Research Methods Exam 1 (CH 1)

Steps of the Scientific Method

1. Observe behavior or other phenomena 2. Form a tentative answer or explanation (a hypothesis) 3. Use your hypothesis to generate a testable prediction 4. Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations 5. Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis

Steps in the Research Process

1.Find a research idea: select a topic and search the literature to find an unanswered question. 2.Form a hypothesis. 3.Determine how you will define and measure your variables. 4.Identify the participants or subjects for the study, decide how they will be selected, and plan for their ethical treatment 5.Select a research strategy 6.Select a research design 7.Conduct the study 8.Evaluate the data 9.Report the results 10.Refine or reformulate your research idea ► Return to step 2 and continueImportant: There are no final answers

Empirical

Answers are obtained by making structured or systematic observations Results will provide clear support for the hypothesis or will clearly refute the hypothesis

Rational Method Example

Argument •Having a frightening experience with a dog causes fear of dogs in the future. •Amy has a fear of dogs. •Therefore, Amy had a frightening experience with a dog in her past. -> logical conclusion based on the premises

What should you do in Step 7?

conduct the study •Now you decide whether the study will be conducted in a laboratory or in the field (in the real world). •Will you observe the participants individually or in groups?

Participants

humans who take part in a research study

What is step 5?

-Step 5 is to compare the actual observations with the predictions that were made from the hypothesis. ex) •In the swearing study they found greater pain tolerance in the swearing condition than in the neutral-word condition, which supports the original hypothesis that swearing reduces the perceived intensity of pain. •Not all the participants showed the same level of pain reduction. For example, it is possible that people who swear a lot in their everyday lives do not get the same relief as people for whom swearing is a novel and emotionally stimulating act. •Finally, if the results showed no difference in pain tolerance between the two conditions, then we would have to conclude that swearing does not affect the experience of pain. •In that case, other factors must be considered, and other hypotheses must be tested.

What are the methods of acquiring knowledge?

-Nonscientific approaches -scientific method

Limitation to method of empiricism

Observations can be misinterpreted. Sensory experience can be swayed by beliefs. Time-consuming and sometimes dangerous. If I wanted to determine whether some mushrooms are poisonous, I would rather ask an expert than try the empirical method.

What should you do in Step 1?

Select a general topic area (such as human development, perception, or social interaction).

premise statements

Sentences used in logical reasoning that describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true. ex) Having a frightening experience with a dog causes fear of dogs in the future. •Amy has a fear of dogs.

Step 2 usually begins by identifying other factors, _______, that are associated with your observation.

variables ex) what variables are associated with swearing?

Step 10: Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea

•Most research studies generate more questions than they answer. •If your results support your original hypothesis, it does not mean that you have found a final answer. •Instead, the new information from your study simply means that it is now possible to extend your original question into new domains or make the research question more precise.

What should you do in Step 2?

•The next task is to form a hypothesis, or a tentative answer to the question. •The goal of the research study is to demonstrate that your your hypothesis is correct.

What should you do in Step 3?

•You must determine how you will define and measure your variables. •The variables identified in the research hypothesis must be defined in a manner that makes it possible to measure them by some form of empirical observation.

In the context of science, a statement that describes or explains a relationship between or among variables is called:

A hypothesis

Method of authority

A method of acquiring knowledge in which a person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area. Quickest way to obtain answers** ex) dr fauci

Method of Tenacity

A method of acquiring knowledge in which information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it. ex) "You cannot teach an old dog new tricks" and "Opposites attract." presented over and over and accepted as true

Rational method aka rationalism

A method of acquiring knowledge that involves seeking answers by the use of logical reasoning. Ex: Is amy afraid of dogs?

Empirical Method aka Empiricism

A method of acquiring knowledge that uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge. Ex: Based on the philosophy that all knowledge is acquired through the senses.

Pseudoscience

A set of ideas based on nonscientific theory, faith and belief. Lacks some of the key components essential to scientific research Ex: aromatherapy, astrology, and intelligent design.

Step 2: Hypothesis

A statement that provides a tentative description or explanation for the relationship between variables. A statement that describes or explains a relationship between variables; "best guess". Ex: Swearing reduces the experience of pain.

Deeply religious individuals may defer to their religious leaders for all types of decisions, including those that seem unrelated to religion. This method of acquiring knowledge, called the method of faith, is a variant of which method?

Authority

ara relies on news from a network known to have an extremely liberal slant, and Constance relies on news from a network known to have an extremely conservative slant. No matter what has occurred, it seems as though their takes are diametrically opposed and completely irreconcilable. Both Sara and Constance are relying on the method of

Authority

Finding an unanswered research question is often the result of:

Critical reading

What should you do in Step 4?

Decide what individuals will participate, determine how many individuals you will need, and plan where and how to recruit them. •Participants •Subjects

Nina is about to start chemotherapy for cancer. She is aware that chemotherapy can cause vomiting and diarrhea, and therefore reasons that she, too, will experience vomiting and diarrhea. Which of the following best describes Nina's reasoning?

Deduction

A drawback of the method of tenacity is that it:

Does not allow for the correction of erroneous ideas

Limitations of method of authority

Does not always provide accurate information. Often accepts expert's statements as fact (method of faith). Not all "experts" are experts.

Three principles of the scientific method

Empirical, Public, and Objective

Jared relies on looking out the window to decide what the day's weather will be like. Jared is relying on which method?

Empiricism

Which method of acquiring knowledge can be time consuming and sometimes even dangerous?

Empiricism

In a recent debate about a sometimes-controversial scientific theory, Debater A was able to list observations that would cause her to modify the theory Debater B supported, while Debater B said nothing would cause him to change his views. This suggests that Debater B is:

Engaging in pseudoscience

Tim watches a well-known "reality" competition for fashion designers and, based on his observations of the contestants, concludes that fashion designers are prone to artificially coloring their hair and wearing long, flowing tops. Tim is engaging in:

Induction

What does it mean that the scientific method is viewed as a circular process or a spiral of steps?

Initial observations lead to a hypothesis and a prediction, which leads to more observations and then to a new hypothesis.

Jan decides to play the lottery because she just feels like it is her day to win. She picks the numbers based on those that feel right. Jan is relying on which of the following for her decisions?

Intuition

Limitations to the Rational Method

Limitations: -Logical conclusions are only valid if the premise statements are true. -The rational method "assumes" the premise statements are true. -People are not very good at logical reasoning. -Sometimes the argument does not logically support the conclusion.

5 Nonscientific approaches (Methods of acquiring knowledge)

Method of tenacity Method of intuition Method of authority -method of faith Rational method Method of empiricism

Public

Observations are available for the evaluation by others. Replication, or repetition of obsevation, allows verification of the findings.

Limitation of Method of Tenacity

Potential inaccuracies; no method for correcting erroneous ideas.

The primary distinction between quantitative and qualitative research is that quantitative research typically:

Produces numerical scores

Angela likes to try to reason things out and often creates lists of pros and cons to aid her in making decisions. Angela is using the method of:

Rationalism

Rationalism vs. Empiricism

Rationalism is a theory based on the claim that reason is the source of knowledge Empiricism is a theory based on the claim that experience is the source of knowledge Rationalists believe in intuition and empiricists do not believe in intuition rationalism. claim that individuals have innate knowledge or concepts., but empiricisms claim that individuals have no innate knowledge

Peggy is fascinated by the patterns between diet and behavior in children. She is surprised to learn that, when several researchers tried to repeat a small study of the impact of a gluten- and casein-free diet on the behavior of children with autism, they found the diet failed to produce statistically significant behavioral changes. This process of repeating experiments is known as:

Replication

What should you do in Step 9?

Report results •Observations and results must be public. •Many reasons to report research results.

Quantitative

Research produces numerical scores; Submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation. Ex: researcher would develop a test to measure depression for each participant and then compute an average score to describe the amount of depression for different subgroups.

What is Step 4?

Step 4 is to evaluate the prediction using direct observation (the empirical method). •This is the research or data collection phase of the scientific method. ex)In the swearing study, researchers created a painful experience by having participants put one hand into ice-cold water and measured pain tolerance by measuring how long each participant was able to withstand the pain.

Upon hearing that one of her favorite actors has died, Natasha worries out loud about who the other two deaths will involve, as she is certain that deaths come in threes. Natasha's assertion that deaths come in threes is based on which of the following?

Tenacity

step 3: Deduction

The use of a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about the specific examples. Deduction: decrease

When the scientific method is being used, which of the following describes the characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals?

Variables

Method of Intuition

a method of acquiring knowledge in which information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or "gut feeling"

Argument

a set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion Ex: Having a frightening experience with a dog causes fear of dogs in the future. Amy has a fear of dogs. Therefore, Amy had a frightening experience with a dog in her past.

Method of Faith

a variant of the method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure and, therefore, accept information from the authority without doubt or challenge Ex: religion, young children have absolute faith in the answers they get from their parents

Russell is shopping for a new car, and when he walks into the showroom, he notices huge monitors playing endorsements by famous athletes. He recognizes that reliance on the method of __________ is a common advertising ploy.

authority

Qualitative Research

based on making observations; careful observation of participants (often including interaction with participants), usually accompanied by extensive note taking. Ex: researcher studying depression would talk with participants, asking questions and listening to answers, and then prepare a written narrative describing the behaviors and attitudes that have been observed

Variables

characteristics or conditions that change or have different values for different individuals.

What should you do in Step 8?

evaluate the data •Once the data is collected, you use various statistical methods to examine and evaluate the data. •Draw graphs, compute means or correlations to describe your data, and use inferential statistics to help determine whether the results can be generalized to the rest of the population.

Limitation of method of faith

it allows no mechanism to test the accuracy of the information.

Limitations of method of intution

no method for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge.

Subjects

nonhumans who take part in a research study

Objective

outcome is not skewed by bias.

In logical reasoning, _________ statements describe facts or assumptions that are presumed to be true.

premise

Step 3 involves taking the hypothesis and applying a specific, observable, ______

real-world situation

Science vs. Pseudoscience

science: -willingness to change with new evidence -ruthless peer review -takes account of all new discoveries -invites criticism -verifiable results -limits claims of usefulness -accurate measurements pseudoscience: -fixed ideas -no peer review -selects only favorable discoveries -sees criticism as conspiracy -non-repeatable results -claims of widespread usefulness -ball-park measured

What should you do in Step 6?

select a research design •Selecting a research design involves making decisions about the specific methods and procedures you will use to conduct the study .•Different designs and their individual strengths and weaknesses are considered.

What should you do in Step 5?

select research strategy •Choosing a research strategy involves deciding on the general approach you will take to evaluate your research hypothesis. •The choice of a research strategy is usually determined by one of two factors.

Research strategy

the choice of a research strategy is usually determined by one of two factors 1. The type of question being asked 2. Ethics and other constraints.

Step 1 includes induction (inductive reasoning)

the use of a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations. inductive reasoning reaches past general observations ex: Suppose that you taste a green apple and discover that it is sour. A second green apple is also sour and so is the third. Soon, you reach the general conclusion that all green apples are sour.

Methods of acquiring knowledge

the variety of ways in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions

step 3: We use our hypothesis as a ________ and then determine the conclusions or predictions that must logically follow if the hypothesis is true.

universal premise statement

Scientific Method

uses observations to develop a hypothesis, then uses the hypothesis to make logical predictions that can be empirically tested by making additional, systematic observations.