Research test 1

DIALECTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH: Approaches to Theory Construction

Approaches to Theory Construction: -Inductive/Bottom‐Up approaches start with a specific or limited set of instances and seek to generalize theory and explanation from this subset to a larger or more general set of phenomena. Theories are developed and hypotheses may then be derived. (aka exploratory method) -Deductive/Top‐Down approaches begin with hypotheses generated from the professional literature or previous research experience. The move from general (theory) to specific (observations) is accomplished by gathering data and examining it for patterns that support or fail to support the hypotheses. (aka confirmatory method)

nonscientific sources of data

As incipient commonsense psychologists, we all tend to rely on unreliable sources for our information. Too, we may not get information from multiple sources that might give us a more balanced, holistic perspective.

How to judge the quality go internet resources

Authority = .edu (higher education institution),.org (nonprofit),.gov (branch of US fed gov,.com (commercial vendor,.net (anyone who can pay for a space) Accuracy = high when web lists author of the content and the institution that publishes the page and way to contact the author (Look at credentials of person and check for contact info, purpose of information, information a report of some study? Objectivity (web has little or no advertising and provides accuracy and objective info Currency Coverage (don't have to pay fees or installing software

Ethical Issues in Preparing the Research Report

Authorship = identifying individuals responsible for research. - Based on who makes a substantial contribution Writing the research report. - Plagiarism: self and/or others. - Short vs. long quotations are quoted differently. Former uses quote marks; latter uses block indention technique.

WAYS OF KNOWING ABOUT BEHAVIOR Commonsense Psychology (Fritz Heider, 1958)

Commonsense psychology involves a nonscientific, impressionistic, intuitive way of understanding the world....the world as it seems or appears on first contact. (aka, naïve realism, naïve empiricism). - although commonsense psychology is a good way in which to get ideas about phenomena to investigate, it fails as a systematic method by which to obtain data for research in counseling and in psychology. It simply isn't rigorous enough (i. e., reliable or valid). Commonsense psychology is limited by 2 things: 1. Nonscientific sources of data 2. Nonscientific decision‐making

DIALECTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 2 Types of Explanation

DIALECTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH 2 Types of Explanation: -Idiographic/Idiopathic approaches = seek a more complete explanation for single phenomena (for a person, event, or situation) or a limited class of phenomena. -Nomothetic/Statistical approaches = seek to explain classes of phenomena (for groups of people, types of situations or events). The goal here is to generate widely applicable theories and to test them empirically.

Ethics

Def = principles and guidelines that help us uphold the things we value -what we should do (prescribed) and not do (proscribed) Research Ethics = set of principles developed to guide and assist researchers in conducting ethical studies research misconduct = the fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing or reviewing research or reporting research results -short quotation = quotation of 4 or more words, but fewer than 40 around which quotation makes are used; must use quotation marks -blocked quotation = quotation of 40 or more words using indented format (including citation and page number) -self-plagiarism = presenting one's words a original when they have been used previously in another publication

important data bases in ebsco

ERIC = includes all the entries for Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE) and Resources in Education (RIE) PsychINFO = includes the entries for Psychological Abstracts SocINDEX = includes the entries for sociological abstracts Business Source Premier = database containing entries from all areas of business (leadership, management, supervision issues)

Epistemology

Epistemology: The study and science of knowing. -science = an approach for the generation of knowledge

Ethical Skepticism

Ethical Skepticism = ethical decisions are a matter of each individual's conscience. -Ethical rules are arbitrary and relative to individual people and cultures. -aka conscience -This is OK, but we have to remember the professional ethical codes to which we can/will be held accountable.

Nonscientific Inferences

When taking the commonsense approach, we tend not to think as rationally as we should about what causes behavior or behavior‐related phenomena. Bias = We tend not to see behavior in a balanced way, but instead see it from the perspectives of our implicit personality theories (personal theories about what causes what). Causality = We frequently infer causal relationships between things we should not (i. e., the gambler's fallacy—aka the lottery fallacy).

Feasibility of the Study

You must decide if the study you want to conduct is feasible -If not, then don't do it! - Do‐able is better than complex & grand. Things to consider in determining feasibility: - Time required - Can you get the necessary research participants -Expense - Expertise of the researcher - Ethical is **Good research takes the time that it takes. Don't let your reach exceed your grasp.

Types of research

basic = research aimed at generating fundamental knowledge and theoretical understanding about basic human and other natural processes applied = research focused on answering practical questions to provide relatively immediate solutions action = applied research focused on solving practitioners' local problems orientational = explicitly done for the purpose of advancing an ideological position or orientation

research protocol

the document submitted to IRB by the researcher for review -IRB is required to make judgments regarding the ethical appropriateness of the proposed research and ensure that research protocols are explained to research participants and any risks of harm are reasonable in relation to the hoped-for benefits -informatuon included in research protocol = purpose of research, relevant background and rationale, participant population, experimental design and method, incentives offered, risks and benefits and precautions to be taken, privacy and confidentiality

empiricism/rationalism

the idea that knowledge comes from experience -empirical statement = statement based on observation, experience, or experiment -rationalism = te philosophical idea that reason is the primary sour of knowledge

criterion of falsifiability

the property that statements and theories should be testable and refutable

Theory and Principle of Evidence

theory = small bit of data and we create ideas that might be how things work principle of evidence = supports or shows lack of support for a theory (the philosophical idea that empirical research provides evidence, not proof) *never prove anything in research, but we gather evidence

The Golden Rules

• Confucius: What you do not want done to yourself, do not do unto others. • Aristotle: We should behave to others as we wish others to behave to us. • Judaism: What you dislike for yourself, do not do to anyone. • Hinduism: Do nothing to thy neighbor which thou wouldst not have him do to thee thereafter. • Islam: No one of you is a believer unless he loves for his brother what we loves for himself. • Buddhism: Hurt not others with that which pains thyself. • Christianity: Do unto others as you would have them do unto you. • Social Justice: Do unto others as they would like to have done unto them.

Ideas that can't be resolved through empirical research

- Ideas that involve making value judgments - Moral issues (what should be viewed as good, bad, right, wrong). - What religious doctrine one should believe. - Whether school prayer should be legalized. - Recommendations, prescriptions, proscriptions about behaviors related to one's (or others') health that could raise issues of individual choices / liberties.

Ethical Issues in Electronic Research

- Informed consent 1. Is it necessary? 2. What is public/private? 3. How do you obtain consent? - Maintaining privacy and confidentiality can be difficult. - Debriefing might be needed (just as in other research).

Hypotheses and Mixed Studies

- Might formally state hypothesis to be tested via the quantitative (and potentially qualitative) part of the mixed study. - Hypotheses can be generated during mixed study and then followed with testing in the same study. - Cannot formally state an a priori hypothesis before the study begins.

Freedom to Withdraw

- Participants have the right to withdraw at any time. - Accomplishing this means assuring no coercive pressure to participate is felt by participants. - Special consideration must be given to minors to insure no coercive pressure is felt.

Privacy, Anonymity, and Confidentiality

- Privacy = controlling others' access to information about you. - Anonymity = identity of participants not known to researcher. - Confidentiality = only the researchers know identity of participants. - May be legal requirements about when it must be breached. - Child abuse or neglect, harm to self or others

Institutional review board

- Reviews studies for ethical acceptability. - Researcher must submit IRB Protocol for review by IRB. - Example of IRB Protocol shown in Exhibit 6.6. - The IRB is on your side! The IRB is a wonderful resource for researchers.

Ethical Guidelines for Research with Humans

- Several organizations have established a set of ethical guidelines: 1. American Educational Research Association 2. American Psychological Association 3. American Counseling Association 4. NASPA / CAS

Review of the Literature

- Sources of information: books, journals, computer databases. - Use of the literature review varies depending on whether conducting qualitative or quantitative study -professional literature is peer-reviewed (helps quality)

Protection from Mental and Physical Harm

- Typically not an issue in educational research. - Qualitative research has features that might exclude it from being exempt from IRB oversight: 1. Intimacy 2. Open‐endedness

Passive vs. Active Consent

-Active consent = reading and signing a consent form. -Passive consent = giving consent by not returning consent form. -Example: consent form to parent says to return for only if minor cannot participate. *Active consent is best to use in most cases.

Statement of Mixed Research Question

-Asks question(s) about relationships, process, and contextual interactions to be examined. - A generic example: What works for whom in different contexts?

Statement of Qualitative Research Question

-Asks question(s) about specific process, issue, or phenomenon to be explored or described. -Example: What are the social and cultural characteristics in a successful school where students and teachers get along and students work hard and achieve?

Statement of Purpose in Mixed Research Study

-Based on combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches Might: -Convey sense of emerging design and desire to explore, generate, and test, confirm - State central idea of study - State data collection methods - State units of analysis and/or research sites.

GOOD THINKING -THE HALLMARK OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

-Be open to new ideas. Be provisional and flexible in your outlook -View ideas as propositions with varying levels of support rather than as established facts. -Let conclusions follow from the data rather than distorting findings to conform to the theory. -Adhere to the principles of parsimony. This means that the simplest explanation usually is the best (Occam's Razor).

Information Sources for the Literature Review

-Books = good starting place to get a general overview of the research topic - Journals = reports of the actual research studies - Computer databases = best way to do a literature search for research studies a. ERIC = primary database for education b. PsycINFO = Psychological research c. SocINDEX = Sociological research d. use multiple databases to be comprehensive - Professional Conferences

Value of Completing Literature Review Prior to Conducting Study

-Can determine if your question has been answered. -Provide concepts and theory to incorporate into your study. -Suggest refined research questions and effective approaches. -Provide information about situations and populations needing study.

Two Schools of Thought on Use of the Literature Review in Qualitative Studies

-Complete thorough literature review prior conducting study -> armor yourself of the benefits of prior knowledge that has been done before you - Ignorance is bliss approach -> can jade and bias your own research in your study (can lead to preconceptions -> confirmatory bias)

Literature Review for Quantitative Research Studies

-Completed prior to conduct of study Purpose (Why do this prior to conduct the study): - Determine if question has been researched - Assist in forming research question - Provide information on design of study - Identify methodological issues and challenges -> can look at literature to make sure you do not make the same mistakes as they do - Identify appropriate data collection instruments -> can find instruments that you can control intend of having to make your own instruments which can be a lot of work *the larger the effect, the less people you need for statistical numbers

Informed Consent with Minors

-Consent must be obtained from parent or minor's legal guardian. -Assent must also be obtained from minor. Assent - this is the minor's agreeing to participate after being informed of all aspects of the study that might affect willingness to participate.

Deception

-Deception = researcher provides misleading information or withholds information from participant about nature of study. - Technically violates principle of informed consent. - Ethical standards recognize that it has to be used in some studies. - Should not use any more deception than needed to conduct valid study.

Statement of Purpose in Quantitative Study

-Declarative statement that identifies type of relationship being investigated. - Stated relationship might be a. Descriptive b. Causal c. Predictive - Identifies exact variables to be examined.

Informed Consent

-Def = agreeing to participate after being informed of all aspects of study that might affect willingness to participate (e.g., purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, alternative procedures, limits to confidentiality). - Table 6.2 Information to Include in a Consent Form -UGA has a set of templates for informed consent, debriefing, getting informed consent from parents -IRB has a template

Hypothesis in Qualitative Studies

-Hypotheses usually not stated in qualitative research because of emphasis on exploring and generating information rather than testing hypotheses.

Formulating Hypothesis in quantitative studies

-Hypothesis = formal statement of the predicted relationship among the variables being investigated. -Logically follows the statement of the research question. -Must be capable of being supported or refuted.

Summary of Ethical Issues in Research

-IRB approves of projects -Informed consent (children and at-risk) -Confidentiality/Anonymity -Welfare of human participants (ethical relationships) -Debriefing (honoring commitments) -Ethical behavior as an author/presenter

Statement of Quantitative Research Question

-It is an interrogative sentence (i.e., a question) that asks about a descriptive, causal, or predictive relationship in a set of variables. a. Must be formulated in very specific terms b. Helps insure you understand problem. c. Helps decisions about factors such as who research participants will be, materials and measures to be used in study. - Example: What effect does playing football have on fifth grade students' grade point average during the football season?

Consumer Use of the Literature

-Literature is excellent source of information for questions you might have. - Remember: do not rely on results of one study—must look across studies. -Meta‐analysis = statistical method summarizing results of many studies; Should trust report of meta‐analysis more than single study. - Tables 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8 provide guidelines for evaluating quantitative studies, qualitative studies, and meta‐ analyses, respectively.

scientific assumptions and attitudes

-Modern science assumes that a real world exists and that it is knowable in a stepwise, incremental way through scientific inquiry. Patterns and order in nature will reveal themselves if questions are asked in the right way and if the correct methodologies are used. -We try to understand behavior (subject matter of psychology) through observing and gathering empirical data—especially data that are observable and experienced. -data obtained in this way allows us to begin creating theories about the principles that are behind what we observe. -Theories are interim explanations of observations that may be revised or replaced before we "canonize" the theory in a law. -Laws are general principles that invariantly explain behavior.

DIALECTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH: Focus of Research: Basic vs. Applied

-Not all research is created equally with respect to its nature and purpose -Pure basic Research = quest of fundamental understanding without consideration of use -Use-inspired research = consideration of use and quest of fundamental understanding -Pure applied research = no quest for fundamental understanding with consideration of use

Value of the Ignorance Is Bliss Approach

-Precludes incorporation of preconceived notions. -Permits use of fully exploratory approach, where additional research questions, hypotheses and theory emerge from the data collected. -We recommend always doing some literature review; advantages usually outweigh disadvantages (to help with methodology)

Statement of the Research Questions

-Quantitative research study = Statement focusing on need to explain, predict, or describe some event or outcome. -Qualitative research study = Statement focusing need to explore some process, event, or phenomenon. -Mixed research study = Based on both/mixture of above -research question def: Statement of specific question(s) researcher wants to answer vis empirical research

Statement of Purpose in Qualitative Study

-States intent to explore or understand some phenomenon. Might: - Convey sense of emerging design - State central idea of study - State method by which will collect data - State unit of analysis and/or research site.

Statement of Purpose

-States researcher's intent or objective of the study. - Usually this bears directly on addressing the research question(s). - The purpose of research is to produce empirical data for various purposes

PUBLICIZING AND REPLICATING RESULTS

-We present the results of our research at professional conferences and publish findings in professional journals. -Making the results of research public allows other persons interested in our research to replicate our results. This helps to confirm, revise, and extend knowledge gained through first experiments.

Sources of Research Ideas

-everyday life (scenarios that help create a research question) -practical issues -past research (Possibly most important); in pursuing one research idea, others can pop up - Theory = Explanation or explanatory system that discusses how a phenomenon operates and why it operates as it does a. Goal function of theory: integrate and summarize current knowledge (how well does that do that/exceptions to the theory) b. Tool function of theory: guide research

factors

-psychological factors = individual-level factors -social psychological factors = factors relating individuals to others and to social groups -sociological factors = group and society-level factors

Deontological approach

1. Deontological - judges ethical issues on the basis of some universal code. (prescriptions and proscriptions of what you should do) -Deon is Greek, meaning duty or obligation. - It is one's duty to follow this code without variation. - We have our respective ethical codes for our professions: ACA for Counseling AERA for Education NASPA / CAS for College Student Affairs Administration APA for Psychology

3 INFLUENCES ON OUR PROFESSIONAL BEHAVIOR

1. Morals = Our personal values and standards that tell us what is right and wrong. The inner sources from which we draw guidance (religion, personal experiences, etc.); most of our behaviors are guided by this 2. Ethics = Communal or professional standards that refer to how we should behave in reflecting the values and preferences of our group. In this case we are talking about the standards of conduct for college student affairs administrators, counselors, and related educational professions. 3. Law/Legal Standards = These are the prescriptions and proscriptions for how we should behave in larger society. That is, both the person and the various groups to which s/he belongs are subject to the legal standards of the jurisdiction in which they reside;

THE TOOLS OF SCIENCE

1. Observation—Systematic noting and recording of events that might affect behavior. 2. Measurement—The assignment of numerical values to objects, events, or experiences according to conventional rules. Here, we seek to quantify some aspect of behavior. 3. Experimentation—The systematic manipulation of antecedent conditions (while controlling for the effects of outside influences) to affect behavior in some way that can be observed.

5 aspirational or broad general principles that should be followed

1. Professional Competence = act only in the areas in which you are competent and make sure you are up-to-date in your training 2. Integrity = in all that you o, always be honest, trustworthy, and never jeopardize the welfare of other; this include the ancient greek idea of nonmaleficience or doing no harm to others 3. Professional, scientific, and scholarly responsibility = you must adhere to AERA's 22 ethical standards 4. REspect of People's Rights, Dignity, and Diversity = respect cultural and individual differences and work to eliminate bias and discrimination 5. social responsibility = this includes beneficence, or striking to act for the benefit of others in our society and world

Ethical Concerns

1. Relationship between society and science -Should societal concerns and cultural values direct research? -Who should decide what research is funded and conducted? -typically depends on the benefits/impact/worthiness (helps with funding decisions) 2. Professional issues: -Primary concern here is research misconduct - falsifying, fabricating, or plagiarizing. - Factors contributing to research misconduct: Nonpersonal factors: pressure to publish and get grants., Personal factors: person's psychological state. -Deterrents to research misconduct: Ethical guidelines, IRB oversight, Integrity, Morality 3. Treatment of research participants. -need to be ethically treated -Treatment should minimize psychological and physical harm and maximize benefits to them and to wider society once the research is completed.

Foundations of research in social sciences

1. Scientific assumptions 2. Reliance on observation and data 3. Search for general principles 4. Good thinking (See David Levy's Tools of Critical Thinking) 5. Self‐Correction 6. Dissemination of findings 7. Replication We begin with theories in our respective fields and then attempt to detect patterns in the relationships among relevant variables that we measure in a sufficiently large sample of individuals.

Objectives of educational research

1. exploration = attempting to generate ideas about phenomena 2. description = attempting to describe the characteristics of a phenomenon 3. explanation = attempting to show how and why a phenomenon operates as it does 4. Prediction = attempting to predict or forecast a phenomenon 5. influence = attempting to apply research to make certain outcomes occur

We tend to uncritically accept information from sources (people and things) that:

1. we like 2. seem believable 3. we find attractive 4. are bright, informed, or seem competent 5. have high/respectable status 6. seem powerful and confident In short, trusted friends, respected authorities, and traditions (paradigms) may help us understand reality, but seldom are these sources singly acceptable for a critical understanding.

TWO LAWS OF PSYCHOLOGY

1.Fechner's Law: S = k(log I) (Intensity of a subjective sensation increases as a logarithm of the stimulus intensity) 2. Weber's Law: (Delta)I = kI (Just noticeable differences between stimuli are proportional to the magnitude of the original/comparison stimulus)

Conducting the Literature Search

- Databases = the most efficient way to conduct a literature search - Public Internet: Advantage = Accessible 24 hours a day Disadvantages = Excessive amount of information and Questionable credibility and accuracy of the information

Debriefing

- Debriefing = post study interview explaining all aspects of study (including purpose, deception) and discuss any questions that arise. - Goals of debriefing: 1. Dehoaxing = debrief participants about reasons for deception and reasons for its; attempt to restore trust. 2. Desensitizing = attempt to eliminate any stress or undesirable feelings created by study; explain that their behavior was normal. 3. Explaining more about the research and also answering the participants' questions. Create a sense of good will.

Categories of Review by the IRB

- Exempt = from certain requirements and full committee review. a. Determined by IRB not researcher b. Table 6.4 Exempt Categories - Expedited = rapid review by several IRB members. a. Typically studies involving 1.No more than minimal risk 2. Data collected for non‐research purposes such as records. 3. Data collected from videos, images, audiotapes for research purposes 4. Surveys, interviews, or other minimal risk situations. - Full board review = review by all the member of the IRB

When additional consent is needed?

- For research in schools, consent should also be obtained from school personnel (usually this is required): 1. Teachers 2. Principals 3. Superintendent - Often required by IRBs before study can be approved.

The relationship between theory and experimentation processes

Observation -> Induction -> Theory -> Deduction -> Predicted Observation -> Experimentation -> EITHER Confirmed Observation or Disconfirmed Observation -With Confirmed Observation -> Induction -> Theory Supported -With Disconfirmed Observation -> Deduction -> Theory False

Tuskegee Experiment

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Exempt from protocol categories

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At least 3 perspectives exist about the nature and know ability of reality:

Premodernism: A unitary reality exists and everyone perceives it directly and in the same manner. Each entity appears the same way and means the same thing. Modernism: A unitary reality exists "out there" but is perceived differently by all. Postmodernism: No "objective reality" exists; the only reality is our subjectivity and ensuing constructions of reality.

Informed Consent Process

Prior to conducting research (except for naturalistic observations or anonymous surveys), investigators secure the person's permission to participate in the research. The agreement outlines the responsibilities for each party. Informed consent consists of: 1. a plain‐language document that is understandable 2. telling subjects of the nature of the research 3. telling subjects they are free to withdraw at any time and about the consequences. 4. explaining foreseeable consequences of participating in the research 5. informing subjects about significant factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate (e. g. risks, discomforts, adverse effects, limitations on confidentiality). 6. answering subjects' questions and debriefing them fully.

How do we know what is real?

Reality can be a matter of agreement or belief. Explanations of reality must be logically consistent and make sense. Reality can be discerned and confirmed through direct experience (i. e., measurement of its physical dimensions).

Ways in which past studies can provide ideas for new ideas

Replication = you might decide that you want to repeat a study to see whether you can replicate the results bc you think the author's results have significant educational importance and you want to verify them with different people (MOST IMPORTANT) Testing the external validity (generalizability) of the study = you might have read a lab-based study; see if things work equally well in real life Improving a study's internal validity (accuracy claims about causation) = might realize in a study did not control one or more important variables and the lack of control of these variables led to an ambiguous interpretation of the results Reconciling conflicting results = in read lit on a topic, might find conflicting results and wan tot conduct a study to resolve it (may be due to differences in how the studies were conducted, use of different measurement instruments, or populations Suggestions for future research = look at author's suggestions for future research (easiest way to get ideas) Theses and Dissertations = often have a section devoted to future research that identifies subsequent studies the author believes need tone completed

Research Methodology

Research Methodology: The study and science of how we find out.

Ethical Approaches

There are three major approaches to ethics in research: 1. Deontological approach 2. Ethical skepticism 3. Utilitarianism

DIALECTICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH - Types of data collected and analyzed: Quantitative vs. Qualitative

Types of data collected and analyzed: -Quantitative data takes the form of numbers: what can be measured, what can be estimated through questionnaires, and whatever else of social or behavioral interest that can be logically quantified. Examples: relief reported from depression symptoms via a Beck Depression Inventory; increase/reduction in the number of verbal arguments (or incidents of spousal abuse); length of time for the completion of a mental process (reaction times). -Qualitative data exists in non‐numerical form. It may consist of written or oral accounts of experiences. It may consist of judges/observers opinions about something. This may be data whose major quantitative dimensions are as‐ yet unknown.

Literature Review for Qualitative Research Studies

Used in several ways: - Explain initial theoretical underpinnings of study. - Assist in formulation of research question and selection of study population. - Stimulate new insights and concepts as study is conducted *qualitative = get a lot of information from a small amount of people *Quantitative = get little information from a lot of people

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism - judgments should depend on consequences the study might have, including benefits and costs. - This approach is typically used in research. - It can include consideration of ideas from previous two approaches.

Trait versus situation

We are much more likely to attribute explanations for behavior to the person (and the traits they possess) rather than looking at situational influences. We see people as the authors of their behavior much more than the life plots of which they are a part, except when it comes to judging our own behavior (i. e. actor‐observer bias).

When informed consent can be waived

When study involves minimal risk, informed consent sometimes waived if: - Participation is anonymous. - Cultural norms preclude getting it. - Signing consent form would subject person to legal, social, or economic risk. - Decision about this is made by IRB

reasoning

deductive = the process of drawing a conclusion that is necessarily true if the premises are true -inductive = the process of drawing a conclusion that is probably true (problem is that the future might not resemble the past) -probabilistic = stating what is likely to occur and not what will necessarily occur

Theory

def: an explanation or explanatory system that discusses how a phenomenon operates and why it operates as it does -goal function of theory= making sense out of current knowledge by integrating and summarizing this knowledge -tool function of theory = the guide of research by making prediction

evaluation

evaluation = determining the worth, merit, or quality of an evaluation project formative evaluation - focus is on improving the evaluation object summative evaluation = focus on determining the overall effectiveness and usefulness of the evaluation object

rule of parsimony

preferring the most simple theory that works

replication

research with the same variables, but different people

research topic

the broad subject matter area to be investiagated -research purpose = a statement of the intent or objective of the study -research question = the quantitative research it asks a question about the relation between two or more variables; In qualitative research, it asks a question about some process, issue, or phenomenon to be explored -hypothesis = a prediction or best guess of the relation that exists among the variables begin investigated -development of a research idea: Research topic -> Research Purpose -> Research Question -> Hypothesis