Research Methods Final
A regression equation is used for...
making predictions about a second variable, given the value of the first variable
In a cross-cultural study of helping behavior, researchers ask local residents for directions to the train station. The study takes place in London, Paris, Berlin, and Rome. What's the design?
ex post facto design
If a study lasts for an appreciable period of time, participants might learn new things or grow wiser in some way, thereby producing a threat to internal validity known as...
maturation
A researcher wishes to examine the effects of a reinforcement program on a child's behavior, as it occurs in three different environments. A ___________ design should be used to evaluate the program.
multiple baseline
In a ______ study, there are several predictor variables and one criterion variable.
multiple regression
Return rate of written surveys is often a problem. _______ is when those who return surveys differ in some important way from those who don't return them.
nonresponse bias
In observational research, _______ means having preconceived ideas about what will be observed and having those ideas color one's observations.
observer bias
The effects of third variables can be evaluated by using a statistical procedure that involves calculating _____ correlations.
partial
A researcher investigates exercise practices and emotional stability and finds a correlation of +.8 between a measure of exercise frequency and a measure of emotional stability (low score = unstable; high score + stable). Which of the following is true? You can safely predict that the relationship will be a strong one for 80% of the population If somebody is unstable emotionally, exercise is the cure for the problem Emotional instability can cause people to drop their exercise program People who exercise a lot tend to be emotionally stable
people who exercise a lot tend to be emotionally stable
In _________ sampling, each member of the population has some definable probability of being selected for the sample.
probability
A single factor experiment that uses a subject variable is referred to as an ______ design?
ex post facto
In order to ensure that equal numbers of participants are randomly assigned to each condition of a study, _____ is sometimes used.
block randomization
Longitudinal design is to cross-sectional design as ____ is to _____.
within-subjects; between-subjects
When the behavior of a participant in the experimental group affects what happens to a participant in the control group, the study is using a _____ control group.
yoked
Multiple baseline designs are preferred over withdrawal designs when...
the behavior being altered is self-destructive
A well-known example of a study that produced a nonlinear effect was the memory study by Ebbinghaus that produced his forgetting curve. Which of the following is true about his study? It was multilevel, matched group design It was a single-factor, two level, repeated measures design The independent variable was a "savings" score The independent variable was the amount of time between studying and recalling
the independent variable was the amount of time between studying and recalling
Which of the following correlations would be least effective for making predictions? .16 -.09 +1.00 -.76
-.09
In a taste test comparing popcorn brands A, B, C and D, the experimenter decides to use a Latin square for counterbalancing. Assuming that 10 participants will be tested in each of the sequences used, how many people will be needed to complete the study?
40
Willy runs a small company with 10 employees. He decides to pick a simple random sample of 3 employees to go on a business trip. He numbers them 0-9 and uses the random digit table printed below to select the sample. Which employees are in the sample? 67197 28310 90341
6, 7, 1
For which of these empirical questions would a control group most clearly be needed?
If institutionalized elderly are given responsibility for meal planning, will it improve their psychological health?
What is the difference between a z-test and a 1-sample t-test?
A z-test uses population standard deviation whereas a t-test uses sample standard deviation.
In terms of its ability to rule out alternative explanations for a behavior change, the _____ design is the weakest of the single-subject designs.
A-B
Describe an advantage and a disadvantage of including DK alternatives.
An advantage to DK alternatives includes giving participants an option to choose in a survey regarding a question that they do not know a single thing about. A disadvantage is that DK alternatives give an "easy out" for participants as they may overuse the option.
In which of the following instances is social desirability bias most likely to pose a problem to the validity of research data? Asking college student participants for their feedback on a textbook Asking adult participants about what they would do in certain situations if there were no legal consequences Asking college student participants to rate the intelligence of their own peers anonymously Asking child participants about which toy they enjoyed playing with the most
Asking adult participants about what they would do in certain situations if there were no legal consequences
In a chi-square test, how do expected frequencies relate to the null hypothesis?
Expected frequencies related to the null hypothesis because they are the same as the observed frequencies.
True or False: a confidence interval represents the most likely location of the true population mean.
False
The term _____ effect has traditionally been used to describe what happens when participants do not behave normally, simply because they know they are part of an experiment
Hawthorne
What does a confidence interval represent?
It shows the chances the a sample will be between a pair of values near the mean.
How does multiple regression differ from factor analysis? What do they have in common?
Multiple regression is where you compare criterion variable and a few predictor variables whereas in factor analysis is where the experimenter is looking for some relationship between variables. What they have in come is that these factors, can be used as variables.
How does random selection differ from random assignment, and what is the purpose of the latter?
Random selection refers to random sampling during the experiment whereas random assignment refers to placement of the participants within experiment and control groups. The purpose of random assignment is to ensure that the experiment is not ruined by the differences or biases of any individual person.
Demand characteristics refer to:
aspects of the experimental procedure that give away the study's hypotheses
What is meant by the problem of "reactivity", and how can it be overcome?
Reactivity is when the participant in the experiment changes their behavior because they know they are being observed and it can be overcome by not revealing the details of the experiment or by not letting the participant know they are being observed.
Ellen signs up for a study in which she completes the Stroop test. Then she is asked to do the task again, but this time the words are turned upside down. What's the design?
Single factor multilevel design
Describe at least one reason for small N designs.
Small N designs avoid problems with the lack of individual-subject validity.
Some studies last long enough for a significant number of people to drop out; this problem is called...
attrition
The first step in any applied behavior analysis is to establish a _______ level of responding.
baseline
Small N designs have been criticized for...
being unable to test for interactions
What does it mean to say that a sample is representative?
When you say a sample is representative, you are trying to say that the sample accurately reflects the members of that population.
For any experiment investigating the effect of X on Y,
Y is the dependent variable
In a between-subjects design, the differences between conditions could be due to all of the following except... The effect of the independent variable A carry-over effect Random error Some confounding factor
a carry-over effect
Social validity is said to occur when....
a procedure shown to be effective is recognized as such by the community and widely used
Which of the following studies would be most likely to use a wait-list control group? A study evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy for depression A study evaluating the how waiting for the doctor produces frustration A study testing the effects of different dosage levels of a new drug A study comparing environments that differ in terms of how crowded they are
a study evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy for depression
In a chi-square test, how do expected frequencies relate to the null hypothesis?
it means that the overall conclusion is not reflected in the behavior of individual participants
A regression line for a correlation of -1.00 would...
higher for low values on the X-axis than for high values on the X-axis
There are 2 different groups in a study, and participants are randomly assigned to one group or the other. What's the design?
independent groups design.
In a within-subjects design, the differences between experimental conditions could be due to all the following except... Random error Individual differences Some confounding factor The effect of the independent variable
individual differences
If a study is free from confounding factors, it is said to have...
internal validity
Which of the following is true about Woodworth's so-called "Columbia bible?" it was the first to distinguish between subject and manipulated independent variables it created the scales of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) it made a clear distinction between experimental and correlational research it was the first to distinguish between internal and external validity
it made a clear distinction between experimental and correlational research
All single-subject designs include...
a time during which a baseline level of behavior is measured
For each study below, indicate whether you think the independent variable should be a between- or a within-subjects variable and explain your decision. A developmental psychologist predicts cultural differences in moral development. A sensory psychologist predicts that it is easier to distinguish slightly different shades of grays under daylight than under fluorescent light.
a) In this experiment, I would make more sense if the IV was a within-subjects variable because that way you could track moral development consistent with the same subjects. b) In this experiment, the IV should be a between-subjects variable because this way you get an accurate reading for many different people.
Which of the following is true about case study research? The data from the subjects of case studies can be limited by memory failures It might be the only way to study some rare individual All of these answers Experimenter bias can affect what the researcher records about the case
all of these answers
Creating equivalent groups is a design problem for...
between-subjects designs
Over a series of trials, participants experiencing one order of conditions might have an advantage over participants experiencing another. These effects are called...
carry-over effects
A _________ refers to a detailed description and analysis of a single individual, such as Little Hans.
case study
The _______ design is based on the operant procedure called shaping.
changing criterion
Small N research designs...
characterized most of the early research in psychology
In a cross-sectional comparison of intelligence in people aged 20, 40 and 60, differences might be due to aging but they might also be due to the different rearing conditions experienced by participants. This latter interpretation illustrates a(n) ______ effect.
cohort
How should a multilevel, independent groups design be analyzed if there are three groups (A, B, C) in the study?
complete a one-way ANOVA
Uncontrolled extraneous variables are referred to as...
confounds
Studies of aggression have sometimes been criticized for developing questionable operational definitions of aggression (e.g. horn honking). This is primarily a criticism of _____ validity.
construct
The use of control groups has been criticized on ethical grounds because....
control group participants could be missing an effective therapy
Studies with 2 levels of a repeated-measures independent variable would be statistically analyzed by using a t-test for ....
dependent groups
A cross lagged technique is sometimes used to help solve the _________ problem.
directionality
In a bivariate correlation between 2 variables, A and B, A could be causing B or B could be causing A. This is known as the _________ problem.
directionality
Experimenter bias can be reduced by using a _____ procedure in which neither the experimenter nor the subject knows which condition is being tested.
double blind
One of the defining features of any experiment is careful attempt to control ____ variables?
extraneous
In ________ a large number of variables are measured and correlated with each other. It is then determined whether groups of these variables cluster together to form "factors".
factor analysis
In a study of the effects of motivation on maze-running speed, 50 rats are tested in a 20-foot alley maze (i.e., no turns, just a straight run from one end to the other). Some rats perform the task after going 5 hours without food, others after going 10 hours without food, and the others after going 15 hours without food. Rats are placed in different conditions in such a way as to ensure that the average weights of the rats in all conditions are equal. What's the design?
matched groups design
In a __________ observation study, the goal is to study the behaviors of people or animals as they act in their everyday environments.
naturalistic
In a ____________________ high scores on one variable are associated with low scores on a second variable.
negative correlation
If a study has just one independent variable, adding more than two levels provides the opportunity to discover _______ effects.
nonlinear
In studies evaluating the influence of a drug, those in the experimental group are often compared with those in a _____ control group.
placebo
After averaging 20 points per game for her college basketball team over the first 15 games, Amanda scored 37 points one night. Because of ______, she will almost certainly score ____ points in the next game.
regression to the mean; fewer
The sequence ABCDDCBA is indicative of _____ counterbalancing.
reverse
A type of graph called a ________ the axes represent two variables being correlated
scatterplot
Sometimes performance differences could be attributed to an independent variable or to some basic difference in the composition of the two groups involved. When this occurs, there is said to be a threat due to...
selection
Pearson's r ....
should not be used if the relationship is nonlinear
Which of the following is true about subject (participant) pools? students must be given a reasonable alternative to research participation to insure participation in research, and therefore a continuation of progress, the APA encourages schools to demand full participation from psychology students an hour of participation is considered to be the equivalent of a 10-page paper because of the new APA ethics code, they are no longer used
students must be given a reasonable alternative to research participation
Age, gender, and socioeconomic class are all examples of _____ variables.
subject
With ____ participants complete different tasks, whereas with ____ participants are told how to do certain tasks.
task variables; instructional variables
As correlational studies cannot control extraneous variables, these factors can provide alternative explanations for the obtained correlation; these factors are sometimes called ________ variables.
third
As a technique for creating equivalent groups, when is matching preferred over random assignment?
when some extraneous variable is known to correlate with the dependent variable