Respiratory System A&P II Part 2
Disorders Homeostatic Imbalances
-Asthma -Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease -Lung cancer -Pneumonia -Tuberculosis -Common cold -Pulmonary edema -Cystic fibrosis -Asbestos-related diseases -Sudden infant death syndrome -Acute respiratory distress
Control of Respiration
-Cortical Influences -Chemoreceptor -Hypercapnia -Hypoxia
Other Factors Affecting Pulmonary Ventilation
-Surface Tension -Elastic Recoil -Compliance
Exercise and the Respiratory System
-The respiratory and cardiovascular systems make adjustments in response to both the intensity and duration of exercise. -As cardiac output rises, the blood flow to the lungs, termed pulmonary perfusion, increases as well. -The O2 diffusing capacity may increase threefold during maximal exercise so there is a greater surface area available for O2 diffusion.
Control of Respiration Hypercapnia
-a slight increase in PCO2 (and thus H+) -stimulates central chemoreceptors
Hypoxia
-oxygen deficiency at the tissue level -caused by a low PO2 in arterial blood due to high altitude, airway obstruction or fluid in the lungs.
Inhalation
Active Process breathing in. Muscles need to contract, diaphragm must contract.
Aging and the Respiratory System
Aging results in decreased: -Vital capacity -Blood O2 level -Alveolar macrophage activity -Ciliary action of respiratory epithelia -Consequently, elderly people are more susceptible to pneumonia, bronchitis, emphysema, and other issues
At Rest Diaphragm is Relaxed
Alveolar pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, and there is no air flow.
Chemoreceptor
Central and peripheral monitor levels of O2 and CO2 and provide input to the respiratory center.
Elastic Recoil
Decreases the size of the alveoli during expiration (exhalation) of the chest wall and lungs. Both have a natural tendency to spring back after they have been stretched. Also depends on the surfactant.
Breathing Patterns and Respiratory Movements
Eupnea Apnea Dyspnea Tachypnea Costal breathing Diaphragmatic breathin
During Internal Respiration
Exchange of gases inside tissues oxygen will diffuse/exchange from the systemic capillaries into the tissue. -CO2 moves in the opposite direction -CO2 going into blood (deoxygenated blood)
PO2
Fetal hemoglobin traps oxygen extra tight so fetus holds double the oxygen than adult hemoglobin.
Henry's Law
Helps to explain how the solubility of a gas relates to its diffusion. -The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure(being able to go into the liquid medium) of the gas and its solubility coefficient when the temperature remains constant. -Some molecules can swim and some are not able to. -The higher the partial pressure of a gas over a liquid and the higher the solubility (the more a gas will stay in the solution) O2 CO2 N (nitrogen)
CO2
Henry's Law Much more is dissolved in blood plasma in comparison to oxygen.
Factors Affecting the Affinity of Hb for O2
How attached is oxygen to hemoglobin. -PO2 -pH -Temperature -BPG
Gas Exchange
How much is dissolved in Henry's Law -Alveolar Air (inhaled O2) -Oxygenated Blood -Systemic Tissue Capillaries -Deoxygenated Blood -Alveoli (exhaled CO2)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
extra air expelled out (exhaled) 1.2Li
Valsalva Maneuver
hold breathing and you contract the diaphragm which pushes all it's contents down. We also do it automatically when we are pushing a heavy object. -Force exhalation against a closed rim glottides as may occur during periods of straining while defecating.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
how much air you can take in (inhalation) 3Li
Asthma
increased airway resistance due to obstruction of airways.
Total Lung Capacity
is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume. -6000 ml in males -4200 ml in females
Diaphragm
most important muscle of inhalation. It's a dome shape skeletal muscle that forms the floor of the thoracic cavity, and it is innervated by the phrenic nerves which emerge from the spinal cord.
Total Lung Capacity
of a 25 year old average male is 6Li of air which is the same as: 6000ml = 6000cc = 6Li
Right side of Affinity Chart
oxygen is released from Hb so you get a decrease of oxygen
pH decrease
pH increase in acidity shift towards the right (you spit it out) Right shift decrease oxygen
Boyle's Law
pressure changes that drive inhalation and exhalation are governed, in part by this law. -volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure. -if Pressure goes up then Volume must go down. it's an inverse relationship P= c/v More pressure if its a smaller space = low volume. Ex: playground
Eupnea
quiet breathing it can consist of shallow, deep, or combined shallow and deep breathing.
During Inhalation
-the diaphragm contracts and the external intercostals contract. -Chest cavity expands, and the alveolar pressure drops below atmospheric pressure. -Air flows into the lungs in response to the pressure gradient and the lung volume expands. -During deep inhalation, the scalene and sternocleidomastoid muscles expand the chest further, thereby creating a greater drop in alveolar pressure.
During Exhalation
-the diaphragm relaxes and the external intercostals relax. -The chest and lungs recoil, the chest cavity contracts, and the alveolar pressure increases above atmospheric pressure. -Air flows out of the lungs in response to the pressure gradient, and the lung volume decreases. -During forced exhalations, the internal intercostals and abdominal muscles contract, thereby reducing the size of the chest cavity further and creating a -greater increase in alveolar pressure.
BPG decrease
BPG shift to the left keeping oxygen Left shift increase of oxygen
BPG increase
BPG shift to the right you need more oxygen to be released. Right shift decrease of oxygen
Lung Capacities
Combinations of lung volumes -Inspiratory Capacity -Vital Capacity -Functional Residual Capacity -Total Lung Capacity
Lung Volumes
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) Tidal Volume (TV) Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) Residual Volume (RV)
Muscles of Exhalation
Internal Intercostals External Oblique Internal Oblique Transverse Abdominis Rectus Abdominis
Surface Tension
Inwardly directed force in the alveoli which must be overcome to expand the lungs during each inspiration. -Is dependent on surfactant for moisture. It reduces its surface tension of the fluid in the alveolar so that they will not collapse at the end of each exhalation. Ex: Contact lenses if dry and you pick it up it will crumble. (surfactant helps increase surface tension)
Carbon Dioxide
Is a little more soluble than oxygen. CO2 is considered a base product and acidity product. -7% of the CO2 is dissolved in the plasma -23% of the CO2 is carried by Hb inside red blood cells as carbaminohemoglobin. -70% of the CO2 is transported as bicarbonate ions (HCO3)
Dalton's Law
Is important for understanding how gases move down their pressure gradients by diffusion. -Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts it own pressure as if no other gases were present. -Each gas has it's own identity but they give us a total pressure. Ex: A = 1.5 B = 2.0 = total pressure 3.5
Left side of Affinity Chart
Love keeping oxygen so there is an increase of oxygen
During External Respiration
Lung to air breathing oxygen will diffuse/exchange from the alveoli into the pulmonary capillaries. (Oxygen inhaled) -CO2 moves in the opposite direction -blood ejects CO2 (oxygenated blood)
pH increase
Normal is 7.4 -pH becoming more alkaline pH increase = decrease acidity shift to left more alkaline. Left shift increase oxygen
Oxygenated Blood
O2 = 100 CO2 = 40 Arterial blood gas
Alveoli
O2 = 159 Co2 = 0.3 exhaled CO2
Systemic Tissue Capillaries
O2 = 40 CO2 - 45 O2 level of blood has been unloaded and you gain CO2
Deoxygenated Blood
O2 = 40 CO2 = 45 Used up blood from veins
Exhalation
Passive Process breathing out. No muscular contractions are involved. It results from elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs. -also due to a pressure gradient. The pressure in the lungs is greater than the pressure of the atmosphere, and air must come out. -it can become active only during forceful breathing as in when playing an instrument or during exercise.
Alveolar Air
Starts at breathing air in (inhale O2) O2 = 105 CO2 = 40
Muscles of Inhalation
Sternocleidomastoid - elevates the sternum. Scalenes - elevate the first two ribs. External Intercostals - contract Diaphragm
Temperature decrease
Temperature shift to the left keeping oxygen Left shift increase of oxygen
Temperature increase
Temperature shift to the right releasing oxygen Right shift decrease of oxygen
Diaphragmatic Breathing
a pattern of deep (abdominal) breathing, consists of the outward movement of the abdomen due to the contraction and descent of the diaphragm.
Costal Breathing
a pattern of shallow chest breathing consists of an upward and outward movement of the chest due to contraction of the external intercostal muscles.
Tachypnea
abnormal rapid breathing
Pulmonary Ventilation
air flows between the atmosphere and the alveoli of the lungs because of alternating pressure differences created by contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles. -Air moves into the lungs when air pressure inside the lungs is less than air pressure in the atmosphere. -Air moves out of the lungs when the air pressure inside the lungs is greater than the air pressure in the atmosphere. -Inhalation -Exhalation
Cortical Influences
allow conscious control of respiration that may be needed to avoid inhaling noxious gases or water.
Functional Residual Capacity
amount of air left in your lungs after regular breathing. Is the sum of residual volume and expiratory reserve volume. -2400 ml in males -1800 ml in females
Inspiratory Capacity
amount of air that you can handle. Is the sum of tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume. -3600 ml in males -2400 ml in females
O2
and Henry's law Oxygen is soluble but not as much as CO2
Airway Resistance
any condition that narrows or obstructs the airways increases resistance, so that more pressure is required to maintain the same airflow. -COPD -Asthma
Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
between alveolar air and pulmonary blood occurs via a passive diffusion, which is governed by the behavior of gases as described by the two laws of Dalton's and Henry's.
Blood Supply to the Lungs
blood enters the lungs via the pulmonary arteries (pulmonary circulation) and the bronchial arteries (systemic circulation)
Tidal Volume (TV)
breathing normally regular or relaxed breathing
N (nitrogen)
can't swim will not submerge in the plasma no solubility.
COPD
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease increases airway resistance due to obstruction or collapse of airways.
Dyspnea
difficult breathing
Oxygen
does not dissolve easily in water -1.5% of the O2 is dissolved in the plasma -98.5% of the O2 is carried by hemoglobin (Hb) inside RBC's
Pressure Changes in Pulmonary Ventilation
drive airflow during inhalation and exhalation 1. At rest when diaphragm is relaxed 2. During Inhalation 3. During Exhalation
Compliance
ease with which the lungs and thoracic wall can expanded. A pressure difference can cause the lungs to collapse. Ex: knife stabbing you need to equalize the pressure to even out the difference before a knife is pulled out of a patient.
Vital Capacity
everything that goes in and out of your lungs. Is the sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume. -4800 Ml in males -3100 Ml in females
Internal Respiration in the Tissues
exchange of O2 and CO2 in systemic capillaries. CO2 (carbon dioxide) coming from the cells is capable of taking O2 (oxygen) out. Bicarbonate releases a hydrogen ion making it acidity. (look at work sheet of respiratory system pg. 9)
External Respiration In the Lung
exchange of O2 and CO2 in the pulmonary capillaries Alveolus. O2 (oxygen) over powers the CO2 (carbon dioxide) and kicks it out
Ventilation Perfusion Coupling
vasoconstriction in response to hypoxia diverts blood from poorly ventilated areas to well ventilated areas.
Blood Exits the Lungs
via the pulmonary veins and the bronchial veins
Residual Volume (RV)
what you can't exhale or breath out. Dead alveoli (COPD) more dead alveoli at the bottom.
Apnea
you stop breathing
