Research Methods Chapter 12

How do stratified and quota samples differ?

In stratified sampling, the appropriate number would be chosen from the list of different subgroups (precisely, controlled). In quota sampling, he appropriate number would be chosen randomly- pulling from the subject pool until the right number had been met.

Which ethical problem, typical in observational research, was not a problem in the science museum study?

Informed Consent

How can survey research be misused?

It can be taken out of context, not statistically sound, ask leading questions

When is cluster sampling used?

It is used when there is a huge population. A cluster of people who have a feature in common are chosen.

What does it mean to say that a sample is representative?

It means that the sample reflects the target population accurately

How can observational research serve the purpose of falsification?

It serves the purpose of falsification if the observation is inconsistent with theoretical expectations.

How do you increase the return rate of a written survey?

Offer incentive, have it look legitimate, have it brief and easy, start with interesting questions, notify participants ahead of time, remind them, include return postage.

Ethical Considerations of Observation

Privacy, informed consent,

Describe an advantage and disadvantage of including DK alternatives

Respondents may overuse the DK option, however, it prevents people from blindly guessing or randomly choosing answers they truly don't know.

Plous sent initial requests for cooperation to 708 colleges and universities, excluding very small schools. This list of 708 schools is known as a....

Sample Frame

What are 3 varieties of probability sampling?

Simple random sample, stratified sample and cluster sample

What problems make it difficult to interpret survey data?

Social desirability bias - people want to answer the way they "are supposed to"; wording - questions can be perceived differently by different people

How can observer bias influence observational research?

The observer can have ideas and expectations that color what they observe

What are naturalistic observation methods?

The study of people in their natural, everyday environments

What do stratified and quota samples have in common?

They both serve to represent the proportion of the population in the sample.

What is a nonresponse bias?

When the people who return the surveys differ in some way from the people who do not return the surveys.

When is simple random sample used?

When there are ethical considerations (treatments for diseases), good way to get a totally random sample

When is stratified sampling used?

When you wish to maintain the proportions in a population, a stratified sample is used (i.e. if the population is 60/40 males/females, the sample will be 60/40 males/females

What are some disadvantages of the simple random sample?

You cannot control for features of the population you do not want to include in the study; it's not practical if there is a large population.

Festinger et al. (1956)

"When Prophecy Fails" - cognitive dissonance

What is a convenience sample?

A sample made up of convenient participants - i.e. undergraduate students in an intro psychology class

How an observer bias be reduced?

By using a behavior checklist and using multiple observers. Also time sampling and event sampling

What are the 4 varieties of nonprobability sampling?

Convenience sampling, purposive sampling, quota sampling, snowball sampling

On a written survey, what is demographic information and where should it be placed?

Demographic information is basic information such as location, gender, age, etc. and should be placed at the end.

What is cluster sampling?

If a population is too large, "clusters" of people can be selected from the larger population - surveying midwest to determine political opinions

What is a stratified sample?

A division of a sample into identifiable segments (strata) that represent the population - ensures a representative sample.

What is the difference between naturalistic and participant observation methods?

In participant observation, the researcher joins the observed group or makes their presence known. In naturalistic observation, the presence of the researcher is often unknown, or is habituated to .

Why use observational methods?

It describes behavior in more natural environments and generates hypotheses and supports theories.

What problems can occur in observational research? How do researchers address them? (4)

There is lack of control - they are careful in drawing conclusions There is observer bias - behavior checklists and interobserver reliability is used There is participant reactivity - unobtrusive measures are used There are ethical concerns - informed consent not necessary if in public, no one is interfered with, confidentiality and anonymity is maintained

What are the advantages and disadvantages of esurveying?

They are quick, cheap and accessible, but the sample tends to be biased.

What is the difference between time and event sampling?

Time sampling occurs when behavior is sampled at predefined times only. Event sampling occurs when behavior is sampled in only certain events.

What is response acquiescence? How can it be avoided?

A tendency to agree with statements. Avoided by balancing favorably and unfavorably-phrased questions evenly.

What is a survey?

An assessment tool to discern people's thoughts, opinions, feelings and tendencies to act

Compared to written surveys sent through the mail, what is one advantage and one disadvantage of an interview survey?

An interview survey allows questions to be clarified and comprehensible, but can be more difficult to achieve due to money and logistics.

How do you construct a good survey?

Ask concise, clear questions; put demographic information and sensitive questions at the end of the survey; balance positive/negative questions

Why are sampling issues more relevant for survey research than for most other research in psychology?

Because it is difficult to get a good sample to respond.

In naturalistic observations of animals, it is usually impossible for observers to be hidden from the animals. What is the strategy for reducing reactivity for this type of research?

Habituation

What are the 4 types of survey research? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?

Interviews, phone surveys, electronic surveys and written surveys

Structured vs unstructured

In structured, you create/control the environment as much as you can in your favor. In unstructured, you let things naturally unfold.

What is interobserver reliability, and what is its purpose?

Interobserver reliability is when several people observe a situation and ensure that their observations match. It is used to reduce bias.

What is the difference between probability and nonprobability sampling?

Probability sampling is when every person in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. Nonprobability sampling is when people have unequal chances of being selected for the sample.

What is reactivity? How can it be overcome?

Reactivity is when participants act in a different way than they normally do - reacting to being in a study. It can be overcome by observing with unobtrusive methods, such as videocameras.

What is self-selection? Why is it a problem?

Self-selection bias occurs when people can choose to participate in a survey - if it's in a magazine or newspaper, for instance. This is a problem because it is not a representative sample of the population.

What are the 2 categories of esurveys?

Sent via email and posted on a website

What are participant observation methods?

Studying people in a closed group by joining the group or making their presence known.