Relgions final

Theodicy and Christianity

-"Theodicy" is frequently used by Christian theologians to refer to their ATTEMPTS TO JUSTIFY GOODNESS and OMNIPOTENCE (unlimited great power) of God in a world that experiences real evil

PROTESTANT CHRSITIANITY

-B. Protestant Christianity: Rejection of twofold Imago Dei. -1. Martin Luther & John Calvin: The Divine image lost in the Fall was the freedom of the human will.

Moral Exemplars and Prophets (Sources and Norms of Moral Authority)

-Charismatic leaders are a source of moral authority in many religions. Greek charisma is a divine gift of grace, something given freely. Greek charis is divine favor. -Max Weber: CHARISMA describes quality of an individual that sets that person apart as one who has gifts of divine origin. Many people viewed as charismatic: Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, Gandhi, Dalai Lama, Mother Theresa, Martin Luther King, Jr. -Weber's two kinds of charismatic religious leaders: 1. EXEMPLARY - Ex: Mahatma Gandhi taught by example of his life 2. ETHICAL PROPHET - Ex: Biblical prophet Amos proclaimed the word of the Lord; denounced injustice and unrighteousness. Role of the Book of Amos is Weber's "routinization of charisma" - prophetic message continues as part of sacred scripture.

Explanation of Evil-Cosmic Dualism

-Co-equal powers of Good and Evil. -All SUFFERING CAUSED BY SATANIC POWER/DARKNESS -Suffering will end when the totally good power wins over the evil power -Dualism of Cosmic Struggle - Co-equal powers: one light/good and one dark/evil. -Earthly world created by dark/evil power. God of light/good is not responsible for evil. End of suffering will occur when God of Light overcomes Darkness.

Explanation of evil- Compensation

-Compensation for present suffering will occur in the future on earth. -GOD will make things right at a future time on earth (not in another world like Heaven or Paradise). -Common in the West; Ancient Israel; radical sects of Reformation; Marxism; Islamic revolutionary movements; and in Third World Cargo Cults. -ex: in MARXISM, the social revolution will make things right on earth

Major Traditions of Philosophical Ethics

-Deontological Ethics -Teleological Ethics -Virtue Ethics

Deontological Ethics

-Deontological Ethics: DUTY ETHICS OR OBLIGATION ETHICS (Greek deon means "duty" or "obligation") -The morality of an action is determined by whether or not the action ADHERES TO A SET OF UNCONDITIONAL RULES. The particular conditions of the situation or the consequences of the action are not taken into consideration. -Ex: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) -ethical demands are categorical imperatives (unconditional and universal principles).

Explanation of evil-Compensation-"Future, this-worldly-theodicy"

-Early Israel had no belief in life after death. Hope that God would redeem Israel from oppressors; restore Zion. -In the centuries right before Christian era, Israel developed this-worldly eschatology; hope that "Son of Man" would establish kingdom on earth. -Millenarian theodicy continued; triumphant period on earth when suffering ceases by human action and supernatural intervention. Ex: Taborites; Millerites; present-day Iranian Shi'ism; and secular Marxism. -Weakness: predicted date may pass without realization.

An Ethic Divine Command (Sources and Norms of Moral Authority)

-Examples in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam - sources and norms of moral obligation derived from commands or instructions revealed through or dictated to a divine intermediary or messenger (Moses, Jesus, Muhammad) and recorded in sacred scripture. Commands of God. -Example from Jewish Law and Ethics: Abortion -Example from Islamic Law and Ethics: Jihad

Other Monotheistic Theodices

-Free Will Defense -Process Theodicy

Cosmic or Natural Law (Sources and Norms of Moral Authority)

-HUMAN MORAL ACTION IS BASED ON THE STRUCTURE OF REALITY -Cicero (106-43 BCE) in The Republic: "True law is right reason in agreement with nature" -Cosmic or Natural Law is unchanging, everlasting, and applies in every situation. -Cosmic Law in Confucianism; Dao is understood as the guide. -Natural Law in Roman Catholicism - When humans follow their essential nature, they follow natural law. St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), Catholic priest and philosopher: "Divine wisdom is the eternal law" and "humans have the ability to use reason to determine the natural moral law."

CHRSISTIANITY-human problem

-Human Nature shown in GENESIS 1-2 (CREATION Account). -Human life created by God; humans are DEPENDENT on GOD and are finite creatures. Humans CREATED GOOD and in the image of God (IMAGO DEI). Humans are unique among created beings. Humans were to rule over other creatures.

PLATO human problem

-Human Problem is IGNORANCE. -Happiness is the result of true KNOWLEDGE. The highly educated should be in control of society. -Plato's theory is called RATIONALISM. Knowledge and virtue are acquired through reason. People can understand true virtue through education. Positive view of human capacity for virtuous life. People are capable of acting virtuously through reason. Reason is redemptive.

FREUD human problem

-Human Problem: Repression. -People are unhappy or neurotic because of the conflict between natural desires and the constraints of society -Repressed thoughts must be brought to consciousness through psychoanalysis so the thoughts can be handled. -Solution: Psychoanalysis

JUDAISM AND ISLAM human problem

-Human problem is DISOBEDIENCE , breaking of the laws of God/Allah. -Solution is not in mediating grace of Jesus Christ. -Solution is PROPER ACTION and OBLIGATION to God.

Way of Faith-Mahayana Amida Buddhism

-In Eastern Religions, Mahayana Amida Buddhism is a good example of the way of faith as liberation. -Buddhism grew out of Hinduism, and as time pasted many forms of Buddhism developed. Theravada (Way of the Elders) Buddhism maintains that the Buddha was a man and is not to be worshipped. But other forms of Buddhism see the Buddha as a Bodhisattva (savior) who will aid in the liberation of individuals. In Japan many became devoted to Amida Buddha, the Buddha of Infinite Light, who had created a Pure Land of bliss for those who called on his name. Later, Shinran, a Buddhist sage, developed the doctrine of salvation by grace through faith in Amida.

The Way of Faith-Martin Luther

-In Western Religions, Martin Luther is the prime example. -Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a highly educated Catholic Monk; read Bible continuously, but he felt it was impossible for him to be righteous. He tried to become righteous before God by his actions. Luther interpreted "righteousness" to mean God's rightful demand for justice and God's punishment of sinners due to their failure to meet God's standard of righteousness. -Finally, Luther came to the understanding that the Apostle Paul was describing righteousness as a gift of God's grace through Christ. With repentance and faith in Christ, people were made righteous.

explanation of evil-Dualism continued

-In the Hellenistic World and in late antiquity, dualist theodicy was popular. -Examples: Zoroastrianism, Mithraism, and Gnosticism. -All suffering and evil caused by satanic forces. God of light did not create material world. What a person does on earth is not important.

Theodicy-Weber and Berger

-In the broader sense used by Max Weber and more recently Peter Berger, "theodicy" describes various religious and theoretical (involving a theory) explanations for the evil that individuals and societies face in the world.

CONFUCIANISM-Jen-human problem

-Jen is the MOST IMPORTANT VIRTURE. Jen is INNATE GOODNESS, love, benevolence, humaneness, human heartedness -Emphasizes RELATIONSHIPS OVER INDIVIDUALITY . Five great relationships: parent/child, older/younger siblings, husband/wife, older/younger friend, ruler/subject. -Heart of relationships are rules governing family. -FAMILY is FOUNDATION of SOCIETY. Key to family structure: FILIAL PIETY piety (child's respect for parents). -Role Model (chun-tzu) - gentleman or superior person

Theodicy in Monotheistic Religions-explanation of evil

-Judaism, Christianity, and Islam must explain moral and natural evil and innocent suffering since they believe in all-powerful God. -In biblical book of Job, four different explanations for Job's sufferings: 1) Punishment for sin; Deuteronomic understanding; Job's three friends: Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar 2) Suffering is a test of faith and a process of maturing character ("soul-making"); Prologue of Job;Same idea of testing in Qur'an. Endure pain to achieve a greater good. 3) Theodicy of SUBMISSION: the mysterious ways of God are beyond human understanding; final chapters of Job; Same understanding in Islam: suffering is understood as providential will of Allah. Muslim will submit to Allah; Orthodox Islam also recognizes divine compassion and human free will. 4) Theodicy of PROTEST

Karma-Samsara Theodicy (explanation of evil)

-Law of KARMA: Cause and effect of human actions -SAMSARA: Wheel of REBIRTH(reincarnation); every soul passes through many bodies. -Suffering and misfortunes are the result of karma. -Classical Hinduism teaches that actions should be determined by DHARMA or the laws appropriate to one's caste. -THERVADA BUDDHISM: Most radical form of karma-samsara theodicy. DUKKHA (SUFFERING) is the result of craving; get rid of craving and suffering will cease. -WEBERS THEORY FOR SUFFERING KARMA/SAMASARA

CONFUCIANISM-Li -human problem

-Li originally referred to ritual SACRIFICES, but it is also used to mean "SOCIAL PROPRIETY" at all levels of human relationships; RITES. -RITUAL is MOST IMPORTANT; humanizes relationships; shapes character of individual; essential means of government; restores harmonious social order. -Only virtuous person has the right to rule; must perform rites; has Mandate of Heaven; sets example; rules by te (virtue and power of moral character).

Weber and Karma/Samsara; explanation of evil

-Max Weber thought that the most rational form of theodicy was that of classical India with its law of KARMA and SAMSARA -Person's actions determine future rebirth or reincarnation. -Each person is responsible for own suffering; Typical of Classical Hinduism and Theravada Buddhism.

Explanation of evil-Mystical Participation

-Mystical Participation: the individual is not important, and the person suffers on behalf of a larger group -The individual identifies with another entity and denies the self. Frequently seen in primal religions - the individual suffers so that the tribe, race, or nation can continue. -Same denial of self is seen in religions that seek absorption in a larger cosmic reality - ULTIMATE BEING Being. Individual suffering is not important. -this type of theodicy occurs in primitive societies and in religions that seek absorption into an Ultimate Being. -EX: PETER BERGER

CHRISTIANITY-St Augustine human problem

-NATURE OF SIN: Egotistical, turning away from God; pride. Sin connected to spirit, associated with free will. -St. Augustine (354-430 CE) - Concept of ORIGINAL SIN. Before the Fall of Adam, humans had the ability to sin and the ability not to sin. Because of Adam's original sin, all humans lost ability not to sin. Humans now have a disordered will; in bondage to sin. SIN IS INHERITED biologically. Only God's grace (Christ) can liberate from sin. -Many modern theologians reject inherited sin; society produces tendency to sin.

Why Livingston discussed deity and cosmogony before human problem

-One's understanding of Deity, Ultimate Reality, or Cosmogony usually relates to one's view of the human problem. -Different world religions propose different solutions based on various understandings of the nature of human character/the human problem.

MARX human problem

-People are alienated and unhappy because within a capitalist society they do not obtain satisfaction from productive WORK. -Solution: Return to primitive communism of joint ownership. Work would then have meaning. Get rid of private property; dissolve class struggle.

Peter Berger-Mystical Participation

-Peter Berger: SOCIAL RITUAL helps people understand that an individual event is typical. -Example: We go to funerals and memorial services. Or personal suffering is seen as part of a theodicy of mystical participation. Occurs in Chinese religions, in primal societies, and in mystic religions that seek absorption into Ultimate Being.

Explanation of Evil: Other-Worldly Theodicy

-Present suffering on earth is endured because God will make things right in another realm (Heaven/Paradise) -Most common form of theodicy; some forms of Western theism; some versions of Mahayana Buddhism -Christianity, Islam, and some schools of Mahayana Buddhism place their hope in an afterlife in Heaven or Paradise. Suffering of present life is endured for future in another realm.

PROTESTANT CHRISTIANITY-Reinhold Niebuhr human problem

-Reinhold Niebuhr: Imago Dei not ability to reason, but SELF-TRANSCENDENCE- ability to see concepts outside of the self. Human creativity produces GOOD and EVIL. Humans have FREEDOM. Freedom gives humans the will to defy limits. Situation gives humans anxiety, leads to sin.

Secularization

-Secularization is the process by which the influence of religion diminishes while the influence of other social and political entities increase in determining societal norms and political laws. -What effect does secularization have on religious beliefs and practices? Is secularization the beginning of the end for religion? Or does the process of secularization merely push religions toward change and adaptation to a changing world? -Globalization increases religious pluralism. Can diverse religions coexist peacefully in a global society?

THERAVADA ("THE WAY OF THE ELDERS") BUDDHISM

-Siddhartha Gautama (563?-483? BCE), the Buddha ("Enlightened One"), from wealthy Hindu family in India. The Buddha studied with a Hindu priest. Goal of Hinduism is liberation from samsara (cycle of life and death). In Hinduism, the eternal atman (core of one's self) is reincarnated in each cycle. Law of karma (volitional action) is cause and effect - determines the next cycle. Good karma and bad karma.

Human problem-sacred order

-Stoicism, Christianity, Buddhism, and Confucianism all agree that there is a sacred order.

Teleological Ethics

-Teleological Ethics - (Greek telos means "END" or "GOAL.") -The morality of an action is determined by the CONSEQUENCES of the ACTION in terms of SEEKING the GREATER GOOD for the greater number of people. -Grew out of Utilitarian ethics: the moral behavior of individuals should be based on contributing to the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people. Ex: philosophy of Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873).

CONFUCIANISM-human problem

-The Human Problem is the PURSUIT of PERSONAL and SOCIETAL DESIRE. -According to Confucius, the solution to strife in society was to return to the social rites and values of a time when China was controlled by virtuous rulers who had earned the Mandate of Heaven. Personal virtue could be accomplished by education. -Learning is the imitation of virtuous teachers who exemplify traditional values and behavior.

THERAVADA -human problem

-The human problem is SUFFERING- deep sense of imperfection, impermanence, and incompleteness. Similar to Christianity in that Buddhism sees human problem rooted in egotistical desire; anxiety. -The Buddha proposed a different way to liberation. The self is not real. There is no eternal atman because all things are in a state of becoming. Nothing remains unchanged. What we think of as "self" is really only a compound of five things: body, perception, feelings, innate tendencies shaped by karma, and thought. -THE BELIEF IN A SELF IS THE CAUSE OF SUFFERING

The Way of Action and Obligation

-The way of action is the most universal and popular of the paths to salvation. The majority of believers express their religion through religious ACTIVITIES- RITES, SACRAMENTS, AND OBLIGATORY MORAL DUTIES -Characteristic traits of the way of action: 1. Practical and non-dramatic approach to religion; person lives secular life that includes regular and habitual religious duties; strong conviction that rituals must continue. 2. Actions have a patterned character; conservative and institutional. 3. Traditional; suspicious of change or innovation; wants orthopraxis as well as orthodoxy. -EXAMPLES: Primitive religions; Orthodox Judaism (4 stages of lives and castes), Hinduism castes, Orthodox Islam-5 pillars, , Judaism- holy living in law of Torah/rites of passage, traditional Roman Catholicism, and Orthodox Hinduism have the characteristics of way of action.

The Way of Devotion

-The way of devotion is frequently found in conjunction with ways of FAITH, ACTION,AND INSIGHT. But it does have some distinctive features. 1. Deep feeling and emotion that is frequently accompanied by a dissatisfaction with the formality of traditional religion. 2. Deeply felt personal encounter with the divine that leaves the devotee radically changed. 3. Characterized by ecstasy and longing for the divine. -Examples: St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582); Hindu bhakti; Roman Catholic cult of the Sacred Heart; and Protestant revivalism.

The Way of Faith

-The word "faith" can be used with two different meanings when concerning an individual's relationship to a sacred power: 1. ASSENSUS- Mental assent to the existence of an unseen reality/sacred power 2. FIDUCIA- trust in the sense of total, confident reliance on divine grace that involves the individual's heart, mind, and will. -The way of faith means that the believer is saved or liberated from a situation of helplessness by divine grace through faith alone. -Ex: All three western monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), but most associated with Protestant Christianity.

Four Classic Ways of Salvation or Liberation

-These ways can be combined in one religion. Many religions have had one of their branches or sects emphasize each of the four as the normative way at different times throughout their history. -The four discernible "classic" ways are: 1. Way of Faith 2. Way of Devotion 3. Way of Disciplined Action 4. Way of Meditation and Insight

Virtue Ethics

-Virtue Ethics - Proposed by Aristotle (384-322 BCE) in Nicomachean Ethics. -Nicomachus was Aristotle's son. -Aristotle thought that MORAL VIRTUE should become the goal of every person and that a person could obtain virtue by STRIVING TO BE LIKE AN IDEAL MORAL PERSON IN CHARACTER TRAITS. -Virtuous actions are created by virtuous motives that are guided by qualities like generosity, truthfulness, justice, love, fidelity, courage, wisdom, temperance, etc.

Monotheistic Religions-explanation of evil

-Western monotheism teaches that the personal creator God is all-powerful (omnipotent), all-knowing (omniscient), and completely good and righteous. -People have always tried to explain the existence of evil and suffering. Ex: Ancient Greeks, Albert Camus (1948) -Ordinary person will attribute a terrible event to "the will of God" or judgment for some past sin. -We put our personal suffering in a larger framework.

Religious Ethics vs. Secular Morality

-What makes a code of ethics religious? -A system of religious ethics always involves a complex of moral ideas, dispositions, principles, and practices that are based dominantly, if not solely, on the acceptance of a sacred authority.

The Human Problem

-Why are people unfulfilled? -Why are people alienated from others?

STOICISM (greek philosopher) human problem

-Zeno, Greek Philosopher. Human problem is IGNORANCE. -Stoicism maintained that DIVINE REASON (Logos) ruled the world. -All things controlled by NATURE (Phusis). Nature shapes all living things. Living things are a spark of Logos. -Ethical life is living in accordance with laws of Nature/Divine Reason. Humans, as a spark of Logos, have free will. -But true freedom is to live in accordance with Nature. -Accept suffering because it is beyond human control. People are spiritually free. Do duty and adopt attitude of indifference (apatheia). -Knowledge and attainment of wisdom leads to indifference. -SOLUTION: CANNOT CHANGE LIFE, THROUGH WISDOM CHANGE VIEW OF SITUATIONS

Free Will Defense

-ex: John Hick -Humans have free will. God never intended to make a perfect world in which people were free of suffering. Suffering produces character; "soul-making."

ROMAN CATHOLICISM-human problem

-form of Christianity -IMAGO DEI (image of God) gives human ability to reason, but has two parts. -In the Fall, humans lost one part of Imago Dei: SANCTIFYING GRACE that allows humans to love God divinely, but humans retained second part: ABILTIY to REASON

HEBREW-human problem

-form of christianity -Humans are a PSYCHOSOMATIC unity. Psyche = soul; soma = body. No dualism between body and soul. Humans had free will; wanted to be like God; humans sinned/rebelled against God (Genesis 3 - Account of Fall). -Human problem is SIN

Soteriology

-the doctrine of salvation -ways and goals of salvation/liberation

Theodicy

-the vindication of divine goodness and providence (protective care of God) in view of the existence of evil. -Two Greek words combined: God (theos) and justice (dike) = "justification of God." -The German scholar, Gottfried Leibniz, first used the term in a work he wrote in French, Essays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of Man, and the Origin of Evil (1710). -explaining the existence of evil

Theodicy of Protest-Monotheism

-used in Judaism and Christianity -Theodicy of Protest: also seen in Job; belief in the right of believers to "put God on trial"; request an explanation from God. -Ex: Elie Wiesel, Holocaust survivor. Believing Jew will praise God. Job 13:15: Though he slay me, I will praise him.

Sources and Norms of Moral Authority

1. Cosmic or Natural Law 2. Moral Exemplars and Prophets 3. An Ethics of Divine Command

THERAVADA BUDDHISM 4 NOBLE TRUTHS

1. Life inevitably involves suffering, dissatisfaction, and distress. 2. Suffering is caused by craving, rooted in ignorance. 3. Suffering will cease when craving ceases. 4. There is a way to realize this state: the Noble Eightfold Path.

The Goal of Religion/Salvation can be understood as:

1. Making whole; healing 2.The process of being delivered, redeemed, or liberated from an enemy, danger, ignorance, sin, pollution, finitude or anything evil or threatening. 3. Both a personal and cosmic process or event. 4. Present reality and future hope 5. This-worldly and other-worldly -Religion is seen as the means of salvation/liberation. The goal of religion is salvation/liberation.

Characteristics of Religious Foundation

1. Resistance movements against modernity as a threat to traditional religious, moral, and civic life; can be violent or nonviolent resistance. 2. Traditional religious culture of the past is seen as the pure, normative, and God-ordained expression of doctrine and praxis. Frequently, the greatest threat is perceived to be the insiders who want to revise or modernize the beliefs/practices of the religious community. 3. Typically, these disenfranchised groups do not withdraw from society. Instead, modern fundamentalist groups are counteractive, sometimes to the point of militant behavior. 4. Source of authority is viewed as inerrant and unquestionable. Examples: Bible, Shar'ia, charismatic leader, Imam, etc.

Process Theodicy

Process Theodicy: All reality is subject to process and change. God is also. Process is social. God does not wholly determine the actions of people. God cannot eliminate evil; God minimizes evil.

THERAVADA BUDDHISM NOBLE EIGHTFOLD WAY PATH

The Noble Eightfold Way (Path) to Nirvana (cessation of craving): 1. Right Understanding 2. Right Thought or Motivation 3. Right Speech 4. Right Action 5. Right Livelihood 6. Right Effort 7. Right Mindfulness 8. Right Concentration

Types of Sacred Authority for Religious Ethics

The sacred authority can be found in: -sacred scripture; -an understanding of cosmic law or earthly order; -or the example and teachings of a charismatic leader.

Three Reasons for Suffering-Monotheistic Religions

Various explanations within Western monotheism (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam): 1) Suffering is punishment for sin. 2) Suffering is a test of faith. 3) Suffering is a necessary condition for "soul-making" or shaping the individual.