or the class for the initial sound. Then discuss the word, its letters, and meaning. These can be made into Word Walls. - Pair students together to share their "writing. - Use story maps from familiar stories to retell stories or to have students retell the stories. - Provide specific directions in letter formation. Some teachers find a letter template helpful. Others use playdough to have students practice forming letters.
AT STAGE 3 of Writing, TEACHERS CAN
- Foster a positive learning environment that nurtures writing and writers. - Provide varied and frequent opportunities for using various purposes of writing (e.g, letters, cards, messages, stories, center assignments, classroom rules, etc.) - Increase students' vocabulary in a variety of ways: - develop Word Walls - have students develop personal dictionaries of new and frequently used words - build word card and sentence banks relevant to new learning - Discuss and model the writing of texts moving from words to sentences to paragraphs. - Refer to new vocabulary on a daily basis, asking for spelling, meaning, and use of some of these words. - Model and discuss how writers use their own experiences, knowledge, and points of view to compose what they write. - Discuss, model and provide practice in the planning of writing such as with graphic organizers and/or storyboards.
What type of instruction promotes active enagement
- Inquiry-based instruction promotes active engagement since students actively participate in forming questions, researching, and developing conclusions - inquiry skills need to be taught directly and explicitly and repeatedly modeled by giving a variety of examples, utilizing diagrams or models, or providing hands-on activities
Teaching Tips for Effective Instruction of Writing
- Model good writing. - Have ongoing discussions on various types of writing and the relationship between writing, reading, and spelling. - Become familiar with grade level state standards to plan and evaluate instruction. - Provide ongoing assessment on students' written communication. - Scaffold lessons to build from easy to hard skills. - Focus writing assignments or activities on one skill to begin with and only assess student success on that skill. - Build time for students to write for fun and without formal grading
Teaching students to projects in stages: Organize the well-documented information into graphic organizers, a visual presentation, and/or use it to write an expository essay. Cite sources.
- Model how to embed direct quotes from sources using quotation marks into their own writing. - Generally, this style of essay is a five paragraph essay, including the introduction and thesis statement/research question, three paragraphs of supporting evidence and details, and a conclusion paragraph. - Instruct students on how to use transitions to help move their readers from point to point within the essay and paragraphs.
Modeling
- Model metacognition through "think alouds." Stop periodically while reading a text to demonstrate your thinking aloud. For example, using metacognition during reading would be to think about a certain chart within the text to further understanding of the text as a whole. The teacher would say aloud, "I see this says _____ right under the chart, so that must mean that _____." Students - Students can work in pairs to practice think alouds. Teachers can mark specific locations in the text for students to stop and share their thoughts about the text.
Stage 1 of Writing
- Pre-Conventional Stage(Sometimes called: Awareness Stage; Exploration Stage) - Ages 2-5
Book presentations
- Presentations serve as an opportunity to demonstrate students' comprehension and to share a book that their classmates may potentially enjoy.
Utilizing multiple sources including print, graphics, and digital
- Preview the source using text structures and features to find relevant information - Combine information from different sources to ensure the research is well-rounded and unbiased
Assessing Media
- Provide ongoing assessment of presentations of visual media, either through technology, posters, reports, etc. Rubrics are often used so the teacher and others students can participate in this kind of assessment. - When creating your rubric, assign one or two key skills that the student should have mastered.
Effective Strategies to Enhance Students' Writing Skills
- Provide time every day for students to write in response to listening, reading, or speaking. For young students or those with specific learning disabilities, allow them to dictate their "writing" to the teacher or another adult. Young students may write by forming shapes (as they perceive letters) and pictures. - Allow students to write to each other, friends, or their families at specific times. Some teachers have a class mailbox for this purpose. - Utilize available technology to demonstrate how word processing and publishing programs are used for publication as well as communication (letters, email, etc.). Teach and model the benefits of technology as appropriate for the age/grade of students. - Provide writing assignments for a variety of purposes. - Encourage students to develop their craft as writers by adding transition words, vivid details, character dialog, etc.
Important skills related to the research process:
- Taking Notes - Outlining - Drawing conclusions from their research - Utilizing multiple sources including print, graphics, and digital
Levels of Comprehension
- There are three different levels of comprehension a student can demonstrate in relation to a text. - The different forms of comprehension work together to allow for a deeper understanding of and connection to a text. It is important for teachers to actively develop skills in all levels of comprehension.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROFICIENT WRITING STAGE
- Understands and is able to write for various purposes and audiences - Expresses correct usage of most spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and grammar - Possesses and uses correctly an increasingly broad vocabulary - Writes with a logical movement of ideas - Writes effectively through the use of appropriate words, phrases, and sentence structures; minor errors do not detract from writing fluently - Transitions easily from sentence to sentence and from one paragraph to another - The proficient writer can easily engage and work with the following types of writing: Lists Invitations Letters/emails Narratives Descriptions Expository
CHARACTERISTICS OF EMERGENT STAGE
- Understands that what is said (speech) can be written and that print moves from left to right rather than randomly on a page - May pretend to read own writing - May continue to insert scribbles or mock letters in writing - Some scribbles and mock letters are typically still used in writing, but begin moving from mock letters to real letters, usually in random order - Begins to understand and demonstrate the relationship between written and spoken words and that written words remain consistent --- d--o--g-- spells dog - Writes random letters or strings of letters, often in uppercase - Continues to "read" their writing using a simplified structure - Begins to understand the relationship between written words and those that are spoken
Some activities or materials to use to correct and demonstrate proper penmanship include:
- Using letter tracing paper to help precommunicative writers learn letter shapes. - Providing pencil grips or other alternative writing utensils to help students develop pencil grip. - Practicing writing words and letters on blank guided writing paper. --- Review with students where each letter should hit within the guidelines - Establishing a set "space" between words for students to follow, such as the width of their pencils - Playing games or other non-writing activities that promote fine motor skills, such as painting or crafting - Providing many hands-on activities, such as using plastic letters or numbers, (counting) blocks or tiles, plastic shapes, lacing beads, magnetic shapes or builders, or (writing) templates in order to develop fine motor skills that are necessary for correct pencil grip.
Taking Notes
- While reading articles or various texts to find evidence, students need to write down and organize the relevant information. This can be done with organizers (like a Venn Diagram), bullets, highlighting, etc. - Creating citations for sources during research is key to avoiding plagiarism.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSITIONAL STAGE
- Writes a single letter (often the beginning consonant of the word) to represent an entire word or syllable; begins to understand and use basic punctuation - Continues using some random letters, letter strings, and a few mock letters - Letter formation continues to be inexact - Has some understanding of the use of capital letters - Attentive to beginning and ending consonant and vowel sounds along with the need for spacing; however, often spaces improperly -Spells more words correctly even though some letters may still be omitted; begins to use some standard punctuation - Understands and can explain some of the purposes of writing ----Lists of homework activities to help remember assignments - Begins to discuss, with others, ways to make their writing better through revising ----"This word is not spelling right. You forgot to put a period at the end of the sentence."
When comparing a text to a performance, focus on...
- a specific element of the performance or story telling. - Students might assess how their understanding changes from reading to seeing, or why a director might choose to edit/change certain elements.
Direct quotations
- are used when the writer is quoting the speaker word for wor
In-class reading time
- class time dedicated to extended periods of independent reading shows students that time spent reading is important and valuable. Incorporating this type of reading into their day places a distinctly different value on silent reading compared with reading only when they finish other activities early.
Writing conventions build on
- earlier skill development in phonological knowledge and alphabetic awareness, and continue to build on each other until students are able to write complete, thoughtful sentences and paragraphs with correct grammar and usage.
Interest surveys
- effective tool to use to guide students toward choosing books they will enjoy
etymology
- including Greek and Latin roots
Book talks
- informal or formal conversations with their peers or with the teacher to discuss their books.
When teaching the functions and purposes of media....
- it is important to have examples of each to show to the class as in video clips, commercials, newspaper and magazine ads, posters, and signs.
Skills that can effectively be taught in the context of meaningful writing experiences include:
- knowing and using prefixes and suffixes - differentiating between homophones (aunt-ant, be-bee, die-dye, pedal-peddle, see-sea, to-too-two, and there-their-they're) - using contractions appropriately, such as with "not" (isn't, doesn't, wasn't); with "she" (she'll, she's); and with "I" (I'll, I've, I'd). - recognizing commonly confused words like affect / effect or then / than
Reading, inquiry, and research
- lifelong learning skills that will be used extensively across all content areas - At the initial stage of this competency, students are taught to ask appropriate questions and find information about topics that they have read or that have been read aloud to them
paraphrased quotation
- means the author is conveying the meaning of what was said without necessarily repeating the exact words of the speaker, and therefore quotation marks aren't necessary. - The president said he would pay teachers more.
precise language
- the practice of choosing the best word to convey meaning - is essential in written communication -Precise language doesn't apply just to nouns. It applies to all parts of speech, and to the different connotations
How many stages in the process of writing
5 stages - pre-conventional - emergent - transitional - conventional - proficient
K-W-L Chart
A KWL chart is a graphic organizer that helps students connect the path of their learning. The letters refer to "What I Know," "What I Want to Know," and "What I Learned." K-W-L charts should be presented before students begin researching or reading a particular set of texts about a topic. By brainstorming and completing the first two columns, they can guide their research effectively.
Teacher-Modeled Reading
A strategy in which a teacher reads aloud to students emphasizing his/her own fluency and prosody.
Schema (when reading)
Background knowledge a reader brings to a text.
Spoken Discourse Communicates additional information through voice (paralanguage includes intonation, pitch, and volume) vs
Cannot communicate more meaning than written words and punctuation
Teaching students to projects in stages: Stage 3
Create notes with paraphrased and summarized information from the research. - Show many examples of bibliographies and exactly what they represent, especially in upper grades. Then model and teach about the development of bibliographies as ways to record sources of information for inquiry and research. For younger students, pictures can be utilized to verify research. - Model how to take notes from one or multiple sources and to summarize information from text, pictures, or graphic sources. - Teach students that paraphrasing a source still means they must give credit to the author somehow, either through a parenthetical citation or by mentioning the source in an introductory clause.
Teaching students to projects in stages: Stage 1
Develop a research question or questions. - These guiding questions should be open-ended and focus on aspects that the student finds most important and interesting about a topic. Research questions should be multi-leveled and not simple yes/no questions. - Teach and post relevant questions for inquiry/investigation such as "Why did...?, What do....?, What is the difference between...and ...?, and What are...?" Next have students practice developing questions on various topics. This could be done in small groups at first, and then individually as students develop the skill.
Stage 2 or Writing
Emergent Stage, (Sometimes called: Experimental Stage) Agess 4-5
I DO:
Explanation of the why and how: The teacher provides clear, direct, and explicit explanation about why the strategy is helpful and when to use it. Modeling and "Think Aloud": The teacher models the strategy and says out loud what he or she is thinking as he or she reads. The teacher then asks students to do the same. "Think aloud" sentence starters include: This reminds me of ... I didn't understand that part so I will read it again... I wonder why... I think that ... will happen next because ...
Writing: Proficient Stage
Fifth stage of writing (ages 7-9). Understands and is able to write for various purposes and audiences
Evaluative Comprehension
The ability to analyze text by questioning whether it is fact or opinion, determining if there is faulty reasoning, and explaining how the characters are developed.
Previewing:
Good readers can gain a basic understanding of what they are going to read before they begin. Teachers should provide students the opportunity to make predictions about their reading based on structural elements of the text Look through the text Make predictions
WE DO:
Guided practice: Students practice the strategy with the help of the teacher.
Whether fiction or nonfiction, use strategies to facilitate metacognition and encourage students to actively read a text:
Guided questions during or after a reading Annotations - Scaffold students from basic reactions like, "interesting!" or "is this true?!" to more complex and/or insightful comments in the margins of the text. Graphic organizers to record thoughts, reactions, or conclusions from a text Making connections to their reading: -
Supervised Oral Reading:
Listen in as students read texts aloud. This is the best way to effectively assess individual fluency needs and provide tailored instruction in the moment.
Teaching students to projects in stages: Stage 2
Locate reliable sources with information to answer the research questions. - Model the process of evaluating sources by providing examples of reliable and unreliable sources to compare and contrast. Point out features that make a source more reliable. Demonstrate the importance of identifying the author of the document, recognizing formal tone and presentation, and the use of documentation for facts in the text. - Model for students how to find information in lots of places, such as various texts, reference sources in the library, from technology, and from other people. - Model how students can decide if information is relevant or irrelevant to their question.
Drawing Conclusions / Making Inferences:
Not everything students need to understand about a text is directly stated. That's why students need to draw conclusions and make inferences to fully comprehend the text. Conclusions are drawn and inferences are made when readers use background knowledge plus clues in the text to form an idea. For example, when students are asked to determine how a character feels in a story, teachers can prompt them to think about what they know about how people show their emotions, plus how the character acted to make their inference. Schema + Text Evidence = Idea
Teacher-Modeled Reading:
One of the best things teachers can do to help their students develop fluency is to model fluent reading. When reading to the class, use an appropriate rate and expression in your voice. It is also powerful to read a snippet without fluency, such as by reading too fast or slow or in a robotic voice to help students fully hear the difference between fluent and non-fluent reading.
Partner/Small Group Reading
Organize students into pairs or small groups to read semi-independently. Place students at similar reading levels in groups. Encourage students to take turns reading aloud to each other from a common book. The more opportunities students have to read aloud, the more time they have to practice their fluency.
STAGE 5 of WRITING
PROFICIENT WRITING Ages 7-9
Independent Reading:
Reading fluency increases the more students read. Encourage students to read texts that they are able to read without support. This is a great opportunity to encourage repeated reading. Gradually extend silent reading times as students' reading fluency increases.
Reading fluency
Reading fluency is the ability to read with accuracy and prosody at an appropriate rate. Fluency is strongly tied to reading comprehension. Improving students' fluency improves their ability to comprehend what they read. When students are able to read fluently, they are not struggling to sound out words. Therefore, they are able to concentrate on the meaning of what they are reading. Teaching fluency is important at all levels. Research shows that specifically targeting fluency in early grades (K-4) results in the greatest gains in reading. For older students who struggle to read, targeted fluency instruction improves their reading ability across content areas.
Writing: Emergent Stage
Second stage of writing (ages 4-5). Understands that what is said (speech) can be written and that print moves from left to right rather than randomly on a page
During Reading All Texts
Self-monitoring: Self-monitoring happens as readers check in with themselves while reading. They know when they understand what they are reading and when they do not. Teachers should provide students ample opportunity to pause and reflect on reading. When students realize they are not understanding, they can then use "fix-up" strategies to identify and resolve any problems with comprehension. Paraphrasing the difficult passage in their own words Skimming back through the text to see if some parts need to be re-read Skimming forward into the text to search for information that might be helpful Asking for help from a teacher or peer Visualizing: making mental pictures about what is happening
Strategies for All Texts
Some strategies focus on preparing students to read, others on supporting students while reading, and still others on helping students process after reading.
Rereading Familiar Text
Strategy in which students reread a familiar text to increase their rate, prosody, and confidence.
Rereading Familiar Text:
Students should have the opportunity to reread text on their reading level to improve their fluency. Once unfamiliar words have been decoded, students can focus their attention on improving their rate and prosody. This strategy also helps build confidence for struggling readers.
After Reading All Texts
Summarizing Drawing Conclusions / Making Inferences:
Prephonemic spelling
When children have some letter awareness. They may spell a lengthy word with a few letters, spelling play as "pa" or talk as "tk."
Conventional spelling
When children know and use most basic spelling rules and spell most words correctly. They can often recognize misspelled words, which is a tremendous help in editing either their own or others' writing drafts.
Phonemic spelling
When students spell the way they hear the word pronounced, such as "wuz" for was or "uv" for of.
Precommunicative spelling
When students use scribble shapes and sometimes letter-like shapes for spelling words but are unable to make the forms
Transitional spelling
When students use some conventional spelling but still misspell many irregular words.
Literal Comprehension
Understanding of the facts in the written text such as stated main idea or specific details.
Modeling
an instructional strategy in which the teacher demonstrates a concept or skill and students learn by observing
General Activities to Improve Spelling Skills
Word webs and families to practice common spelling patterns. Rhyming activities to help students identify common phonemes and spelling patterns. Activities to identify common roots, prefixes, or suffixes. Build on word families to expand students' spelling abilities. An example of a word building activity is to begin with small words or word parts such as at, it, ick, et, and ot. Students make as many words as they can from a word or word part in a specific amount of time. It is usually fun to do this as a class or small group activity. Keep available and review phonological/alphabet games and activities to help encourage conventional spelling.
Retell
a comprehension strategy in which students retell or tell differently what they have read or listened to
Table of Contents
a text feature found on a page before the start of a written work that lists chapter names or section titles along with their corresponding page numbers
Metacognition
actively engage thinking about your own thinking, is an essential component of active reading. Metacognition often comes up on exams. It's commonly associated with ensuring students are engaged and understanding the content.
Teachers need to focus on the parts of oral language that....
change or need enhancement when written to ensure students are able to communicate effectively, whether written or spoken.
Reading comprehension
describes the processes through which students construct meaning from the printed page. Comprehension is the primary reading skill: all other skills are based upon it. Students cannot acquire any other reading skills if they do not have comprehension.
Five Finger Rule
determining a book's readability by limiting unknown words per page to less that 5 fingers, to help students self-select reading materials. Students find a book that seems interesting Student opens book to a random page Student reads the page. Every time they don't know a word, they hold up a finger. At the end of the page, they look at how many fingers they have up - 0-1 fingers: too easy 2-3 fingers: just right 4-5 fingers: too hard
Teachers should use reading materials from...
different genres - poetry fiction (such as fables, fairy tales, short stories, and novel excerpts or chapter books), and nonfiction (such as biographies, autobiographies, history, science, and geography - Provide readung that students are interested in
Guided Reading
done by students with teacher support - will be done withing the framework od the lesson - often in a small group setting with the teacher
Evaluative comprehension
evaluate or analyze the text through questioning. Analyzing character development Evaluate word choice Detecting faulty reasoning Explaining the point of view
demonstrative pronouns
frequently used this that these those To ensure precise meaning, these should be avoided when writing
both spoken and written discourse communicate...
ideas through the use of language but there are key differences Spoken language comes naturally as a part of normal development. Learning to translate ideas from verbal to written form requires precise instruction.
paralanguage
includes intonation, pitch, and volume
Teacher should give students opportunityies for both:
independent and guided reading.
Inferential comprehension
infer or understand parts of what has been read without it being stated explicitly. Drawing conclusions Inferring cause-and-effect relationships Determining morals, lessons, and themes Making predictions
Viewing and representing are skills that students need in order to...
interpret, analyze, evaluate, and produce both images and messages from various media, such as computer, television, magazine, and radio.
Fluency
is the ability to read with accuracy, prosody, and appropriate speed. In addition to the word recognition instruction students need to be able to pronounce words accurately, they also need lots of opportunities to hear and practice fluent reading to develop their own fluency.
Informational media
news programs, newspapers, magazines, and documentaries
Accuracy and speed are measured how?
objectively To calculate how many words per minute (wpm) the student can read correctly, listen to the student read for one minute and record how many words are read correctly. Reversely, note how many words are read incorrectly and subtract this from the total number of words read.
Give students continuing opportunities to read orally and...
silently, and discuss more interesting and challenging books/materials.
Graphic organizers can help
students focus their research and make sense of the information they find. These can be done as a group or individually. The following are some examples of graphic organizers that could help in the research process:
Prosody can only be measured:
subjectively . To assess prosody, listen for intonation and expression. Teachers can observe and take notes during the oral reading assessment or record the reading session and then listen again later. There are tools available, such as the NAEP Oral Fluency Rating Scale, to use as a guide for rating fluency.
The ability of a student to successfully select books for independent reading will require....
teacher guidance and training. - on independent reading level - as they advance and become more independent they won't need to rely on a leveled book system to guide their independent reading as much
Educational Media
teaching skills with computer programs (learning a new language or beginning reading) or educational TV programs
Automaticity
the ability to read words effortlessly
Connotation
the implied meaning of a word; the feeling a word conveys
The more interested a student is in a topic they are reading...
the more likely it is that they will be able to read a book that is above their reading level
Prosody
the patterns of stress and intonation in a language.
Demonstrative Pronoun
this, that, these, those
Fluency can be measured through oral
timed reading The teacher listens to a student read a grade-level passage for a set period of time (typically sixty seconds). Timed readings should be conducted multiple times throughout a school year to monitor student progress. The results can be recorded on a graph for effective data analysis. it is important that fluency is measured using a grade-level text. A text that is above or below grade level will shift the rate of fluency.
Literal comprehension -
understand the facts from what has been read. Identifying the stated main idea Recalling details Identifying point-of-view - Literal comprehension is the simplest form of comprehension, but it is required for students to be able to develop inferential or evaluative comprehension.
After the assessment
use the results to guide instruction or differentiate instruction to meet the needs of not only ELL students, but all students in the classroom. As always, a variety of assessment types (oral, written, performance, etc) will provide a better picture of any student's (not just ELL's!) understanding of a text.
