RED4241 Final Exam

According to Cardenas-Hagan, the purpose of reading comprehension is...

"...to get meaning from a written text" (Cardenas-Hagen, 2020, p. 149). Reading comprehension aims to develop student's knowledge of text and their ability to identify main themes and summarize.

Explain the connection between fluency and comprehension

"Fluency can facilitate or impede the ability to comprehend the text being read as well as the depth of understanding gleaned from the text" (pg 92). If someone is struggling with reading a selected text, their mind is busy working to decode the words using cognitive resources. If the mind is preoccupied with the business of reading then the mind is not able to take in what is being read. This means that the readers are not comprehending what they are reading. Each aspect of fluency works together to "...facilitate the reader's construction of meaning" (pg 90). As students develop more accuracy and automaticity they will have an easier time comprehending the text.

Up to this point in your program, you have done a lot of work around heterogeneously grouping students. Up to this point in the RED 4241 class this semester, we have been learning about how to intentionally create homogeneous groups, based on assessment data. Identify characteristics of both types of groupings, and then explain the difference between the two and why teachers should incorporate both specifically.

"Homogeneous groups are used to provide focused, intensive instruction for students with common instructional strengths and needs" (10:12)"Teachers should configure construction to meet students IEP goals and objectives." (10:25)"Teachers identify high priority skills and concepts and form groups of students with similar needs" (10:30) Where students are placed should be decided through progress monitoring, IEP goals, and other indicators of learning and skills (10:47) Keep groups small and allocate an appropriate amount of time for students to work. "Heterogeneous groups include students of various knowledge and skill levels and serve multiple purposes" (11:27)Teachers use small groups to engage students in conversations, facilitate thinking, and communication, and improve relationships (11:47)Configure small or large groups who differ in skills and then give materials that promote productive and autonomous interactions and try to create equal response opportunities (12:11)These groupings allow students to work together on whole class materials and subject specific material for them each to advance. Homogeneous groups allow students to continue pursuing grade level goals. While heterogeneous groups allow students to work together for varying classroom goals.

Explain the difference between "whole language approach" and the "phonics approach" to reading instruction as identified in the "reading wars." As a result of this discussion, what was one outcome that arose out of the U.S. Congress?

"Phonics Approach": is teaching students sounds and then relating them to letters "Whole language approach": idea "was that children construct their own knowledge and meaning from experience. "Believing that reading is a natural process that will happen through enough exposure. The idea that students will learn whole words through memorization and context. The National Reading Panel reviewed all research and in the year 2000 stated that "explicitly teaching the relationship between sounds and letters improved reading achievement." The evidence showed phonics helping kids be better readers. No evidence of this was proven for whole language approach

What is phonological processing? In your response, be sure to address phonological memory and phonological naming. How do they relate to phonological awareness?

"Phonological processing is one's ability to perceive and use the sound structures of words," (pg 53) The foundational components of phonological processing are:Phonological awareness which includes rhyming, alliteration, and phonemic awareness"The ability to understand and manipulate the sound structure of oral language," (pg. 46)Phonological memory"The ability to immediately process and recall sounds in short-term memory" (pg. 46).Phonological naming "The ability to efficiently retrieve words from long-term memory using known-about sounds," (pg. 46)

Per Cardenas-Hagan, define the term spelling. What are a few challenges multilingual learners have related to spelling?

"Spelling is the ability to write words correctly by processing the sounds within words and linking the sounds to the symbols in an accurate order while also following the particular patterns and rules that are applicable to the language." (Pg. 172) Understands sounds represented by letters Understands morphological patterns Multilingual challenges may include typical spelling development for students in addition to difficulty, "processing the unique sounds of a second language" (pg. 172). Students may struggle with irregularities and revert to phonetic spelling in their native language.

Define and describe the Simple View of Reading theory found in this chapter.

(proposed by Hoover and Gough) The simple View of Reading proposes that reading consists of decoding and linguistic comprehension. Decoding is defined by word recognition processes that turn print into words in the mind. Linguistic comprehension is defined as by the process where words, sentences, and discourses are interpreted and comprehended.

Identify and define the four dimensions of a CLD student. Then, explain how these four dimensions relate to the CLD's students' linguistic and academic growth.

4 Dimensions of a CLD student:Sociocultural Dimension: This dimension represents the heart of CLD students (i.e. what they love, what makes them laugh, and what shapes their lives to define them as individuals). Aspects like the historical background of the family (values influenced by cultural traditions), literacy resources (types of resources and time spent on them), and perceptions (students' perceptions of teachers and importance of reading) are all sociocultural influences on CLD students' literary development. Linguistic Dimension: Contributes to students' sense of identity. For CLD students learning English as a second language, their native tongue is the medium through which they are socialized and their culture is transmitted. If a teacher devalues a student's native language, then they are simultaneously devaluing the student's sense of self. Cognitive Dimension: Most complex dimension because it represents how students know, think about, and apply information. It explores the relationship between known language proficiency and applied literacy skills. This dimension also examines the sociocultural connections that exist in the ways students think about what they are reading. Academic Dimension: Reflects the students' prior academic experiences, as well as the instruction they are currently experiencing in school. Knowing the academic experiences a student has had can help determine their literacy development. This can help teachers observe students' level of engagement and their hopes that they will acquire the literacy skills they need.

Provide a definition for a student who is identified as a student with multiple and severe disabilities. Then, describe how they might differ from a typically developing student who is just learning to read.

A student with multiple and severe disabilities can best be defined by a student who has severe and consequential speech, intellectual, developmental, and/or physical disabilities. These students typically "learn slowly and, therefore, learn less and have difficulty putting together component parts of information, maintaining information, and generalizing information" (Orland & Ruppar, 2016, p. 6) Through balanced methodologies, these learners can reach proficient levels of reading. Children who are typically developing may be exposed to literacies at a young age more than those that are not. Research shows that " home literacy experiences for children with multiple and severe disabilities often are different when compared to experiences of peers without disabilities" and that "caregivers of children with multiple and severe disabilities placed higher priority on communication and self-help skills, such as eating and walking, while caregivers of children without disabilities gave higher priority to communication and literacy activities such as drawing and writing" (Orland & Ruppar, 2016, p. 5). Parents of children with disabilities focus more on curating their child's independence and needs (based on their disability) while parents of typically developing children can give priority to literary skills.

According to Cardenas-Hagan (2020), explain how a teacher could measure:

Accuracy- The simple definition of measuring accuracy is based on how many words are read correctly in a text. This should also be considered alongside the number of words a student could possibly get correct. For example, if a student reads 50 words in both text A and B, this is not useful information. But knowing they read 50/50 words in text A and 50/100 words in text B can show their accuracy much better. Based on these scores, the student read with an 100% accuracy for text A and a 50% accuracy for text B, and with their scores, students can be categorized as independent, instructions, or frustrational readers. Rate- This is the speed at which a text is read with accuracy and is typically measured through timed reading. Rate is also usually expressed through WCPM (words correct per minute), and this can be found by calculating the number of words read correctly in a text and the amount of seconds it took to read. Teachers can use a full passage method where they time the student upon the reading of the first word until the last word, or the teacher can use the one minute approach by setting a timer for one minute and having the student stop reading once the timer goes off. Prosody- Prosody is the volume, tone, expression and phrasing a student may use when reading a text. Monitoring things such as phrasing, pacing, and smoothness are methods of measuring prosody. Additionally, listening to how naturally a student is able to express while they read is a main component of measuring prosody. It all comes down to how the teacher listens to their students read aloud, aside from the rate and accuracy.

Assessment Overview:

Assessment is used to gather information about students. The results of these assessments are necessary to assist in lesson planning/classroom instruction. PMRN- Progress Monitoring and Reporting Network - web-based data management system used to show the type and amount of instruction each student should receive. ECI- Effectiveness of Core Instruction EI- Effectiveness of Interventions - enable a teacher to determine a student's progress throughout the year. Can be used to determine the effectiveness of interventions throughout the year.

Explain the role of assessment within effective differentiated instruction.

Assessment serves as the 'check-in' for students who require differentiated instruction. The reading identifies formative assessment and differentiation as working together to support students who land in various learning spots than their grade-level expects. At the beginning of the school year, students are given assessments to measure what they know, what they need to work on, and what they need a lot of support in. That's where differentiation comes in; using the data from various assessments, teachers can adjust how they instruct students. Throughout the school year, assessment is used to determine how a student has improved in the specific areas they had difficulty in. If a student shows little improvement, or even worse performance, the teacher will use that to see where they should make adjustments in the student's instruction and/or if the student needs accommodations to support their learning.

Create a chart providing an overview of the different vocabulary strategies found in the chapter. You do not need to provide a full description of the activities.

Before Reading Vocab. Strategies Graphic Organizer- students can make connections between vocabulary terms using a chart or diagram. Word Splash- students draw one large word on a page and fill the page with other words that they think of when they see the first large word Cultural Vocabulary Logos- students log words encountered in the lesson that they would like to revisit. Specific to each student. During Reading Vocab. Strategies Bilingual Picture Dictionaries- students create a mini dictionary with words written in English and drawn next to it to define the word .Vocabulary Cue Cards- allow non-proficient ELLs to provide pictoral or one-word answers to cues. Semantic Mapping- words identified and associated words are listed with them After Reading Vocab. Strategies Structural Vocabulary Indexing- create sentences using at least three main vocab terms from lesson in a row consecutively in a coherent sentence. Webbing- graphically illustrating meaningful associations between words Vocab Flip Books- incorporate key descriptors and pictorial supports to identify key vocab words.

Identify instructional approaches that activate prior knowledge and promote inferencing.

Beginning an instruction by modelling is a great way to help activate students' prior knowledge. The teacher can bring up a certain text, like If You Give a Pig a Pancake, and tell the class what genre it fits into, which would be fiction in this case. Then, in a think-aloud method, the teacher can model what the students will do by saying, "I'm first going to think about what this story might be about." The teacher can also analyze the cover of the book and make predictions. Then the students can make their own inferences and predictions based on seeing it modeled by the teacher.

Briefly describe the three design principles for teaching vocabulary to multilingual learners.

Build vocabulary knowledge by combining new information with what the student already knows with the goal of higher cognitive thinking and learning; vocabulary is put in the context of knowledge that students can link with pre-existing information; can make connections between the language already known and English Integrating multiple opportunities for using newly taught vocabulary as a means of making connections to concepts and lived/personal experiences; multiple exposures (opportunities for children to use new vocabulary and the related concepts in different contexts); in-depth knowledge of vocabulary in context can lead to mastery Integrate intentional opportunities for adult-child language interaction, centering it around newly taught vocabulary during learning; intentional language opportunities; utilizing engagement and actively involving ELLs in the learning process

Explain how the extrinsic factors, like limited early literacy experiences and lack of quality reading instruction, can attribute to a student's reading disability.

Children need exposure and experience with print to further their reading abilities. A lack of these opportunities can result in a loss of reading ability early in students' learning, but these effects appear to decrease with age. Studies done by Vellutino and colleagues show that instructional variations are factors in a student's reading ability. An example of this is seen in the Matthew Effect. This is the idea that when students aren't held to high expectations they don't have as high levels of success. Overall students' continuous exposure and practice can raise levels of vocabulary and grammar levels This can be maintained through focused instruction, particularly with struggling readers. Giving readers instruction that focuses on their needs can lead to reader success.

Define the Key Theories and Concepts (found on pg. 281) in one sentence each.

Common Core State Standards: Standards devised for grades starting in Pre-K that ensure students are college ready by the time they are high school seniors. English as a Second Language Standards for Pre-K-12 Students: Highly values the use of a student's home language within instruction in order to get the most out of the curriculum. Standards for the English Language Arts: These standards "encourage the development of curriculum and instruction that make productive use of the emerging literacy abilities that children bring to school" (Herrera et al, 271).

Several reading specialists believe comprehension is a strategic process and the following seven comprehension strategies should be taught... Identify and define each one.

Comprehension monitoring- students are able to identify when they are understanding and fix the issue when they are not understanding what they are reading. Cooperative learning- divvy up tasks across 'lead' students and group others to work on activities together. Graphic and semantic organizers- students provided with visual representation to assist them in understanding a prompt/activity/lesson etc. Self questioning- allow students to actively engage with texts by asking themselves self-monitoring questions. Story structure analysis- students can identify the framework and/ or schema of a story. Summarizing- provide synthesis of important ideas gathered from text which identify main ideas, etc. Answering questions- in the book vs. in my head questions;

According to the authors, there are four different elements that teachers can differentiate instruction for. Briefly describe the four elements. Be sure to include a few examples/strategies within each explanation.

Content"The knowledge, understanding, and skills we want students to learn" (pg 5)Determined through formative assessment, using reading materials at varying readability levels, putting text materials on tape/CD, Using spelling/vocabulary lists at readiness level of students, presenting ideas through auditory/visual/kinesthetic/tactile means, using reading buddies, flexible grouping, compacting, meeting with small groups to reteach idea/skill, multi-leveled questions, modeling (pg 7) Process "How students come to understand or make sense of the content" (pg 5)Tiered activities, centers/stations, developing personal agendas, manipulatives, varying the length of time a student may take to complete a task, cubing, learning logs or journals, note-taking organizers, graphic organizers, highlighted jigsaw, think/pair/share, learning menus, webquests, labs, role play/simulations (pg 7) Product"How students demonstrate what they come to know, understand, and are able to do after an extended period of learning." (pg 5)Choice boards, podcast, blog, presentation, quiz/test, using rubrics that match and extend students' varied skill level, enabling students to use contemporary media/technology as tools to demonstrate knowledge and understanding (pg 7) Affect"How students' emotions and feelings impact their learning." (pg 5)

What is content-enriched vocabulary instruction?

Content-enriched vocabulary instruction is defined by teaching content-specific vocabulary that are used in specific domains and contexts. Examples of this include academic vocabulary specific to math, science, history, English, or other subjects. Students must know this specific vocabulary in order to understand specific subjects and their related texts.

The handout indicates there are a few key areas in which teachers can provide opportunities for differentiation:

Cultural styles and forms of expression Language background and proficiency Learning differences, IEPs and other special needs How do these three areas line up with what we have discussed in class up to this point? Be sure to include examples from the readings and/or classroom activities. In class we used specific IEPs of real students to differentiate their instruction. This is an example of making accommodations and differentiation for students with disabilities, special needs, or extraneous circumstances. The IEP my group had was a student with social anxiety, so a lot of our differentiation centered on how to give her a role in the class that was not necessarily group work. We also practiced this with an ELL, whose WIDA scores were provided. We used these scores to target their strengths and weaknesses, using the former to give them more of a role and the latter to provide modifications. In doing this, we were able to differentiate for their specific language proficiency. Another form of differentiation occurs cross-cultural. Some students may come from cultures with different norms and practices that may contradict what is standard for the American school system. An example could be a student from a culture that considers making eye contact to be rude, and is thus reprimanded for not looking their teacher in the eye when speaking to them. We discussed in class how to discern cultural forms of expression from intentional rudeness, as well as forms of differentiation we can make that are culturally sensitive.

Explain the problem(s) of incorporating decontextualizing word-building practices for multilingual learners.

Decontextualizing word-building practices does not fully acknowledge the complexities of various vocabulary. Vocabulary development is a complex, multidimensional process that relies on drawing out students pre-existing knowledge, which helps them to learn the vocabulary words in context as well as furthers their use of contextual knowledge.

Once you click on the "Can Do" descriptors, scroll down to your group's grade level Can Do Descriptors, Key Uses Edition Grade links.

Describe the Four Key Uses of language identified? (see page two)The four key uses of language are:Recount- display knowledge or narrate experiences or events (i.e., summarizing stories, producing information reports, and sharing past experiences).Explain- to clarify the "why" and "how" of ideas, actions, or phenomena (i.e., describing life cycles, sharing why or how things work, stating causes & effects, sharing results of experiments).Argue- to persuade by making claims supported by evidence (i.e., stating preferences or opinions and constructing arguments with evidence).Discuss- to interact with others to build meaning and share knowledge (i.e., participating in small or large group activities and projects). What is the purpose of the Can Do descriptors for Educators? (see page three)Can Do Descriptors can help EducatorsDifferentiate curriculum, instruction, and assessments designed in English based on language learners' levels of English language proficiency.Collaborate and engage in instructional conversations about the academic success of language learners in English environments.Advocate for equitable access to content for language learners based on their levels of language proficiency. Describe what an ELL can do regarding listening, speaking, reading, and writing related to the language use of Argue.Our assigned grade level is 8, so the following is based on the grades 6-8 descriptors.For English language learners, their ability to argue varies based on their level of proficiency within the English language. Listening- Entering: can process argument by signaling agreement or disagreement with short oral statements or questions. Identify points of view from short statements.Emerging: identify claims from a series of oral statements. Identify evidence to support claims from charts and tables.Developing: Illustrate claims or reasons from oral narratives. Identify opposing perspectives from oral text.Expanding: Match evidence to claims in oral discourse. Formulate opinions based on evidence presented within oral discourse.Bridging: Establish connections among claims, arguments, and supporting evidence within oral discourse. Compare opposing points of view presented within oral discourse. Reaching: Evaluate the soundness of opposing claims presented orally. Identify bias within claims in oral discourse.SpeakingEntering: Respond yes or no to short statements or questions related to a claim. Expressing personal points of view (in home language and English) in support of or against a claim.Emerging: Answer simple questions related to claims. Stating evidence to support claims (in home language and English). Developing: Critique opposing claims. Evaluating the value of options in content-based situations.Expanding: Connect ideas with supporting details or evidence. Take stances and summarize ideas supporting them.Bridging: Engage in debates on content-related topics with claims and counterclaims along with reasonable evidence. Defend points of view with specific claims.Reaching: Paraphrase new information expressed by others and, when warranted, modify views or positions. Make presentations with multimedia components to clarify claims and emphasize salient points.ReadingEntering: Identify words or phrases associated with topic choices. Classify true from false short statements. Emerging: Distinguish facts from opinions in text. Identify features associated with content-related claims.Developing: Identify claims and the reasons for each claim. Identify opposing points of view.Expanding: Identify evidence to support analysis of what texts say. Classify pros and cons of claims and evidence presented within written texts.Bridging: Evaluate evidence presented in support of claims. Develop a stance in favor of or against claims presented within content related text.Reaching: Identify specific evidence to support analyses of content area text. Distinguish among facts, reasoned judgment, and speculation in text.Writing Entering: Generate words and phrases that represent opinions (e.g., "I think..."). Make lists of topic choices with peers. Emerging: State opinions using evaluative language related to content (e.g., "I agree. Metric is better."). Connect simple sentences to form content-related ideas.Developing: Substantiate opinions with content-related examples and evidence. Provide feedback to peers on language used for claims and evidence.Expanding: Craft persuasive pieces with a series of substantiated content-related claims. Compose scripts with protagonists and antagonists. Bridging: Present opinions in persuasive essays or reports backed by content-related research. Justify ideas using multiple sources.Reaching: Introduce claims and opposing claims, along with their associated reasons and evidence. Close with concluding statements or paragraphs that support claims.

Select one strategy for developing one aspect of phonological awareness from the chapter and explain how it helps to develop this skill.

Developing strategy for rhyme identification skills:The teacher works with the student by telling them two words to repeat after the teacher.The teacher asks if the words rhyme and explains the initial sound that changed.The goal is for students to identify rhymes by listening. By allowing a student to hear the word allowed they are walking out the similar sounds of phonemes aloud. This allows the students to hear the relationship of the letters and thus be able to match the sounds seeing if they rhyme.

How does what you see taking place in the video line up (or not line up) with the definition of differentiated instruction, presented by FCRR (see below)?

Differentiated Instruction is matching instruction to meet the needs of individual learners. The teacher forms small, flexible teacher-led instructional groups based on student data and observations. The teacher groups students with similar instructional needs, limiting the size of the group based on the intensity of instruction needed. The focus and format of reading skills instruction varies with the skill level of the students. How often and how long the teacher meets with each small group varies depending on student needs. Students who are more at risk will need to meet more frequently and for longer periods. This small group targeted skill instruction supplements and reinforces high quality and consistent initial reading instruction. Based on the FCRR definition of differentiated instruction, I would say that the flexible grouping video lines up very well with the concept. The definition describes instructional groups based on student data and observations. In the video, the narrator explains that teachers use data on student performance to influence their group-making decisions. The video also shows a clip in an actual classroom where a teacher splits her students up into four groups ranging from individual study to group work, showing that she has taken student need into account in order to support her students' educational growth. Even further, the video also describes the importance of matching student specific needs to determine the appropriate group size and setting for each student.

What (if any) is the difference between the MTSS process and differentiated instruction?

Differentiated instruction is an element of MTSS. The reading describes that "differentiation and MTSS target different aspects of instruction. Differentiation focuses on varying instruction to meet individual student needs, while MTSS frameworks focus on more intensive supports to students who do not respond to effective Tier I instruction."

Differentiated Instruction:

Differentiated instruction is matching instruction to meet the needs of individual learners. This means creating lessons that reach the same goals for each student but geared toward each student's different learning styles. Students are grouped based on needs and intensity of instruction required.

What is different about disciplinary literacy instruction compared to reading comprehension & strategic instruction?

Disciplinary literacy instruction looks at literacy instruction as a whole and asks students black and white questions with black and white answers instead of allowing them to describe their reasoning and express their thinking schools, as wll as, studying the best way to teach students. This literacy strategy focusses more on making sure students know their history than anything else.

What is the purpose of the ESL Standards?

ESL standards serve as the starting point for lesson plans, and they help make sure that nothing important is forgotten or left out. This makes it easier for teachers to address the needs of their ESOL students.

The chapter provides examples of how to model instruction regarding echo reading; duet reading; repeated reading (1); repeated reading (2); phrasing. Select ONE of these instructional examples to demonstrate, and then describe how to model the complete instruction step-by-step, using the outline provided in the chapter.

Echo Reading This instructional example goes as follows: The students will listen closely and follow along as the teacher reads the text aloud. The teacher will be expected to properly demonstrate fluency as they read. The teacher will read in portions aloud to the class. Students with tracking needs can point as the text is read aloud. The teacher will return to specific parts of the reading to point out areas where words were stressed or emphasized, and/or where tone was changed. The teacher may use whichever instructional technique to discuss this that they choose. The teacher will continue this with the full text.

Students who require intensive reading instruction in vocabulary knowledge development are often taught through explicit and systematic instruction. Using the examples from the chapter, explain what this means. Then, provide an example of what it could look like in the K - 5 classroom.

Explicit and systematic instruction is instruction that is carefully planned out and teaches a specific concept. For vocabulary, it is unrealistic to cover every vocabulary word, so narrowing the options down to the words that are most important and most frequently used is an aspect of explicit instruction. To further the instruction, texts should be used in pair with vocabulary, particularly, a text should be chosen based on its word content so that the teacher can pull those vocabulary words directly from it.

Identify and outline the principles of oral reading fluency instruction for multilingual learners.

Fluency has mainly been focused on the rate and speed at which a student is able to read. While this is accurate, it is also important to note that comprehension of a text should be present in a fluent reader. Simply practicing reading is a common principle of fluency, however, some research shows that it is "engaged and repetitive reading practice that is embedded with systematic support that is most effective" (Cardenas-Hagan, E. 2020). Fluency promotes oral language development in ELs, and their instruction should be explicit and systematic. Repeated oral reading is designed to help build students' confidence in their reading abilities, as well as speed, rate, expression of words, and comprehension of the text. Choral reading is done with groups of students who read a text at the same time, and then again in different groups. Partner reading is where a pair of student play the roles of reader and supporter alternately, and they take turns reading different portions of the same text (i.e. one student reads a paragraph/page, the other student reads the next). Echo reading follows a teacher reading a text out loud while the students follow along with their fingers. Then when the teacher stops, the student must read the portion the teacher just read out loud themselves.

According to these authors, define and describe characteristics of fluency, using information from this chapter. How does that align with your group member's definition from number one in the other chapter reading?

Fluency is demonstrated during oral reading and includes accuracy, rate, and prosody. Accuracy is the correct reading of words. Rate is the automaticity of reading or one's ability to read with speed and effortlessness. Prosody is one's ability to read with good expression meaning proper inflection in voice for questions or pauses at commas, etc. It is linked to one's ability to comprehend, without efficient fluency readers will struggle with comprehension. It is also noted that fluent reading does not mean that a student is fully comprehending. This definition matches with the above definition of fluency. We both highlight the importance of accuracy, rate/speed, and prosody. It is also noted the significance of a fluent reader's ability to comprehend.

Briefly define and describe characteristics of fluency, using information from this chapter.

Fluency is determined by accuracy, prosody, and reading speed. Students who can read fluently are "better overall readers and comprehenders" that exhibit "more appropriate expression in their reading" and "higher levels of comprehension" (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 59). Fluent students read with automaticity and accuracy, using appropriate tone and expression as they read texts. Automaticity means students do not have to pause and decipher as the go through text, often utilizing sight word recognition and syntactical knowledge. Accuracy is how 'correct' a student reads, and is often determined by automaticity and speed. A fluent reader is one who reads at a good speed, missing few to no words. Expression is the tone and pace a student reads at, showing they read with feeling and understanding as opposed to merely reciting words.

When identifying students with dyslexia, there are three exclusionary factors to consider: Sensory/Emotional/Neurological, Instructional, and Intelligence. Explain why each of these should be excluded when considering a student as dyslexic.

For children to be considered dyslexic, they must have normally limited sensory abilities. Emotional and behavioral issues are also issues that do not define dyslexia, such as if a student has autism, schizophrenia, or if a student has neurological impairments from injuries. To be considered dyslexic, students must also have adequate literacy experience. If a student is deprived of a quality education and that is causing them to read poorly, then that does not mean they have dyslexia. Practitioners pay the most attention to intelligence when looking at dyslexia. In order to be diagnosed with dyslexia, a student's IQ and their reading achievement scores must have to misalign a certain amount. If a student's IQ predicts that they should be a substantial reader but they are struggling to actually read, then there is a chance that they have dyslexia. Briefly describe the four subgroups of poor readers, as predicted using the Simple View of Reading Theory. Dyslexia: Refers to students who have word-recognition problems alone. Non-Specific: Refers to students who have good word-recognition and listening comprehension skills. This means students may have issues that extend beyond the Simple View of Reading Theory. Mixed: Refers to students with both word-recognition and listening comprehension struggles. Specific Comprehension Deficit: Refers to students who have problems with listening comprehension, but not word-recognition.

Identify and define the five recommendations (found on pg. 6) in one sentence each.

Formative assessments are conducted with ELL to measure their knowledge and use of phonics, graphemes, and word/text reading. This data can be used over larger spans of time to monitor student knowledge and progress. Small groups are used for ELLs requiring intervention. The work in this group should be intervention focused and feature "phonological awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension" (Gersten et al., p. 6) Vocabulary instruction is provided throughout the day and is delivered in a high quality way. Content words necessary for ELLs are taught with more practice and deliverance alongside common words, phrases, and expressions. ELLs will also learn academic English especially in the subject realm of reading and math. This can be supplemented with professional training and development. 90 minutes a week are devoted to activities pairing students of different skill levels to work on language proficiency and expand on what has already been taught.

Identify and explain the problem(s) found within the broad view of reading theor(ies), proposed by Gates, Perfetti, and others; these problematic constructs led to the creation of the Simple View of Reading theory.

Gates proposed a broad view of reading that emphasizes a higher-level processing. The issue here is that it conflates (merges) word recognition and comprehension into one singular skill, when in fact, they are very different. Comprehension involves higher-level mental processes that word recognition does not. Perfetti and Crowder advocate for a narrower view of reading, also known as the 'psychology of reading.' However, these fail to include inference and schema application, a critical part of comprehension.

Why is it important to assess a student who has been identified as one with a severe disability's literacy understanding and skills?

Getting a handle on a student with a severe disability's literacy skills is important because it can help identify the specific areas they struggle in as well as additional non-literacy issues that could be affecting their reading proficiency. Understanding this can help us provide the necessary adaptation and differentiation. Orland and Ruppar write that "In assessing literacy, it is helpful to determine the ways in which the student communicates and the types of symbols the student uses and understands. Students with multiple and severe disabilities who verbally communicate or who have limited verbal output can be presymbolic, concrete symbolic, or abstract symbolic communicators" (2016, p. 8). Assessing students in this regard allows us to understand where they struggle and the best ways in which they learn. We can lean in to their strengths to supplement their weaknesses.

In this chapter, the author identifies four skills that good readers employ in order to comprehend a text. Describe the four skills.

Good readers read words with accuracy and a quick yet steady pace, Good readers go into a text with purpose; they will make connections and heave pre-reading information on the text before ever starting it. This can look like predicting, inferences, annotating, etc., Good readers monitor and adapt their reading as they gp, checking for understanding and clarity. This is an important skill that can be referred to as mindfulness, where readers will question what they don't know and use prior knowledge or context clues to solve points of confusion. Word knowledge and reference materials can be used to unravel points of confusion, alongside rereading and additional sources of help, Reflect on the story and crucial themes and plot; Good readers think about the big picture ideas in a text and how they can be applied outside of the text.

Identify and describe the three key components for creating and utilizing Flexible Grouping. Be sure to incorporate the specific descriptions outlined in the video.

Groups should be highly structured and include clear directivesThe example in the video is of the teacher explaining the various groups and their objectives. The teacher then asks various students to repeat back to her the instructions. She even explains what the students should and should not do when they have a question. Some groups should be homogeneous and others should be heterogeneous to provide an appropriate setting for the goals for the lesson.Homogeneous groups can help with specific topics that students may need further specified instruction in. By putting students in homogeneous groups you can focus with the students on a specific topic. In heterogeneous groups you put students of varying levels together to work on things. Use of flexible groups does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers need to match specific HLPs and EBPs to student needs, and then determine the appropriate group size and setting.Teachers will need to focus on students' progress in order to keep them in the appropriate grouping. Groups will have to change as students may need more specific instruction or are ready to move on.

The authors indicate that vocabulary instruction is often taught at three different levels of instruction (i.e., Tier I Words, Tier II Words, and Tier III Words). Using information from the chapter as support, which one of these tiers would be the most difficult for ELL students? Why do you say this?

I believe tier I vocabulary words are the most difficult for ELLs to learn. Students who have no prior knowledge of the language will have great difficulty even learning everyday words like those that exist in this group. As the chapter points out, some English words may not have equivalent terms in an ELLs native language (or vice versa).

Identify and describe one new take-away you had related to working with students who are identified with severe disabilities while reading through this article.

I think the topic of students with disabilities is often discussed with a bit of hush and fear. Many student teachers are intimidated by the prospect of a student with severe disabilities, particularly one with a very low reading proficiency. I found that the way we work with students with disabilities does not differ as drastically from the way we work with students requiring intervention for low reading proficiency. Naturally, there are a few caveats to that, but I found it reassuring. It felt like the challenge of working with a student with disabilities is much more approachable than I first imagined.

Explain why it is important for teachers to know their students' reading comprehension levels (i.e., especially those who have been identified as having a disability).

If we do not know our students' reading comprehension level, then we are not well equipped to help them. Students with disabilities will have specific struggles that may reflect their disability. In knowing the particular issues, we can cater instruction and intervention to the areas they struggle in.

How does the access to authentic text (or lack thereof) impact the acquisition of key literacy skills for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD) students?

In the chapter, authentic text is expressed to the reader as imperative for students to be able to add meaning and understanding to what they are learning. Students who are taught from a bottom-up perspective, lose out on the contextual help that authentic texts provide. And students that are taught from a top-down perspective may become overwhelmed by the texts they are being thrown into without proper prior scaffolding. Authentic texts are very useful to CLD students as they are learning a new language because they allow the student to have a view of what they are learning outside of the common classroom tools.

Before answering question number three, look back over the lesson plan template used for this class (see the Differentiated Lesson Plans and Presentation Module). How does the template itself support content outlined in this video? Cite specific places on the plan and relate them back to direct information found in the video.

In the lesson plan template, each row of instruction includes a space for differentiation for students with exceptionalities, disabilities, and ELLs. These spaces allow teachers to alter instruction to fit the needs of those students to align with their specific learning goals. In the video, the flexible groups varied based on student needs: some students required individual practice, others benefited from working with a partner on a similar level, others benefited from larger group interaction. The module also includes a lesson plan with differentiated instruction based on students at grade level, above grade level, and below grade level. Like the video describes, the groups are based on student data collected by the teacher and each of their activities follow the same standards but with emphasis/focus on different components.

Provide a brief overview of what is taking place in the video. Be sure to highlight key concepts found within this video related to differentiating instruction, with the focus on flexible grouping.

In this video, High Leverage Practice #17- Flexible Grouping is discussed. The video breaks down into two parts: part one is an overview of what flexible grouping is and part two describes the components that go into flexible grouping. Flexible grouping is a helpful tool in differentiating instruction. The video expresses how these groups are created with student needs, goals, and accommodations in mind. In creating these groups, teachers focus on specific goals tailored to individual students or groups of students to support their learning. Part 2 of the video is broken down into three components: the first component states that groups should be highly structured and include clear directives; the second component states that some groups should be homogeneous and others should be heterogeneous to provide an appropriate setting for the goals of the lesson; the third component states that teachers need to match specific HLPs and EBPs to student needs and then determine the appropriate group size and setting.

Select one strategy for developing one aspect of phonics from the chapter and explain how it helps to develop this skill.

Instructional Strategies for the development of decoding skills in ELs express the necessity of a solid knowledge base of letter-sound correspondence and ample practice to build automaticity. This instructional strategy relies on the understanding or the improvement of syllable understanding/knowledge. Students should be taught the six different syllable types (closed, open, vowel-r, vowel pair, vowel consonant-e, and final stable vowel). Because English is an 'opaque' language and has the characteristic of having multiple sounds for letters and/or multiple letters for a single phoneme, ELs with language knowledge of a 'transparent' language will have difficulty grasping this linguistic difference. It is imperative that they are explicitly taught the features of a syllable. After they learn that, they can move on to learning about the different syllable types. These should be taught in sequential order in a way where students will identify the syllable type and then decode the word.

The authors identify two ways in which teachers can measure students' understanding of phonological and phonemic development. Describe each of those measures.

Instructors can use formal or informal measures. Formal measures include curriculum based-measurements, such as a CBM exam that include various types of assessments used to monitor student progress across the academic year. The benchmarks associated with formal measures are used as a marker of current and future student success, thus tracking progress towards a specific ELA goal. Informal measures provide additional information (sometimes observation or anecdotally based) that can guide and warrant a student's CBM scores. Informal assessments can also provide further insight into a students intervention and abilities, monitoring specific skills and analyzing the different methods and work practices. Informal measures can help identify patterns or errors that have a specific underlying cause.

Using the information from this chapter, describe the three main differences between learning to read and learning to speak. Why is this important to know?

Learning to read requires knowledge of the explicit phonological (sound/segmenting) aspects of speech.) (crucial for phoneme/grapheme rules) We are adapted to process speech but not written text. Reading is a new skill in the scheme of human adaptation and biology. Humans are raised where spoken language is the primary form of communication. Thus, speech is easier to pick up than reading. Understanding this helps us understand why reading does not simply come as a result of spoken language.

The authors identify four ways in which teachers can assess students' understanding of phonics and word recognition. Describe each of those assessments.

Letter-Sound Correspondence: Keeping track of how a student is doing in the area of letter-sound correspondence can be done by keeping a track of what letter sounds a student says correctly and incorrectly during a lesson review. Providing students with a list of letter sounds and listening to them reading them is another method of assessment. Alphabetic Principle: This assessment can be done by having students read a series of nonsense words in order to see their letter-sound knowledge, instead of counting how many words were read correctly. This can ensure that students are not merely memorizing words. Word Reading: Assessment in this area can be carried out by providing students with a list of grade-level words and having them read the words. Fluency can also be tested by adding a time limit to the list reading. Spelling: Spelling can be measured formally by providing students with a series of words for their grade level and having them spell them out. This can also be a timed assessment. Scoring is done not only by words spelled correctly, but also by the number of correct letter sequences written in each word.

Identify and describe the five critical elements that should be included when teaching phonics.

Letter-Sound Correspondences: Systematic introduction to letter-sound correspondences helps students gain the skills they need to form the connections between letters and sounds in order to apply these skills to reading. Decoding and Encoding: Decoding is where a student can pick up on the sounds of a word in order to decode what it is. Additionally, as students begin to correctly sound out words out loud, they can undergo further instruction to help them with sounding words out in their heads. Encoding is where students can use their prior knowledge from decoding to help them spell/encode words. This can be done through the repeated process of sounding out and showing letters/phonemes and exemplifying the sounds that correspond with them. Irregular Word Instruction: Some words tend to not cohere to the same typical language rules as those from decoding and encoding. Irregular word instruction requires lots of practice for students to grasp them. After students are taught a new irregular word, it is important to help them commit it to memory by helping them read it aloud correctly. Sight-Word Reading: While in the previous elements students are learning to read, this element is what allows students to build their reading fluency, meaning students can recognize letters and sounds and read them rapidly. Timing how many words a student can correctly read in the span of a certain time is a great method for testing fluency as well as improving it. Selecting Connected Text for Reading: This element is where specific texts are chosen to help students apply their phonics and word recognition knowledge to. Beginning level students may only be given some sentences, but as they progress, they can begin to read longer and more complex texts.

Based on what you read in this chapter, describe at least one way for each of the following dimensions (sociocultural, linguistic, academic, and cognitive) in which you could differentiate your instruction. Sociocultural: Using texts and other literacies from other cultures and backgrounds, not just on holidays, is helpful because it helps students feel represented and included and motivated within the classroom. And it even helps students have more respect and trust in their teachers because they feel more seen.

Linguistic: Supporting and utilizing a student's first language is important because it also further helps build their language proficiency for their second language that they are learning. Academic: Having an awareness of a student's academic background is important. It helps a teacher know how much a student has been exposed to reading and other literacies, and how they view these literacies. Knowing this can help a teacher move forward and decide what they expose their students to without making any assumptions. Cognitive: In order for a CLD student to get the most out of their education, a teacher must expose their students to grade level curriculum on a daily basis. They must also have prior discussions, such as topics of vocabulary and deliberately teaching reading comprehension strategies.

What do the authors mean when they say that literacy is biographical, fundamental, and research-based in this chapter? Be sure to include information from the reading.

Literacy is broken down into these three groups to explain where it is used, how it is acquired, and how it is learned/taught. According to the authors, any language learner acquires their first understanding of language in social settings, making literacy biographical. They absorb information as they are raised by their families, in the home, and in their communities where they interact the most. According to the authors, the "biographical nature of literacy is the foundation on which literacy instruction is based. Fundamental literacy, as described above, are the four domains of literacy- the things we think of when we discuss literacy: reading, writing, listening, and speaking. Research-based literacy references those five elements of literacy, which top off the student's linguistic knowledge. This group is labeled 'research-based,' because each element is more theoretical in nature than those of the other groups. Each of these groups is necessary to be literate and each is reliant on the others for language learners to grow.

Describe the following three proficiency levels outlined in the chapter: low proficiency in English, intermediate proficiency in English, and high proficiency in English. Then, compare them to the English Language Proficiency levels we've discussed in class.

Low proficiency- these students will use sort and simple vocabulary; introducing language connectors can benefit their pursuit of showing logical modes of thinking Intermediate proficiency- these students can form sentences with more than 1 idea; expanding upon language connectors is suggested for these students to show logical relationships between ideas High proficiency- these students can use complex sentences, and can handle the challenge of taking about ideas and concepts without the use of personal pronouns These three categories can be used as another means for differentiation especially in a class with a large amount of ELLs. However, I think the WIDA scores are more specific about what students can do, thus empowering them to take more of a role in the classroom.

Identify and describe a multi-lingual learner's assets, according to WIDA's Can Do Philosophy.

Multilingual learners are described as having four assets: Linguistic, Cultural, Experiential, and Social & Emotional. According to WIDA's Can Do Philosophy, each listed asset pairs with student contributions and potential. The contribution of linguistic assets include the knowledge of more than one language, varying representation of ideas, metalinguistic and metacognitive awareness, and diverse strategies for language learning. The potential of this asset includes bi- or multilingual practices, abilities which learners utilize to communicate effectively across multiple contexts and multiple ways of expressing their thinking. The contribution of cultural assets include different perspectives, practices, beliefs, social norms and ways of thinking. The potential provided by cultural assets include bi- or multilingual practices as well as unique and varied perspectives, ability to develop relationships in a global society, and the ability to navigate a variety of sociocultural contexts. The contribution provided by experiential assets include varied life and educational experiences, exposure to unique topics, and diverse approaches to learning & expressing content knowledge. The potential provided by this asset is enrichment of the school curriculum, extracurriculars, & community opportunities, and success in school and beyond. The contribution provided by social and emotional assets include personal needs and interests, awareness of/ empathy for diverse experiences, and knowledge & enrichment of community resources. The potential provided by these assets are the ability to form and sustain positive relationships, and broker meaningful interactions among peers and others within and beyond school.

The authors discuss the use of cognates as a strategy for vocabulary instruction. Briefly describe at least one activity found in the chapter that explains how to use cognates for instruction.

One activity asked the students to read a passage and each time they read a word they recognize as a word in their native language, they place a sticky note by that word and write the word in their native language that is similar. Once they have completed the reading, they compile all of the terms that had sticky notes and create a chart comparing the words in English and their native language.

Reread over Figure 1: Literacy Instruction and Support Planning Tool. Write down at least two observations you have regarding this instrument

One observation I had when looking over figure 1 was the emphasis on setting realistic and attainable goals. For ID students, it can be an easy, umbrella method to set really high literacy goals and expect them to achieve it. If a student is severely struggling with reading in sixth grade, it is unrealistic to have them reading at an eighth grade level by the end of the year (or even a sixth grade reading level, depending on the severity of the case). The second observation I made was how personal and attentive this tool is. I know that's the goal of a tool like this, but I especially loved how it talked about utilizing professional development and the student's family.

Explain how the Bilingual Education Act, NCLB, and ESSA have contributed to education of English Language Learners in the United States.

One of the first federal initiatives taken for ELs was introduced by Texas Senator Yarborough in 1968. He introduced the Bilingual Education Act, which allowed federal funding for EL programs for students ages 3-8. It was amended in 1974 after Lau V. Nichols, "The Supreme court ruled that providing students who do not understand English with the same facilities, teachers, curriculum, and resources does not constitute equality of treatment," (pg. 6). Then in 1974 Congress released the Equal Educational Opportunities Act. "It defined what constitutes a denial of equal educational opportunity and required districts to provide special programs," (pg 7). The Bilingual Education Act was expanded by the No Child Left Behind Act. This, "proposed that school success should be based on performance measures from standardized tests," (pg 7). The goal was to create grade level proficiency with incentives of federal funding to public schools that took part in state tests. It also required Title I schools to make adequate yearly progress as shown on the tests. The Every Student Succeeds Act replaced the No Child Left Behind Act. It was created to "focus on high academic standards," (pg 8) and "focuses on ELs, students living in poverty, and students with learning disabilities, but it allows each state to determine how they can meet each of the requirements," (pg 8). It increased funding for programs that were seen to be meeting needs. Overall, each of these programs focused on creating equal opportunities for students in various ways.

Provide at least two reasons why linguists and psychologists oppose the whole language approach to reading.

One study conducted by linguists used phonics instruction on half of their students, and the other half used the whole language approach. While both groups spent the same amount of time on reading, had the same measures of intelligence and language maturity, and had the same socioeconomic profiles, the students who partook in phonics instruction ended up scoring higher on the end of the year reading and comprehension tests. Psychologists claim that the process of mentally sounding out words is an integral part of silent reading, even for highly skilled readers. Due to this, learning phonics is important for beginners. A study showed two groups learning Arabic, with one group learning the phonemes associated with the letters, and the other group learned entire words. The readers who learned the phonetics were able to read more new words than the latter group.

In the first section, titled Instruction, the authors indicate four different strategies teachers can use for critical engagement with the material (e.g., Open-Ended and Higher-Order Questions, Reading Against the Grain, Text-to-Text/Text-to-Self-and Text-to-World, Project-Based Learning). Select one (or more) of these strategies and explain how a teacher might then differentiate said strategy to make it relevant for students who read below grade level proficiency, who read at grade level proficiency, and who read above grade level proficiency.

Open-Ended and High Order Questions: Below: The instructor may word the question using simple and clear vocabulary, making the question specific enough so it's understood but still open-ended. A question posed to this group may not be as abstract as one posed to other groups, depending on if the students are dependent or independent learners. At: The instructor may word the question using target or grade-level vocabulary, making the question specific enough so it's understood but still open-ended. Students may be asked to provide anecdotal or paraphrased evidence or documentation to support their answers. Above: The instructor may word the question using more vague or abstract vocabulary, while also making the question extremely open-ended, which offers a challenge. Students may be asked to provide specific evidence or documentation to support their answers. These questions will work to have students research or hypothesize a concept.

Explain the connection between students' knowledge of vocabulary and the term "lexicon." Describe the various elements that make up a student's lexicon.

Oral Lexicon is "their knowledge of the meaning of words" (pg 76) Mental filing cabinet for words "Depth of understanding of words, and how these words may connect to background knowledge, experiences and other words within the lexicon" (pg 76). For example the way a child understands what the word dog means. Later in life one can add onto that meaning by understanding that there are different kinds of dogs.

Identify the subcomponents of oral language development that facilitates communication in the English language.

Oral language development begins from a young age and often occurs within the home. Conversations between family members scaffold and expand upon vocabulary, building up vocabulary while also presenting it in a dialogic context. Children use this primary learning to link words and create a rough syntactical structure in their mind. The subcomponents of oral language help build rich and diverse vocabulary that students will be able to use correctly in context. While some homes may use the native language, conversation is a crucial skill that will allow ELLs to use English in schools to expand upon their knowledge within dialogue.

In addition to reader characteristics, what are other factors that impact comprehension? Explain.

Other factors that affect comprehension: Text propertiesDifficulty level, content, genre, sentence structure, text structure Instructional contextPurpose for reading, goals for instruction, teacher expectations, instructional environment Researchers approach to promote comprehension"(1) preteaching activities designed to activate prior knowledge; (2) systematic questioning about key parts of text, with feedback; (3) teaching specific strategies, such as looking for clues and thinking aloud; (4) self-questioning; and (5) using graphic organizers." Each of the methods above combine multiple aspects of comprehension. This can help students connect the dots between their background knowledge and the new information they are receiving. It can also help students develop multiple angles of skills to grow their comprehension and not rely on one aspect.

Briefly outline the stages for spelling.

PAGE 172 and 173: Henderson (1981) Preliterate: begins with child using any writing tool (example: scribbling) Letter-name spelling/alphabetic: begins with awareness of letter-sound correspondence (phonetic spelling) Within-word pattern: individual understands phonics and reading. (correct spelling) Syllable juncture: knowledge of spelling rules and syllable patterns (example: correct spelling of mitten or glass) Derivational principles: knowledge of word parts, roots and word origin (example: origin of the word Kilogram) PAGE 173 and 174: Gentry (1982) Precommunicative: no letter-sound correspondence (example: pencil spelled npls) Semiphonetic: emerging letter-sound correspondence (example: pencil spelled pesl) Phonetic: basic phonetic knowledge (example: pencil spelled pensel) Transitional: phonetic knowledge and previous experience with words using sound structure to gain morphological knowledge (example pencils spelled pensils) Correct Stages of Spelling: understanding of rules and patterns (example: pencil spelled correctly)

Describe the research findings that authors have agreed on with regard to reading comprehension.

PAGE 97 - THESE ARE READER CHARACTERISTICS - comprehension: - student needs to make sense of language in a text- word recognition skills critical - these skills should happen early on - reader's construction coherent representation of text in memory - ability to infer- phonological awareness Difficulty with oral language skills"Syntactic skills; relating to their understanding of sentence structure"Semantic SkillsVocab knowledge"Efficiency in accessing and retrieving that knowledge" Difficulty with metacognitive skillsComprehension monitoring"Knowledge of different genres of text and text structure" Difficulty with cognitive skillsWorking memory

Then, go back and explain how a deficit in phonological awareness, phonological retrieval, phonological memory, and phonological production can specifically limit, or lower, a student's ability to comprehend a text.

PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS If a student has a deficit in the area of phonological awareness, they can have difficulties in quickly and easily decoding printed words. Students will suffer the consequences of not being able to manipulate and pronounce the speech sounds in words, thus slowing them down as they read which can cause their comprehension to suffer as they struggle with pronouncing the words in front of them. PHONOLOGICAL RETRIEVAL Students that struggle with phonological retrieval deficits have issues with comprehension for a variety of reasons. Depending on the environment a student is in and the pressure they are under to provide something to others can cause a great deal of stress especially when they are having issues defining a word, object, etc. Some poor readers are described as having a "double deficit" where they have reading problems that go beyond decoding and include deficits in orthographic processing and fluency and severe reading disabilities than students with single deficits. PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY In phonological memory, skilled readers automatically activate these speech-sound memory codes that store verbal information. Poor readers are found to have difficulty activating these codes, thus creating further problems for textual comprehension as they are reading. PHONOLOGICAL PRODUCTION Readers who have difficulty producing complex speech patterns will definitely have difficulty in textual comprehension. Research has found genetic links between phonological disorders and reading disabilities as a result of links between speech production and reading.

The chapter outlines four major language-based deficits that can contribute to a reading disability: phonological awareness, phonological retrieval, phonological memory, and phonological production. Describe each deficit in detail.

PHONOLOGICAL AWARENESS Phonological awareness is "the explicit awareness of the sound structure of speech... and one's ability to attend to, reflect on, or manipulate speech sounds in words" (CH4. pg. 94). Children and students who are aware of the sounds of speech are more quick and accurate to build word-letter correspondence knowledge and use that to decode printed words, according to K&C. Many children with reading disabilities (RD) are reported to have deficits in phonological awareness. These findings are suggestive that children with RD are likely expected to have deficits in phonological awareness. PHONOLOGICAL RETRIEVAL Phonological retrieval is described as word finding. Children with RD frequently have word-finding issues which include substitutions, circumlocutions, and overuse of words lacking specificity. The chapter expresses that the naming problems have more to do with difficulties in remembering phonological information than not knowing the words they are searching for. Students that were tested for phonological retrieval were shown images and asked to name the picture and if they were unable to name it, they were asked to describe or define it in their own words. This experiment showed more students with dyslexia utilizing the descriptive option over the definitive option often. PHONOLOGICAL MEMORY Phonological Memory, can also be called phonological coding, simply refers to the encoding and storage of phonological information in memory. Poor readers have been found to perform worse than good readers on tasks that assess memory-span and involve meaningful/non meaningful strings of verbal items. Research suggests that poor readers have problems using phonological memory codes to store verbal information. One interesting discovery is the difference between good readers and poor readers with rhyming and nonrhyming words. Good readers have more difficulty recalling rhyming words as there is confusion caused by memory codes being activated. Poor readers recall rhyming words with more ease which suggests that they use memory codes to a far lesser extent than those good readers. PHONOLOGICAL PRODUCTION Phonological production can be defined as speech production. Individuals that have difficulty producing complex phonological sequences is due partly to phonological memory.

Briefly define and describe characteristics of phonological awareness, using information from this chapter.

Phonological awareness can be defined as "the ability to hear and work with the parts of words and language," including the ability to "count the words in a sentence, to segment words into syllables, to orally blend syllables in order to pronounce words, and to hear the onset...in a spoken word" (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 12). We use phonological awareness to hear, and it can be used to help render rhymes. Skill in phonological awareness has been linked to higher scores in comprehension, according to an NELP study conducted in 2009. Phonological awareness develops "within and across stages of reading development as students learn to access more print" (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 13). As a result, we find instruction in phonological awareness to be administered to younger readers still in early literacy skills.

Explain the relationship between phonological awareness and ELL students?

Phonological awareness can sometimes transfer from one language to another, this is a theory called unified competition theory. Students can have positive and negative transfers. "Positive transfer is when knowledge of the native language benefits progression in the second language," (pg.49)."Negative transfer is when knowledge of the native language results in errors in the second language," (pg, 49).

Briefly describe the following three elements: phonology, morphology and syntax. How do the three work together to make up language form?

Phonology is the way a language sounds, or its sound system, morphology is the structure of the words of a language, and syntax refers to the grammar of a language. Phonology contributes to the form of a language by providing the individual phonemes needed to make words. Without letters and their corresponding sounds, written language would not exist. Morphology is a big component of language form because it models how the words themselves are structures. This includes the use of prefixes and suffixes as well as the meanings they bring. Syntax is a contributor of language form in the way it orders the placement of words in a sentence. Words cannot simply be placed in any random order or else language would not be able to convey any logical meaning. When words are arranged in a way that listeners can understand, then the language form is on point.Phonology is the way a language sounds, or its sound system, morphology is the structure of the words of a language, and syntax refers to the grammar of a language. Phonology contributes to the form of a language by providing the individual phonemes needed to make words. Without letters and their corresponding sounds, written language would not exist. Morphology is a big component of language form because it models how the words themselves are structures. This includes the use of prefixes and suffixes as well as the meanings they bring. Syntax is a contributor of language form in the way it orders the placement of words in a sentence. Words cannot simply be placed in any random order or else language would not be able to convey any logical meaning. When words are arranged in a way that listeners can understand, then the language form is on point.

Briefly define and describe the five parameters of language, outlined in the chapter.

Phonology- rules that govern how sounds are sequenced and placed in language; phonetic rules Semantics- word meaning and word combinations; lexical (individual meaning) and relational (between words) Morphology- (grammatical morphemes) specific grammatical and pragmatic functions that convey meaning Syntax- sentences, phrases, and clauses rules Pragmatics- language within a specific context

These authors indicate that a student's reading accuracy and speed is developed through improvement in... Finish this statement. Then, elaborate on your response.

Practice, practice, practice. Students need to be able to build on the foundational skills that they have. This can be done by starting with a reading at the students reading level. The teacher can have students participate in echo reading, where the teacher reads and then they read. The student will be able to build up their confidence and reading ability as they hear the words and repeat them. They can continue to reread this selected reading until they are confident. The student can then read another reading that is at their level. As they gain confidence working up to the next reading level. Students may also practice with partner reading or choral reading as a way to build confidence and practice their reading. As people spend more time reading they become more comfortable and can grow in their reading fluency.

Explain the relationship between pragmatics and oral language.

Pragmatics refer to the use of a language, specifically intent of communication, codes/styles of communication in varying contexts, and the social rules for conversation and written language. For elementary students, this is an important thing that is directly tied to oral language. This is because at younger ages, students may have more difficulty expressing emotions, and so guiding them through instruction that will build their pragmatics will greatly benefit them.

What are the four main phases of word recognition acquisition?

Prealphabetic phase: The earliest phase where a child can understand that text can be understood as a language, but they do not undersound word sounds and phonemes in order to actually read. Partial alphabetic phase: This phase is where children can begin understanding the relationship that words and sounds have with one another. However, these kids do not have a full understanding of the alphabet and therefore cannot recognize or sound out words. Full alphabetic phase: Students finally have the full understanding of the relationship between letters and sounds and can apply that knowledge to reading and spelling. Consolidated alphabetic phase: This phase is where the ability to consolidate letter-sound knowledge on a larger scale is developed (i.e. syllables, reading larger words, and remembering more words).

5 Stages of Language Acquisition Theory:

PreproductionEarly ProductionSpeech EmergenceIntermediate FluencyAdvanced FluencyIt is important to recognize that these stages are flexible, meaning students can move in and out of these stages at varying rates. The movement from stage to stage depends highly on a student's L1 literacy level. If a student has a high level of literacy in their L1, they should progress from each stage rather quickly and smoothly. Additionally, the more a teacher is aware of the stage a student is in, the better the teacher can compose literacy lessons to support the student's comprehension and engagement.

Tip 3 indicates the importance for providing explicit, systematic reading instruction. This type of instruction is important for all students, but explain why it is especially important for students with disabilities. Be sure to pull specific support from the text.

Providing explicit and systematic reading instruction is especially important for students with disabilities because for so long many teachers' instructions have been chaotic and disorganized. These students deserve to have a quality education, and one way to do that is by having one set reading program as a basework for instruction, and then adding on other things on top of it. Having the firm foundation of scaffolding, explicit models, corrective feedback, and reinforcement is necessary to build an adequate reading instruction for ID students.

Briefly describe the four types of visually-based deficits identified in the chapter. Then, explain how each one could contribute to a potential reading disability.

REVERSAL ERRORS: These are when one is reading/writing b for d or was for saw There are few studies about the subject and it is not found often in children with RD. This can be found in many early readers and goes away as they get older. For those with RD it may be a problem with remembering the order that the letters are written in rather than perceiving letter sequence. ERRATIC EYE MOVEMENTS: This has to do with the saccades which are the rapid eye jerks that occur in reading. The difficulties with this could be cognitive rather than oculomotor control. The text says that most agree "that oculomotor exercises, and behavioral optometry in general, have little to offer in the treatment of reading disabilities." SCOTOPIC SENSITIVITY SYNDROME: This is a visual-perception condition that is the result of an oversensitivity to particular frequencies of light. The problems attributed to this include perceptual distortions, reduced visual field, poor focus, eyestrain, and/or headaches. It was at one point said colored eyeglass lenses or tinted plastic overlays may work to eliminate troublesome wavelengths of light to reduce symptoms, but studies show that this is not really proven to work. It is unclear if children with RD have a higher incidence of SSS than nondisabled readers or if SSS is a cause of RD or an associated problem. TRANSIENT PROCESSING DEFICITS: Seems to be especially sensitive to global visual features and is thought to play an important role in guiding eye movement. Those with RD may have a sluggish transient processing system. This could disrupt parallel operation with the sustained system and might lead to visual distortion. Some say it is related to deficits on visual tasks and may occur with phonological processing deficits. Honestly though, it seems that nobody knows if this really is a problem or if it even affects reading.

Explain the difference between MTSS and RtI.

RTI is the Response to Intervention and MTSS is Multi-Tiered Systems of Support. MTSS is an example of a Response to Intervention. If a student needed RTI they could place them in MTSS to see if the student may need differentiated instruction.

An appropriate reading comprehension assessment should include the following seven aspects... Identify and define each one.

Read accurately and fluently. Relate text information to previously stored knowledge of the world and other texts. Recall, paraphrase, and provide the gist of the text. Use inferences to build cohesion and interpret texts. Construct literal, critical, and creative interpretations. Determine when comprehension is occurring or not occurring. Select and use appropriate fix-up strategies.

Briefly describe the three most common approaches to vocabulary instruction.

Reader-based instruction: emphasizes word parts and activities that analyze how these parts join together to make meaning. The teacher shows students how and when to use semantic and syntactic context clues and parts of speech to determine a word's meaning. It is useful to link the word parts of the English words to the ELLs native language. Interactive language learning: incorporates active engagement of students in determining vocabulary meaning before the reading through meaningful discussion and context. Direct instruction: providing students with academically enriching vocabulary experiences with terms not necessarily used outside of a classroom or specific academic setting.

Describe the specific roles of the reader and the text within the overarching theme of reading comprehension.

Readers have to have a wide range of capacities and abilities especially when we enter the realm of measuring comprehension. Cognitive capacities (attention, memory, critical analytic ability, inferencing, visualization ability), motivation (a purpose for reading, an interest in the content being read, self-efficacy as a reader), and various types of knowledge (vocabulary, domain and topic knowledge, linguistic and discourse knowledge, knowledge of specific comprehension strategies). Fluency occurs pre and post reading. The book describes it as a 'consequence' of reading. Fluency is present before and developed after. "As a reader begins to read and completes whatever activity is at hand, some of the knowledge and capabilities of the reader change. For example, a reader might increase domain knowledge during reading." Text features play a role in comprehension, especially as comprehension is not simply taking meaning from the reading but is also understanding the text and the features and context it was written in. "Texts can be difficult or easy, depending on factors inherent in the text, on the relationship between the text and the knowledge and abilities of the reader, and on the activities in which the reader is engaged. For example, the content presented in the text has a critical bearing on reading comprehension. A reader's domain knowledge interacts with the content of the text in comprehension. In addition to content, the vocabulary load of the text and its linguistic structure, discourse style, and genre also interact with the reader's knowledge."

What are the two main causes that are reflected in a reading disability?

Reading disabilities will often reflect a rate issue or an accuracy issue. A rate issue occurs when a student demonstrates "slow reading" (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 65). An accuracy issue occurs when a student has "many errors in his or her reading and that is contributing to the low score" (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 65). Rate and accuracy are key parts of reading fluency, so those with reading disabilities may struggle with fluency and word recognition, in turn struggling with comprehension and understanding.

Describe the specific roles of the activity and the context within the overarching theme of reading comprehension.

Reading occurs with a purpose or intent in mind, a feature referred to as activity. Activity can include "one or more purposes, some operations to process the text at hand, and the consequences of performing the activity. Prior to reading, a reader has a purpose, which can be either externally imposed (e.g., completing a class assignment) or internally generated (wanting to program a VCR)." Prior interest and knowledge can affect the purpose of reading, which can change as the reading process furthers. Readers approach text with regard to the purpose and use decoding and "higher-level linguistic and semantic processing and monitoring." The consequences of reading are part of the activity. Reading activities can lead to an increase in the knowledge a reader has. "Knowledge, application, and engagement can be viewed as direct consequences of the reading activity. Activities may also have other, longer-term consequences." The context of instruction is important for reading activities. We should understand "how the reader's purpose for reading and operations are shaped by instruction, and how short- and long-term consequences are influenced by instruction..." "According to Vygotsky (1978), with the guidance and support of an expert, children are able to perform tasks that are slightly beyond their own independent knowledge and capability. As they become more knowledgeable and experienced with the task, the support is withdrawn, and the children internalize the new knowledge and experiences they have acquired, which results in learning. From a sociocultural perspective, both the process (the ways the instruction is delivered and the social interactions that contextualize the learning experience) and the content (the focus of instruction) are of major importance." Contextual factors like economic resources, class membership, ethnicity, neighborhood, and school culture, can be seen in oral (spoken) language practices, as well as seen in students' self-concepts, the types of literacy activities in which they engage, in present and past instruction, and in the likelihood of successful outcomes. We must remember how important the classroom is in these contextual factors.

Out of recommendations 2 - 5, which recommendation do you believe is the most important to implement? Provide a rationale, with evidence from the reading, as to why you say this.

Recommendation 2 suggests providing small, focused groups for students requiring intervention. As we discuss differentiation, the idea of focused small groups becomes all the more important. Gersten writes that "the interventions should include the five core reading elements (phonological awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension). Explicit, direct instruction should be the primary means of instructional delivery" (p. 15). The focused small groups help target the specific issues in the five core reading elements and supplement what is lacking the most in students requiring intervention. Furthermore, this recommendation has strong evidence, based on "four high-quality randomized controlled trials at various sites" (p. 15). In two of these studies, it was found that this recommendation had lasting and longitudinal effects on reading performance, that persisted across their grade progression.

What does research say about fluency instruction? How does Samuels's Theory of Automaticity play into that instruction?

Research recommends that focusing on fluency development is important for intensive reading interventions. Samuels's theory of automaticity "has assisted many researchers in better understanding fluency" (59). The theory explains that "automatic word recognition is necessary to free up the cognitive resources for a reader to focus on text meaning" (59). So, students who struggle with reading would benefit from fluency instruction practices.

What is Samuels's Theory of Automaticity? Describe the theory using information from the chapter.

Samuel's Theory of Automaticity works to describe and explain how processing in reading occurs. It emphasizes decoding skills and accuracy as well as automaticity through word recognition, expression, and speed. It poses automaticity as a prerequisite to fluency, asking students to be confident, natural, and automatic readers before issues of prosody and speed are acknowledged. Once all three aspects are acknowledged, fluency can be successful and lead to reading comprehension.

What are the top five concerns that educators have when teaching vocabulary to ELL students? Why are these concerns?

Selecting proper vocabulary to teach CLD students. Identifying the most appropriate strategies to support vocab development. Knowing when to use the native language during vocabulary development. Determining appropriate vocabulary assessments based on students' levels of language proficiency. Navigating instruction within the sociopolitical climate of their current practice. These are concerns as the chapter describes vocabulary instruction as "one of the untapped resources for increasing the motivation, engagement, and learning of [ELL] students."

Identify and describe the 8 critical elements of language and reading comprehension instruction. Provide an example of an instructional approach for each of the 8 critical elements of language and reading comprehension.

Semantic Knowledge:"...involves vocabulary knowledge as well as ways to efficiently retrieve and use relevant vocabulary knowledge"For example, teachers can teach a vocabulary word explicitly through definitions or through connected related words and can further students understanding of this word through text exposure so they may view it in context. Syntactic Knowledge:Sentence structure and grammarFor example, to teach a student could be explicitly introduced to multiple sentences through either listening or reading that show students how words and phrases alter the sentence meaning. Explain this to students explicitly and then give them examples to work out on their own Knowledge of Text StructureCompare-contrast; cause-effectFor example, student will need instruction to be modeled, scaffolded, and guided practice before doing the work on their own. Begin by defining the type of text that you are looking at with the student. Then teach students the key words you may find in this type of text. Next, students can listen to or read a new example of this type of text and explain why it is this type of specific text. Prior KnowledgeThis is the current knowledge a student brings to reading a textFor example, at times information will need to be introduced before a text as necessary prior knowledge for the text. In order to bring up relevant previous knowledge teachers can review the structure of the text and asks students what they notice about the structure and how that may affect the text. InferencingStudents ability to "make connections among ideas in the text, or between the text and prior knowledge"For example, explicitly teach the definition of inference and how to infer in a text. Once students understand what is an inference you can read a text and the teacher can ask questions that will allow students to make inferences. Once students understand this they can use their prior knowledge of inferencing to do so in a text independently. Strategy UseLearning strategies or approaches such as questioning, retelling, summarizing, predicting, and monitoring comprehensionFor example, using the strategy PALS. Partner reading, retell, paragraph shrinking, and prediction relay. Students work together through a text in order to build comprehension skills. Metacognitive SkillsConnected to attention and memory. Students use their own abilities to monitor their comprehension abilities.For example, the use of self-regulated strategy development (SRSD). This uses explicit instruction, modeling, mnemonics, and scaffolding. Students begin by developing background and then they discuss the use a strategy, then they think aloud to model the approach, the students then memorize the approach, and support it using collaborative writing and guided practice. Lastly, student perform the work independently Cognitive ProcessesIt is debated on whether comprehension difficulty is related to cognitive processing. Some argue that direct training can improve this. Sometimes reducing the cognitive load can help students with comprehensionFor example, "(1) limit the amount of info presented at one time; (2) provide visual aids; (3) remove other cognitively taxing demands; and (4) teach memory strategies, such as mnemonics, rehearsal, clustering, and elaboration."

Then explain how you believe it would/wouldn't be effective in assisting instruction for students with disabilities. Include your observations in your response.

Setting realistic goals is helpful for ID students because it can help them feel much more capable of succeeding. If they are constantly given unrealistic goals and failing to reach them, their self-confidence and motivation is going to die down. Even setting smaller, easier goals alongside more difficult, yet still achievable goals can make all the difference for a student who is trying to learn despite their disabilities. Additionally, humbling yourself as a teacher and accepting the fact that you need professional help for a student is immensely effective. Sometimes as teachers we cannot provide what our ID student might need, and so giving them the professional help they deserve on top of your own instruction can make all the difference. Including the student's family in their instructional process can also add motivation. Family members can also provide further insight for the teacher that they might not have been able to see.

Describe at least two potential roadblocks and solutions as to why teachers may not screen for reading problems in the earlier grades

Some educators may follow the belief that reading problems in ELL will disappear once ELLs reach proficiency in English. Thus, they may stop themselves from referring the student for more intense intervention. However, there is no research supporting that reading problems in ELL are resolved once they learn English. English proficiency (or lack of it) is not the cause for reading problems. Phonics, letter recognition, and word reading are good testing measures to determine where a student stranded in relation to other students in their grade. The other roadblock could be that some teachers feel English testing is unfair to an ELL. If a student understands the task in their native language, they can still be tested in the realm of phonics and phonological processing. While phonics is a language skill it is also an auditory skill. Thus, it exists across language boundaries and can be fairly tested as long as the instructions and expectations are clear to the ELL.

What are some common errors found in sound development when students are transitioning from Spanish to English? According to content found in the chapter, what are a few (at least two) ways in which teachers can ease this transition?

Some letters that do not transition are the H in English is a J G (before i or e) sound in spanish. Diphthongs such as oy and au transfer into English. In order to teach these teachers can compare these letters and individually introduce these letters to students. This will show them that the same sounds exist in English with different letters to represent them. Letters such as the short vowel for A does not exist in Spanish or the long vowel iStudents can learn these phonemes by starting with words with two or three phonemes and then increase. "Students can listen, repeat, and blend sounds to form words," (pg. 57)

What are some spelling constraints that ELLs face? How do they hinder students from learning the language?

Spelling error patterns may include overgeneralization of native language concepts in English (pg 175)Represents problem-solving approach Examples in spanish: u as oo, gush as guch Students learning a second language may be surrounded by their native language outside of school. This can cause students to produce errors affected by more than those of a naitve English speaker (pg 179) "EL's will need to understand that multiple spellings for the same sound and many irregular words exist in English" (pg 180) "Common spelling errors for ELs include letters out of order; missing letters; additional letters, although all sound have been represented; incorrect letters that suggest difficulties with discriminating similar sounds; letters not doubled, dropped, or changed; and an overgeneralization of orthographic patterns or rules within the language or across languages" (pg 180)These students need immediate corrective feedback and explanation so that they do not continue to make these errors. ELLs need to be made aware and taught explicitly of irregularities, so that they do not continue to make errors

The authors conclude that children are not born "wired to read." Per the authors, how must children get "rewired?"

Starting point for reading is recognizing sounds not letters "Writing is a code humans invented to represent speech sounds." Children must be taught to crack this code.

What does it mean to say that students often use their Structural Knowledge of words in helping them to identify either a spoken and/or a written word? Be sure to include a couple of examples of structural cues provided in the chapter.

Structural Knowledge focuses on the cues readers use to define and comprehend text. These cues include "word order, grammatical morphemes, and function words such as relative pronouns, conjunctions, and modals." An example of using function words to segment sentences into constituents is: The pen that the author whom the editor liked used was new. The pen the author the editor liked used was new. Sentences like 2 gave readers more difficulty than 1 because it does not fit into the syntactic knowledge of segmentation most readers have.

Identify at least two positive rationales (per the article) for using the phonics approach to teaching reading.

Students are able to identify more new words because they are able to sound them out It establishes reading skills that students will use for a lifetime (they will encounter new words and have the ability to teach themselves how to read it properly, rather than as a whole word).

According to Cardenas-Hagan, there are six main strategies for building comprehension. Describe each one. Then, ask your group member who answered Question #3 from the Language and Reading Disabilities: Chapter 6 reading to compare his/her answers to yours. What did you notice?

Summarizing - readers gather the ideas of a text and use it to summarize the main ideas, plot, and major themes; readers will discriminate crucial parts of the story from the unnecessary ones Questioning - readers engage with the text by asking questions that go deeper than just understanding; they use this as a means to monitor comprehension, make predictions, and activate prior knowledge and context clues in an attempt to answer the questions; this creates a stream of dialogue for the reader as he or she reads; questioning also provides further analysis and research Story structure instruction - readers learn about the plan or structure of a text and the narrative elements of the reading; theme, problem, conflict, plot are taught; students then use this information to organize the text and distinguish events in the story, based on what contributes most to the major themes or ideas of the text Graphic and semantic organizer use - these are powerful tools that promote reading comprehension by asking readers to discern the most important details and ideas from the story; visual representations such as maps or diagrams will be used to organize this knowledge Cooperative learning - instructors structure students into small groups that rely on each other for success; the smaller group of individuals promotes dialogue and reading skills; students use each other for feedback and support Comprehension monitoring - students check in with themselves for understanding and work on solutions to any obstacles on that understanding; they use clarifying strategies such as context clues and rereading to work through difficult points of comprehension

Identify and describe the four recommendations for teaching effective comprehension practices to multilingual learners outlined in this chapter.

Teach specific academic vocabulary words for several days using various activities that hone in on writing, speaking, listening, or reading skills Teach in a way that incorporates oral and written language, specific to the content area being instructed Written language skills are taught in regular and structured in instruction that offer opportunities to promote the writing skill Small group instruction can be differentiated to provide specific intervention to the group of students struggling with language development

CLD students read a varying levels of linguistic proficiency. How can a teacher identify a CLD student's proficiency level and then use this information to support his/her literacy development? Be sure to include key information from the chapter.

Teachers can create Academic Literacy Profiles. Students are able to fill out the profile to let the teacher know how they feel they are doing academically. Teachers may also do home visits or talk with parents at conferences. Teachers can use this information to find culturally relevant texts. Teachers can then adjust what they are teaching the student accordingly. The thing to be considered is that a student may be exceeding academically in their first language. In order to keep students engaged while learning English, they need to be provided ways to stay challenged academically.

Describe the types of variability that can occur within the text, the activity, and the context in which reading comprehension occurs. Then, explain how each of these types of variability can affect a student's overall ability to comprehend.

Texts should become more complex as readers' capacities grow and the various genres and subject matters create varying challenges for readers. These vary in: Discourse genre ( narration, description, exposition, and persuasion) Discourse structure (rhetorical composition and coherence) Media forms (textbooks, multimedia, advertisements, hypertext and the Internet) Sentence difficulty (vocabulary, syntax, and the propositional text base) Content (different types of mental models, cultures, and socioeconomic strata; age-appropriate selection of subject matter; and the practices prominent in the culture.) Texts with varying degrees of engagement. Text assignments become more difficult as alternative texts grow in both number and diversity. The assignment of texts should balance a student's interest in the subject, the student's level of reading development, the particular challenges the student faces, the goals of the curriculum, and the availability of texts. Many instructional activities can improve comprehension. A major issue is how infrequent and ineffective the instructional activities focused on teaching comprehension are. Successful comprehension can be chardefined acterized by "considerable variability in a reader's reliance on the various operations involved in reading: concentrating on the task at hand, reading words, reading fluently, parsing syntactically, constructing a propositional text base, constructing mental models, generating inferences, monitoring comprehension, and using deep comprehension strategies. Each operation reflects specific reader capacities and, at the same time, is facilitated or impeded by the features of the text being read." It is the variation in consequences that is of the most importance. Some classroom-structured reading activities generate important changes in the reader's capacity to comprehend an array of texts and to function as a self-regulated reader. Others may focus more exclusively on improving students' comprehension of the specific text under consideration. The degree to which the quality of instruction in reading varies between schools serving "economically secure, English-speaking, European-American families and those serving economically marginalized families and families from other ethnic and linguistic groups" is worrisome. Outcomes vary in reading comprehension, like instruction and learning, and are linked to sociocultural contexts.

Explain the Conceptual Model of Literacy and how it is a framework for helping students with severe disabilities learn to read.

The Conceptual Model of Literacy was designed to help bring the most positive and effective literacy instruction for students who are intellectually disabled. The reading discussed two literacy goals: (increasing access to literature and increasing students' independence as readers (Lemons, et al.). For the first goal, it focuses on making sure students have adequate access to literature, like adapted books, extra time to be exposed to literature, easily accessible literacy, etc. The second goal focuses on how a student's "instructional emphasis" will alter as time goes on and the student begins to improve. For example, learning how to read would be more of an elementary focus, and reading comprehension would be more of a secondary grade focus.

In the section titled Instruction, the authors indicate four different strategies teachers can use for cooperative and collaborative learning (e.g., Jigsaw, Numbered Heads Together, and Inside-Outside Discussion Circles). Select one (or more) of these strategies and explain how a teacher might then differentiate said strategy to make it relevant for students who read below grade level proficiency, who read at grade level proficiency, and who read above grade level proficiency.

The Numbered Heads Together strategy is one that can work well for differentiation. Since the basis of this strategy is to have each group "put their heads together" to figure out a question, one way to differentiate would be by splitting groups so that each group has a student from each proficiency level. That way the above grade level students can help the ones who are struggling. Depending on the type of class, however, this may not work if the more proficient students are just giving the answers away. Another way to differentiate would be to give the below grade level students several note cards with key words and hints to help guide their thinking process once the teacher poses their question. The grade level students can receive one card containing some kind of key word or hint, and then the above grade level students will receive no hints.

Describe the four different types of English Language Learner Program Development Models.

The U.S. Department of Education created English Learner program models in 2016. The first one is English as a second language or English language development. It is taught in English with the goal of teaching academic vocab to students. The second is the Structured English Immersion. It is taught mostly in English to develop English language skills to transition into the general classroom. The third is the Transitional Bilingual Education (early-exit bilingual education). It is used to develop and maintain skills in the students native language with hopes to facilitate transition to all-English instruction. Lastly, is the Dual Language or Two-Way Immersion. This is instruction in both languages in split classrooms where there are 50% students of one language and 50% of the other language.

Why do these authors believe that schools should avoid differentiation based on perceived learning styles? Be sure to include clear support from this article.

The article discusses the review of research in the Psychological Science in the Public Interest that shows a lack of evidence to use learning style assessments and education approaches. They also mention that there is no research that shows positive impacts to this form of instruction. This includes instruction based on the theory of multiple intelligence's. They encourage use of the multi-tiered system of support as a use for differentiated instruction. (pg 9)

When teaching a phonics skill to ELL students, what additional considerations (apart from what was previously identified in question number one) should a teacher consider? Be sure to explain how they relate to effective phonics instruction for ELLs.

The chapter identifies special considerations regarding oral language proficiency, vocabulary, background knowledge, and attention to addressing new sounds of the language as beneficial for English Learners. Oral language proficiency is how well a student can express themselves verbally using the language they are acquiring. A student who has difficulty speaking English is most likely having similar difficulties reading and writing the language. In order for these students to become more fluent in their language reading/writing/listening, it is important for them to practice fluency in speaking. Vocabulary is similarly important for ELs. Those who have an understanding of basic word definitions will have a better time of comprehending the language than students who do not have a strong English vocabulary. Background knowledge is useful for students because it gives them a "leg-up"- so-to-speak in their language acquisition and supports their learning as they can grasp new concepts with more ease. Finally, attention to addressing new sounds of the language is also helpful to ELs by giving them stronger grapho-phonemic knowledge and will support them as they learn to read and speak in the new language.

What are a few ways in which teachers can build on CLD students' existing cognitive assets in order to promote literacy development?

The cognitive dimension describes how students know, think about, and apply information. This dimension explores the relationship between known language proficiency and applied literacy skills. Educators of CLD students who build off existing cognitive assets teach learning strategies that promote cognitive academic language skills that CLD students need to understand grade level texts and academic concepts. Educators also encourage the maintenance of native language skills in order to promote cognitive development.

Identify and describe the four critical elements that should be included when teaching phonological/phonemic awareness.

The critical elements when teaching phonological and phonemic awareness is instruction on pronouncing, blending, segmenting, and manipulating sounds. Research suggests that "the scope and sequence within these elements will generally reflect this sound structure of the English language" (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 15). Fluent pronunciation will further develop oral language skills as well as word reading and spelling. It should be noted that students with reading disabilities may be more prone to errors in systematic pronunciation instruction. Pronunciation instruction is based on memorizing sounds as they are heard. Blending is defined as "coarticulating sound to pronounce a word" and segmenting is defined as "pronouncing sounds within words, phrases, or sentences" (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 17). Word manipulation occurs when a student is able to change or move the phonemes in a word in ways they can still comprehend.

What are the five reasons in which students may not be able to hear, pronounce, or manipulate spoken sounds?

The first reason is that many students with language and/or speech delays may not be able to produce sounds that match what they hear in a word. The second reason is that phonological processing "involves working memory and attention" which may pose a challenge to students with "poor self-regulation, limited working memory, or attention deficits." The third reason is that some students will enter school with a limited vocabulary that can be due to a "very limited exposure to books" and other forms of language. The fourth reason is that some of our students will be ELLs and "some of the English language's alphabetical structural aspects may not transfer to their first language." The fifth reason is that some students may have phonological processing deficits, which can be specific reading disabilities such as dyslexia. (Wanzek et al., 2020, p. 14-15).

The article identifies five key findings related to differentiated instruction. Briefly describe each finding here. You must restate them in your own words, directly quoting the article.

The first strategy states that differentiated instruction should include diverse groupings so that each individual student's needs are met. If each student is placed in a group of similar proficiency levels, then the teacher can really focus on each student's needs. This would not be easy if a student who was immensely struggling with reading was put into a group with someone above grade level. MTSS and differentiated instruction go hand in hand with one another. While they cover different areas of instruction, they can still support one another. While differentiated instruction focuses on targeting students' specific needs and accommodating them, MTSS frameworks "focus on providing more intensive support to students who do not respond to effective Tier I instruction" (Hanover Research, 2018). Differentiated can be used to help these students who do not respond well to Tier I, and they should definitely try differentiated instruction before moving into another intervention. This strategy discusses how teachers need to be properly educated on differentiated instruction in order to properly and effectively use it in their classrooms. "Some schools use professional learning communities" to help educate their teachers and provide them with opportunities to collaborate on how differentiated instruction would look for them (Hanover Research, 2018). This strategy says that it is key for teachers to undergo observations on how they implement differentiated instruction in their classrooms so that they can improve. It can be helpful to "combine classroom observations with teacher evaluations" so that they can also address their needs for developing as teachers (Hanover Research, 2018). This last strategy addressed the importance of assessments for differentiated instruction. Teachers can perform various assessments in order to determine where their students are struggling, as well as their "ability to learn course content and match instructional strategies to each students' level of readiness" (Hanover Research, 2018). With the MTSS process, progress-monitoring is required and should be noted by the teacher when they are assessing their students. Teachers can take the information from their assessments, along with what they know personally about their students interests, and use them to differentiate the class.

Identify and describe the four critical elements that should be included when teaching fluency.

The four critical elements of reading fluency instruction are: Modeling - provide a standard of the accuracy, rate, and expression expected for fluent reading (i.e., when teachers read aloud passages or books). Repeated Reading - fluency practice consisting of multiple readings of the same passage until a fluent level is reached. Goal Setting - cognitive processing strategy that assists students in making learning gains. Students or their teachers can make fluency goals to work towards like reading a certain amount of words correctly in a specific amount of time (and increasing as they go). Opportunities for Wide Reading - giving students a variety of texts and topics to read. This may improve reading ability, especially when given with instructional support.

Identify and define the four fundamental domains of literacy. Identify and define the five fundamental elements of literacy. Then, explain how each of these factors work together in aiding an ELL student in learning literacy outside of their native language.

The four fundamental domains of literacy are: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. These fundamental literacies are tools that each student must master in any language they are learning. Each domain builds off of another and is necessary to learn the next; they are dependent on each other to allow for growth. The five fundamental elements of literacy are: phonics, phonemic awareness, vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency. These elements are necessary for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse students (CLDs) to acquire in order for them to effectively learn in an english-speaking classroom. The domains of literacy occur more overtly in a classroom, while the elements of literacy are less obvious, but just as present. Basically, these literacy elements occur within the literacy domains. Whether a student is actively speaking, listening, reading, or writing, they are utilizing each element in order to perform those skills. ELL students will need to understand the five elements in order to become proficient as they learn English.

According to the chapter, what are the four key elements a teacher should consider when providing a lesson on phonics? How do they enhance phonics understanding?

The four key elements a teacher should consider when providing a lesson on phonics are: Letter Recognition: the ability to correctly identify and name the letters of the alphabet. Grapho-phonemic Knowledge: the ability to articulate the correct sound(s) associated with each letter and symbol. Decoding: the ability to translate a word from print to speech, employing grapho-phonemic knowledge and stable patterns; aka: sounding out words. Morphological Awareness: the ability to understand that smaller meaning units known as morphemes exist within many words. These four key elements work together by supporting and building off of one another to enhance phonics instruction for students.

What is dyslexia? Be sure to include information regarding what is "at the core" of dyslexia.

The literal meaning of Dyslexia is "difficulty with words." But as it started being applied to reading struggles it was applied to students who made reversal (b/d) or sequencing errors (was/saw). However, these are very broad terms, and students who have dyslexia tend to struggle with more than one error.

Explain how progress monitoring helps both the teacher and the ELL track development and progress in phonics and the related skills.

The purpose of progress monitoring is to "determine the effectiveness of instruction that has been provided to the student and to adjust instruction based on student progress and/or devise more effective programs for students not benefitting from the program provided." In terms of ELs, progress monitoring can assist both the students and the teachers understand how the student is progressing in their language acquisition. The chapter describes ways to progress monitor students in the skills described: letter-sound knowledge, grapho-phonemic knowledge, decoding, and morphological awareness. English Learners should have their progress checked more frequently than the typical student so that the teacher can make adjustments quickly if issues arise or increase the level of difficulty/ease if the student shows a need for it.

Explain how the systematic observation process is pertinent to assessing a student's literacy understanding and skill?

The systematic observation process allows teachers to gather information on early literacy skills and understanding while also acting as a progress monitoring tool. The observation process takes information on "(a) print concepts, (b) letter identification, (c) word test, (d) writing, (e) a dictation task, and (f) a running record" (Clay, 1993). Once this information is collected, necessary accommodations can be made to cater to the specific student's needs. This observation provides us with information to influence how we assess our students.

The authors assert that the term reading disability should not be used to refer to all children who have problems in learning to read. Why do they say this?

The term reading disability is an incredibly broad statement, and it should not be used for all students struggling to read. This is because some students may just take a little slower to learn, but that does not necessarily mean that they have a reading disability. Also, students who struggle in reading because they do not have quality instruction should not be considered in the reading disabled category. Additionally, students who have visual impairments or are intellectually limited should not be referred to as being disabled when it comes to reading.

Kamhi indicates that most definitions of reading comprehension focus on just the process of comprehension. However, he supports the notion that comprehension is composed of three different elements. Identify the three elements and how a break down in ONE of the elements can prevent comprehension.

The three elements of comprehension are accurate word-level decoding, a process that integrates inferences and information not in the text with text information to construct meaning, and the importance of an active, engaged reader. As a result, there are three key factors that contribute to successful comprehension: reader abilities, text factors, and the comprehension task that measures the products of comprehension. Focusing in on reader abilities, Kamhi discusses how comprehension can decrease when students do not have motivation or interest in what they are reading. When students are reading texts that interest them, they are more likely to try and understand that text. Kamhi also discussed how gender seems to play a role in comprehension. Boys were found to be more likely to not comprehend a text they had no interest in, wheras girls had the same levels of comprehension no matter the text choice. Overall, when students have an interest or greater purpose for what they are reading, they are more likely to comprehend, or at least try to comprehend what they are reading. Selecting relevant texts and event providing students with varying options of texts are different methods of upholding students' interests.

Briefly describe the three models of literacy instruction for monolingual English-speaking students. Then, based on your understanding of the three models, identify and justify the model that you believe is the most effective in teaching literacy. Be sure to provide evidence from the chapter.

The three most prevalent research-based reading process models are: bottom-up, top-down, and interactive. Each of these models present a specific theoretical framework that explains how monolingual English-speaking children learn to read. The chapter explains that "educators select models that reflect their beliefs about the reading process and the readers' role in the process and how reading instruction is contextualized in daily literacy instruction." Bottom-up reading is described as students learning how to decode and identify symbols as they are reading. Educators look at this process as a set of steps that students must take in order to become literate/achieve literacy. "Series of skills to be mastered in a sequential order..." Top-down reading is described as "reading begins at the schema level and works down to the letter level," making this the opposite process from the bottom-up process. Students master literacy from a large idea to a small element process. The interactive model came about as researchers decided that the bottom-up and top-down models don't completely and accurately describe the reading process. Basically, this process recognizes both other processes and allows students to learn from both part-to-whole and whole-to-part. In my understanding of each of these models, I would say that the interactive model is the most effective as it brings together the elements of the two other models as they are both legitimate and shouldn't be completely distinct from each other when it comes to students' literacy learning.

Explain the difference between the following two intrinsic causes that could affect a student's reading comprehension: genetic basis vs.neurological basis.

There are studies that show familial relationships to disabled readers. This does not mean that they are likely to develop a reading disorder, rather that the likelihood of having one is higher. Studies showed that genetic factors related to phonological awareness, rapid naming, and verbal memory. The general pattern showed gene influence with the initial level of performance in kindergarten, but shared environmental influences for growth between kindergarten and second grade. In contrast, the neurological basis seems to have to do with differing structures of the brain rather than the DNA involved for genetics. The individual difference in neurological development, not deficits, are associated with developmental reading disability. Further studies needed to be conducted to see if the results of disabled readers are as a result of the brain structure or come from how we learn to read.

In the previous chapter, you read about the roles of the reader, text, activity, and context. Each of these elements also experience variability (the lack of a consistent pattern). Describe the four types of variability within the role of the reader.

There is variability in skills such as fluency, word recognition, oral language ability, and domain knowledge, alongside variability in the reader's motivation, goals, and purposes. These variables interact with the reader and text to help determine levels of performance. Sociocultural influences - an awareness of how members of particular discourse communities construct their identities as readers (through their ways of behaving, interacting, valuing, thinking, believing, speaking, reading, and writing) is one important step in understanding variability in readers Group differences - to some extent group differences depend on sociocultural and linguistic sources of variability; effective instruction for ethnic and racial groups who are traditionally ill served in U.S. schools help identify how to better serve certain groups Inter-individual differences - "Individual children vary in their reading comprehension abilities, and variability in reader characteristics may partially account for these differences. Thus, the differential development of a variety of capabilities and dispositions supporting reading comprehension may lead to patterns of relative strengths and weaknesses that are directly related to variations in reading comprehension outcomes". Another important variable is self-perception of one's own reading skills. Intra-individual differences - Students differ in how diverse their reading abilities and interests are. Patterns of strength/weakness in the realms of "word-reading accuracy, fluency, comprehension strategies, vocabulary, domain knowledge, interest, and motivation can lead to performances that vary as a function of the characteristics of the text and of the task being engaged in."

Why do the authors believe that students with dyslexia "suffer most" when they are not taught code-based instruction?

These students struggle making the connection between sounds and letters. If these students in particular are not given instruction that gives them a chance to fully understand these connections they are always going to struggle to read.

How did the teachers in the Bethlehem school district start to differentiate their phonics instruction? Why do you believe that this was their decision? Use support from the article/podcast.

They are now mixing teacher-direct whole-class phonics lessons with small-group activities. There was push back in the beginning because the curriculum is explicit and systematic. Using the science that proves that phonics works the district was forced to reevaluate their teaching methods. When the class takes the time to learn the sounds all together the class is then all on the same page. Then using the small group activities teachers can focus on the varying factors that are causing students to struggle. This also allows time for the students who are doing well to continue advancing in their reading practice

A reading disability was originally defined as any student whose "performance on a reading achievement test (word recognition or reading comprehension) was at least two standard deviations below normal" (Kahmi & Catts, 2012, p. 50). Using the information in the chapter to guide you, explain what the above statement means within your own words.

This is essentially a massive blanket statement. The term "reading disability" is rather vague, especially since there are many different types of learning disabilities that are all impacted or affected by different parts of a person. To say that someone has a learning disability because they are two levels behind is not accurate because a student could be falling behind for other reasons, such as their personal life or their motivation towards school.

The authors identify the term: assistive technology device. In your own words, explain what this is and how it might be used to differentiate learning for a student who has a severe disability in your class learn to read.

This term, assistive technology device, is defined by The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities" (Section 300.5). Essentially, this is a technology or device that can improve or assist the lifestyle and quality of living for individuals with disabilities. Students can use these devices to progress their literary skills in a variety of ways. The most straightforward way is that it allows them to perceive and process closer to how a typically developing student would. For example, hearing aids can help a deaf student better their listening skills and reach the expected proficiency levels. Students with severe disabilities can use assistive technology to not only bridge gaps but also to supplement reading and intervention in a way that caters to their life and personal struggles. Allowing a student to use such a device may listed on their IEP or may be something given to help differentiate instruction within the classroom.

Describe three different strategies for differentiating instruction specifically outlined in the Differentiated Instruction section of this brief. How do the strategies outlined here align with what we have discussed thus far this semester?

Tiered Strategies - this strategy utilizes different groups or levels of learning, which has students interacting with the same type of work but with different levels of proficiencies or expectations. Incorporation of Multiple Modalities - this strategy has an instructor using different learning types to cater to different types of learners; students then learn the same material in different ways, with the hope that the different instructional processes can increase their specific level of understanding Use of Technology to Support Different Learning Styles and Language Needs - this strategies' utilizes technology and multimedia tools to cater to students' specific needs and learning styles, customizing the instruction for them. Technology can provide the same information or reading but in different formats and contexts that help the students' individual needs These strategies highlight the ways in which we can differentiate while still having students learning the same things. While we typically focus on tiered strategies in the class, the other strategies can be especially helpful for longer projects or assessments. In differentiating instruction through these strategies, we ensure that students meet the same learning strategies and goals even if they have to receive the instruction or assignment in various ways.

After reading through each of the tips, identify and describe the one that you believe would be the most beneficial in teaching students who've been identified with disabilities.

Tip 6, called Remember that Language Abilities are the Underlying Foundation for Reading Skills is most beneficial for students with disabilities. It is important for a reading instruction to be tailored to a student's language abilities, and it should always be considered when forming lessons. "Good readers make immediate links between print and meaning" and a proper instruction should strive to provide these links for its students (Lemons, et al.).

The authors identify both the Transfer Theory and the Five Stages of Language Acquisition Theory. Define the key principles for each of these theories and then explain how they relate to a CLD student's ability to learn literacy and related literacy skills.

Transfer Theory: Cummins says that a student's acquisition of a first language and a second language are intertwined, meaning that their literacy in their first language can transfer to their second language. The interdependence hypothesis states that the development of one's first language directly impacts the learning of a second language. The main idea of transfer theory is that "students who have developed literacy in their first language will tend to make stronger progress in acquiring literacy in their second language."

Per the RAND Reading Study Group, define the term "reading comprehension," and be sure to include the following elements: reader, text, activity, and cultural context.

We define reading comprehension as "the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and involvement with written language." There are 3 elements: The reader does the comprehending, The text is being comprehended, The activity, where comprehension plays a role. When we discuss the reader, we discuss the capacities, abilities, knowledge, and experiences that exist and are present during the process of reading. Text includes a large variety of materials and media, including any printed text or electronic text. The purposes, processes, and consequences associated with reading are included when we discuss activity.

Outline three strategies teachers can use to make morphological instruction more explicit.

When teaching a student about the meaning of a word, teaching the word's common derivative forms can make the instruction more explicit. For example, instead of just looking at the word "run," other derivatives like "runs, ran, running, and runner" can be helpful. When teaching about a prefix or suffix, introducing it as a part of a word it is commonly seen with can help make instruction more explicit. For example, the prefix "re" can be tackled first with the meaning "again" like in words "restart" and ""return." Then the instruction can move into the "back" meaning of this prefix, like in words "retreat" and "retract." When teaching multisyllabic words, instruction can be made more explicit by breaking the words up into their meaningful roots and affixes, and then rebuilding the word.

Identify and define the three general approaches to reading. Then, based on your understanding of the three approaches, identify and justify the approach that you believe to be the most effective in teaching reading. Be sure to provide evidence from the article.

Whole-Language Approach: Aims to make reading instruction more enjoyable. The rules of phonics should NOT be taught directly, but rather through exposure to different texts. This approach also does not encourage students to be corrected when they make mistakes. "Learning to read is like learning to speak [it is a] natural act that students can essentially teach themselves. Phonics: Instructors present the spellings for different sounds in a specific order, introducing the simplest patterns early on. These patterns are then practiced using engaging stories. It is harder for teachers to be creative with phonics instruction due to the complexity of deciding how to tackle the 40 phonemes, but using specific phonics instruction books may not flow exactly how a teacher might want it to. A Harvard study claimed phonics instruction produced higher achievement for beginning readers. Whole-Word Approach: Teaching students to read words as whole, and associating them to their meanings (instead of sounding out the individual phonemes.) Studies have shown that students tend to read words whole, but when they encounter new words, they do not always know how to sound them out.

Briefly define and describe characteristics of word recognition, using information from this chapter.

Word recognition, according to the author's reference to Gough and Tunmer, is a "complex skill that is necessary for reading comprehension." To have word recognition proficiency is to have the ability to identify, decode, and recognize words with no sort of context.

Identify and describe approaches to monitoring overall reading comprehension.

Working in differentiated groups can make monitoring comprehension much more simple. In these groups, the teacher can ask thought-provoking questions about the given text. If it is evident that one or more students are not understanding, scaffolding is a helpful approach. This includes asking questions like who, what, when, where, and, why in order to guide students to comprehension.

The concluding paragraphs suggest how to implement the Literacy Instruction and Support Planning Tool for students. Briefly, outline and explain each of the steps identified.

eview the 10 tips: Read through the tips and look through the discussions. Taking notes is also encouraged. Meet with team members: The people involved in the use of this tool can meet to discuss the priorities for instruction, using some of the figures to mediate the discussions. Discuss appropriate instructional emphasis: Team members must take into consideration the students current abilities and how long before they move on into post secondary educational opportunities. The team members must also decide what to focus on in instruction. Discussion of the student's interests: It is important to make sure instruction will be interesting for ID students, so choosing high-interest texts is a relevant discussion to have. Reflection on Instructional priorities, supports, and access opportunities: The team should discuss the priority level for each item, like whether or not phonemic awareness is a relevant topic to address in instruction. Use Section F to list goals that are most important: Listing the goals for the student and how high of importance they are is helpful in utilizing this instructional tool to the best of its ability. Final review: The team reviews the discussion for Tip 3 to plan the instruction specifically tailored to the ID student to increase their literacy.