Research Methods Chapter #2
Which of the following is NOT an example of faulty thinking that might occur when relying on intuition? a. testing your hunches through systematic, empirical observations b. coming to a conclusion just because it "makes sense" c. focusing on the instances that come to mind quickly d. noticing the instances that occur when we expect them to
a. testing your hunches through systematic, empirical observations
confound
A general term for a potential alternative explanation for a research finding (a threat to internal validity).
comparison group
A group in an experiment whose levels on the independent variable differ from those of the treatment group in some intended and meaningful way. Also called comparison
empirical journal article
A scholarly article that reports for the first time the results of a research study.
Which of the following is considered among psychologists to be the best, most comprehensive place to find psychological research articles? a. the popular press b. Google c. PsycINFO d. Wikis
c. PsycINFO FEEDBACK: Finding Scientific Sources — PsycINFO is the most comprehensive place to find psychological research articles.
Which of the following is a reason to trust the advice of authorities? a. They systematically and objectively compare different conditions. b. The research cited by the authority may be unreliable. c. They base their advice on their own experience and intuition. d. They cherry-pick the evidence to support their own position.
a. They systematically and objectively compare different conditions. FEEDBACK: Trusting Authorities on the Subject — Authorities may be actually basing their advice on empirical evidence, in which case they may be worth listening to.
In research, a confound is ____________. a. an instance when the actual outcome is contrary to the probabilistic prediction. b. an alternative explanation for an outcome that comes about because more than one thing changed at the same time. c. the difficulty we experience in thinking of counter-examples to our beliefs. d. when the outcome of a study contradicts the researcher's hypothesis.
b. an alternative explanation for an outcome that comes about because more than one thing changed at the same time. FEEDBACK: Experience is Confounded — When more than one thing changes simultaneously, you can never be sure which one is the cause of an outcome.
Which of the following is NOT a reason why basing one's conclusions on research is superior to basing one's conclusions on personal experience? a. Experience has no comparison group. b. Experience is confounded. c. Research definitively proves theories. d. Research involves systematically and objectively comparing conditions.
c. Research definitively proves theories. FEEDBACK: Experience is Confounded — Research never definitively proves a theory.
Even when people are aware that people generally think in a biased way, they tend to think that they are unlikely to fall prey to those biases. This kind of bias is called ___________. a. confirmatory hypothesis testing b. availability heuristic c. bias blind spot d. present / present bias
c. bias blind spot FEEDBACK: Intuition Is Biased By Motivation — This is the definition of bias blind spot.
In a developmental psychology class, Trina learned about Baumarind's (1971, 1991) work on parenting styles. She recognized that her parents used an authoritarian style of parenting, as did all her relatives. Since that was the style of parenting she planned to use, she researched the advantages to that style, while ignoring any studies that support the use of another parenting style. What is the term for what she was doing? a. showing a self-serving bias b. confirmatory hypothesis testing c. cherry-picking the evidence d. creating a good story
c. cherry-picking the evidence FEEDBACK: Cherry-Picking the Evidence — She only looked for information that supported her belief that authoritarian parenting was the best style, instead of looking at all of the available information.
What are the differences between PsycINFO and Google Scholar?
PsyINFO searches only sources in psychology plus a few sources from related disciplines. Google Scholar searches only empirical articles and scholarly books. It doesn't allow to search as easily in specific fields
What two guiding questions can help you read any academic research source?
What is the argument? What is the evidence to support the argument?
When is it a good idea to base conclusions on the advice of authorities? a. when authorities have an advanced degree such as a Ph.D or a master's degree b. when authorities have conducted the research on which their advice is based, by systematically and objectively comparing different conditions c. it is never a good idea to base conclusions on the advice of authorities d. when authorities have several years of experience in their specialty area
b. when authorities have conducted the research on which their advice is based, by systematically and objectively comparing different conditions
Which of these is NOT a characteristic of an edited book? a. Chapters typically are summaries of sets of research. b. Each chapter is written by a different contributor. c. The peer-review process for edited books is more rigorous than for that of a journal. d. It is a collection of chapters on a common topic.
c. The peer-review process for edited books is more rigorous than for that of a journal. FEEDBACK: Chapters in Edited Books — While the editor of the book is careful to select only experts to write chapters, the peer-review process is not as rigorous as that of a journal.
What does it mean to say that research is probabilistic? a. The research predicts all possible results. b. You must reject the conclusions if you are able to find a case that is an exception. c. There is a high likelihood that the research is valid. d. Conclusions are meant to explain a certain proportion of possible cases.
d. Conclusions are meant to explain a certain proportion of possible cases. FEEDBACK: "But My Experience is Different" — In behavioral research, inferences are not expected to explain all cases all the time.
As part of an assignment for his Introduction to Psychology class, Gilbert has to read a journal article, summarize it, and compare it to what is reported in his textbook. Gilbert selects the article "Effects of Severe Daily Events on Mood," Stone & Neale (1984). Assuming that the article is written in accordance with APA style guidelines, what is the correct order of sections Gilbert should expect to find in this article? a. Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Reference list b. Abstract, Method, Results, Introduction, Discussion, Reference list c. Introduction, Discussion, Method, Results, Abstract, Reference list d. Abstract, Introduction, Results, Method, Discussion, Reference list
a. Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, Reference list FEEDBACK: What You Will Find in an Empirical Journal Article — Most journal articles contain these sections in the order recommended by the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association.
Which of the following is the term used in psychology to describe a person who is an actor playing a specific role as part of an experiment? a. confederate b. imposter c. accomplice d. stooge
a. confederate FEEDBACK: Controlled Research is Better than Experience — While all these terms are somewhat related, confederate is the one used in psychology research.
Basing our conclusions on personal experience is faulty because experience has confounds. In this context, a confound means: a. in real-world experiences, more than one thing changes at the same time b. the conclusion we draw from the experience has left us puzzled, or confused c. there has been no comparison group d. we will have trouble thinking of counterexamples
a. in real-world experiences, more than one thing changes at the same time
The idea that things that easily come to mind tend to guide our thinking is known as which of the following? a. the present/present bias b. the availability heuristic c. representativeness heuristic d. the confirmation bias
b. the availability heuristic
______________ by Cartwright-Hatton and his colleagues (2010) summarizes 10 studies on the effectiveness of cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) as a treatment for anxiety disorders of childhood and adolescence. a. A popular press article b. An empirical journal article c. A review journal article d. An encyclopedia article
c. A review journal article FEEDBACK: Consulting Scientific Sources — Review journal articles provide a summary of all the published studies that have been done in one research area.
The idea that things that easily come to mind tend to guide our thinking is known as which of the following? a. the availability heuristic b. the present/present bias c. the confirmation bias d. representativeness heuristic
a. the availability heuristic FEEDBACK: The Pop-Up Principle — Tversky & Kahneman (1974) proposed that people judge the frequency of an event by relevant instances they easily remember and called this the availability heuristic.
Dr. Friedman suspects that women who work outside of the home might be frustrated with the balance of responsibilities in their household. She devises a survey to give to married women employed outside the home that includes the question "Does your spouse bother to help you around the house?" What is the problem with Dr. Friedman's approach? a. It reflects the present/present bias. b. It is an example of confirmatory hypothesis testing. c. It is cherry-picking the evidence. d. It is an example of faulty thinking.
b. It is an example of confirmatory hypothesis testing. FEEDBACK: Asking Biased Questions — This question is phrased in such a way that it reveals that the survey designer is hypothesizing that spouses do not help working women enough.
Which of the following is a quantitative technique used in some review articles that combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude of a relationship? a. macro-analytical procedure b. meta-analysis c. empiricism d. analysis of variance
b. meta-analysis
Hilda is studying the effects of a major natural disaster on people living nearby. She finds that many of the victims are depressed and show stress-related symptoms. Why can't Hilda conclude that the natural disaster caused the depression and stress-related symptoms? a. because she hasn't done enough background research b. because she is relying on intuition c. because she doesn't have a comparison group d. because she doesn't have a theory
c. because she doesn't have a comparison group FEEDBACK: Compared to What? — While the victims may show these symptoms, she has no way to know if others, who didn't experience the natural disaster, are also depressed and showing stress-related symptoms.
As part of an assignment for his Introduction to Psychology class, Gilbert has to read a journal article, summarize it, and compare it to what is reported in his textbook. Gilbert selects the article "Effects of Severe Daily Events on Mood," Stone & Neale (1984). If Gilbert wanted to read about the study's contributions and significance, he should look at which section of the article? a. Method b. Results c. Introduction d. Discussion
d. Discussion
probabilistic
Describing the empirical method, stating that science is intended to explain a certain proportion (but not necessarily all) of the possible cases.
confederate
An actor who is directed by the researcher to play a specific role in a research study.
meta-analysis
A way of mathematically averaging the effect sizes of all the studies that have tested the same variables to see what conclusion that whole body of evidence supports.
review journal article
An article summarizing all the studies that have been published in one research area.
How are empirical journal articles different from review journal articles? How is each type of article different from a chapter in an edited book?
Empirical journal articles report for the first time, the results of an empirical research study. Review journal articles are a summary of all published studies that have been done in one research area. Chapters are not peer-reviewed as rigorously as empirical journal articles or review articles.
If you encounter a psychological trade book, what signals that the information it contains is research-based?
The best way to tell is to look at the end of the book, where you may find footnotes or references documenting the research studies on which the arguments are based.
effect size
The magnitude of a relationship between two or more variables.
bias blind spot
The tendency for people to think that compared to others, they are less likely to engage in biased reasoning.
confirmatory hypothesis testing
The tendency to ask only the questions that will lead to the expected answer.
present/present bias
The tendency to rely only on evidence that is present (e.g., instances in which both a treatment and a desired outcome are present) and ignore evidence that is absent (e.g., instances in which a treatment is absent or the desired outcome is absent) when evaluating the support for a conclusion.
availability heuristic
The tendency to rely predominantly on evidence that easily comes to mind rather than use all possible evidence in evaluating a conclusion.
Which of the following is NOT an example of faulty thinking that might occur when relying on intuition? a. testing your hunches through systematic, empirical observations b. coming to a conclusion just because it "makes sense" c. noticing the instances that occur when we expect them to d. focusing on the instances that come to mind quickly
a. testing your hunches through systematic, empirical observations FEEDBACK: Thinking the Easy Way — Only solution d is an application of scientific principles.
Pavlina believes that people in red cars are much more likely to speed than people in cars of other colors. She is probably the victim of what tendency? a. the present/present bias b. cherry-picking evidence c. the bias blind spot d. the availability heuristic
a. the present/present bias FEEDBACK: Present/Present Bias — She probably notices all the red cars that speed, but fails to notice the other cars that speed or the red cars that don't speed.
In reading an empirical journal article, what are the two questions you should be asking as you read? a. what is the argument? What is the evidence to support the argument? b. why was this research done? Were there any significant findings? c. how reputable is (are) the author(s)? Did the findings include support for the hypotheses? d. how does this research relate to other research? What are ways to extend this research further?
a. what is the argument? What is the evidence to support the argument?
As part of an assignment for his Introduction to Psychology class, Gilbert has to read a journal article, summarize it, and compare it to what is reported in his textbook. Gilbert selects the article "Effects of Severe Daily Events on Mood," Stone & Neale (1984). If Gilbert wanted to read about the study's contributions and significance, he should look at which section of the article? a. Results b. Discussion c. Introduction d. Method
b. Discussion FEEDBACK: Reading the Research — The discussion section includes a discussion of the study's contributions and significance.
After two students from his shock commit suicide, Marcelino concludes that the most likely cause of death in teenagers is suicide. In fact, suicide is not the most likely cause of death in teens. What happened? a. Marcelino was probably a victim of the bias blind spot b. Marcelino was probably influenced by the availability heuristic; he was too influenced by cases that came easily to mind c. Marcelino thought about too many examples of teens who died from other causes besides suicide d. Marcelino did not consider possible confounds
b. Marcelino was probably influenced by the availability heuristic; he was too influenced by cases that came easily to mind
As part of an assignment for his Introduction to Psychology class, Gilbert has to read a journal article, summarize it, and compare it to what is reported in his textbook. Gilbert selects the article "Effects of Severe Daily Events on Mood," Stone & Neale (1984). If Gilbert wanted to repeat the study, which section would he consult to find the details of the study's design? a. Introduction b. Method c. Discussion d. Results
b. Method FEEDBACK: What You Will Find in an Empirical Journal Article — An ideal Method section will contain enough detail that you can repeat the study without contacting the authors.
A school district decides to compare a new math textbook to the textbook that has been in use for the past few years. Each of the fourth graders in one school is assigned to be in one of two classes, one in which a teacher continues using the old book and another in which a new teacher uses the new book. The school administrators compare the average scores of the two classes on a mathematics standardized test at the end of the year to determine which book is better. Which of the following is a potential confound in this study? a. There are different children in fourth grade this year than there were last year. b. The teachers have different amounts of experience using the books. c. The standardized test is graded incorrectly. d. Both classes have children who report that they do not like math.
b. The teachers have different amounts of experience using the books. FEEDBACK: Experience is Confounded — The teachers having different amounts of experience using the book is the only problem that varies systematically along with the textbook version, so it is the only one that could be a confound.
In a developmental psychology class, Trina learned about Baumarind's (1971, 1991) work on parenting styles. She recognized that her parents used an authoritarian style of parenting, as did all her relatives. Since that was the style of parenting she planned to use, she researched the advantages to that style, while ignoring any studies that support the use of another parenting style. What is the term for what she was doing? a. creating a good story b. cherry-picking the evidence c. showing a self-serving bias d. confirmatory hypothesis testing
b. cherry-picking the evidence
Which of the following is a quantitative technique used in some review articles that combines the results of many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude of a relationship? a. analysis of variance b. meta-analysis c. empiricism d. macro-analytical procedure
b. meta-analysis FEEDBACK: Journal Articles — Meta-analysis combines the results of many studies and summarizes the results in the effect size.
Which of the following is NOT a format in which psychological scientists typically publish their research? a. empirical journal articles b. popular magazine articles c. review journal articles d. chapters in edited books
b. popular magazine articles FEEDBACK: Consulting Scientific Sources: Journal Articles, Chapters, and Books — Magazines are written for the general public by journalists who typically write about the research of a psychological scientist as part of the journal-to-journalism cycle.
Which of the following is not a place where psychological scientists publish their research? a. scientific journals b. popular magazines c. chapters in edited books d. full-length books
b. popular magazines
Carolyn sometimes taps on the basketball before shooting a free throw. She has noticed the times when she taps and makes the free throw more than she notices the times she makes the free throw without tapping the ball. Carolyn is experiencing the __________. a. bias blind spot b. present/present bias c. confound bias d. cherry-picking
b. present/present bias FEEDBACK: Intuition Is Biased by Faulty Thinking — Carolyn notices the times when the treatment (tapping on the ball) is present and the outcome (making a basket) is present more often than she notices times she makes a basket without tapping or tapping without making a basket.
After two students from his school commit suicide, Marcelino thinks that the most likely cause of death in teenagers is suicide. What type of bias is affecting in his thinking? a. confirmatory hypothesis testing b. the availability heuristic c. the present/present bias d. cherry-picking evidence
b. the availability heuristic FEEDBACK: The Pop-Up Principle — For Marcelino, these suicides are vivid, recent, and more memorable than other causes of death.
What does it mean to say that research is probabilistic? a. researchers refer to the probability that their theories are correct b. research predicts all possible results c. research conclusions are meant to explain a certain promotion of possible cases, but not all possible cases d. if there are exceptions to a research result, it means that the theory is probably incorrect
c. research conclusions are meant to explain a certain promotion of possible cases, but not all possible cases
Research suggests that the time a student spends studying for an exam is positively related to the grade that student receives on the exam. However, last week you took an exam without studying and got an A on the exam. What should you conclude about the relationship between study time and exam scores? a. Since your experience was different than the research, you should conclude that there is no relationship between study time and exam scores. b. You should ignore the research and base your conclusions on your own experience. c. You should conclude that the research findings were probably wrong. d. Although your experience with one exam is an exception, the research findings explain a certain proportion of the many possible cases.
d. Although your experience with one exam is an exception, the research findings explain a certain proportion of the many possible cases. FEEDBACK: Controlled Research is Better than Experience — Research findings do not explain every case, but they explain a certain proportion of the many possible cases.
Which of the following is NOT a reason why basing one's conclusions on research is superior to basing one's conclusions on intuition? a. Intuition may lead you to a conclusion that makes logical sense but is incorrect. b. Intuition may lead you to a conclusion that fits with what you already believed but is incorrect. c. Intuition may lead you to a conclusion that comes to mind easily but is incorrect. d. Intuition is always wrong.
d. Intuition is always wrong. FEEDBACK: The Research vs. Your Intuition — Intuition might lead you to a conclusion that is incorrect, but intuition isn't always wrong.
