Review for Exam 1 - Nursing Research

What is the meaning of the statement, "This finding was statistically significant"? A. The finding is probably true and replicable in a new sample. B. The finding is clinically important. C. A significant number of people participated in the study. D. A significant theme was identified.

A. The finding is probably true and replicable in a new sample. The statement "This finding was statistically significant" means that a specific finding has a high probability of being true and replicable. Statistically significant does not mean that the finding is clinically important. Statistical significance is not an issue in qualitative studies, where themes are discovered through an analysis of the narrative data. Statistical significance does not directly concern the number of study participants.

What is a major weakness of correlational studies? A. They are weak in their ability to support causal inferences. B. They tend to be artificial. C. They tend to be expensive. D. They are impractical.

A. They are weak in their ability to support causal inferences. A weakness of correlational studies is that they can harbor biases due to self-selection into groups being compared, which in turn hinders causal inferences. Correlational studies can be costly, but often they are not. They are less artificial than studies involving interventions and are often practical to implement.

Which of the following is a major strength of true experimental designs? A. They permit greater confidence in making causal inferences than other designs. B. They are undertaken with a strong theoretical underpinning. C. They tend to be less costly than other designs. D. They are less artificial than other designs.

A. They permit greater confidence in making causal inferences than other designs. The great strength of experimental studies lies in the confidence with which cause-and-effect relationships can be inferred. Through the controls imposed by manipulation, control, and randomization, alternative explanations for group differences on the outcomes can usually be discredited. Limitations of experimental designs include that they may be more (not less) artificial than other designs, and they are often quite costly. Not all experimental studies are undertaken with a guiding theoretical framework.

A questionnaire included this statement: "During my hospital stay, staff were respectful of my needs as an individual." Participants were asked to indicate, on a 5-point scale, the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with the statement. This question represents: A. an item on a Likert scale. B. an open-ended question. C. a visual analog scale. D. a forced-choice question.

A. an item on a Likert scale. Likert scales consist of several declarative statements (items) that express a viewpoint on a topic, like the one in this example. Respondents are asked to indicate how much they agree or disagree with each statement. Visual analog scales measure subjective experiences. This is not an example of an open-ended question (where respondents answer the question in their own words) or a forced-choice question (which gives respondents two choices from which to choose).

A nurse researcher tested whether sucrose (vs. sterile water) had a beneficial effect on infant pain during immunizations. Neither those administering the intervention nor the parents of the infants knew which infants received the sucrose. This strategy is an example of: A. blinding. B. randomization. C. attrition. D. crossing over.

A. blinding. Blinding involves concealing information from participants (here, the parents) and research staff (those administering the sucrose or sterile water) to enhance objectivity and minimize the risk of bias. Randomization is a strategy designed to control confounding variables, as is the use of a crossover design. There is no indication that these strategies were used in this example. Attrition refers to the loss of participants and is not a research strategy.

What is a secondary source for a research literature review? A. Any reference focused on the topic of interest B. A summary of a study written by someone other than the researchers who conducted it C. Sources such as case reports, editorials, or anecdotes D. A description of a study written by researchers who did the study

B. A summary of a study written by someone other than the researchers who conducted it A secondary source for a research literature review is a description of the study by an individual unconnected with it. For example, a summary of a study in a literature review would be a secondary source. A primary source is the original description of a study prepared by the researcher who conducted it. A source focused on the topic of interest may be considered neither a secondary nor a primary source if the source is not a research report (e.g., an anecdote or case report).

A nurse researcher developed a new scale to measure preparedness for caregiving among family members of palliative care patients. A panel of experts is convened to assess whether the items on the draft scale adequately reflect the construct. What type of validity is being assessed? A. Criterion validity B. Content validity C. Face validity D. Construct validity

B. Content validity Content validity is the extent to which a multi-item scale's content (the items) adequately captures the focal construct. Content validity, unlike criterion or construct validity, is usually assessed with feedback from a panel of experts. Face validity refers to whether the scale looks like it is measuring the target construct and is often assessed by getting feedback from the population for whom the scale is intended.

A sample of both users and nonusers of electronic cigarettes was followed over a 10-year period to assess whether the e-cigarettes had any long-term adverse effects. What type of design was this? A. Crossover B. Prospective C. Case-control D. Time-series

B. Prospective Prospective (cohort) designs begin with a presumed cause (here, electronic cigarettes) and look forward in time for its effects. Retrospective designs, such as case-control designs, begin with the outcome and look back in time for antecedent causes. Both time-series and crossover designs involve an intervention, and there is no intervention in this example.

What is a central feature of nonexperimental (observational) studies? A. Researchers do not manipulate the dependent variable. B. Researchers do not manipulate the independent variable. C. Their ability to elucidate cause-and-effect relationships is unparalleled. D. Data are collected through the observation of participants' behaviors.

B. Researchers do not manipulate the independent variable. In nonexperimental (observational) research, the researchers do not intervene—that is, they do not manipulate the independent variable to test its effect on the dependent variable. Data for nonexperimental studies may come from the direct observation of participants' behaviors, but this is not always true and is not a central feature. Nonexperimental studies are relatively weak in terms of their ability to support causal inferences.

Why are interviews usually preferable to questionnaires for collecting research data? A. They offer the possibility of anonymity. B. Response rates are usually higher. C. They yield data that are easier to analyze. D. They are less expensive.

B. Response rates are usually higher. Interviews are usually preferable to questionnaires because response rates tend to be higher—it is easier to ignore a questionnaire than to refuse to talk to an interviewer. Questionnaires are less costly than interviews and offer the possibility of anonymity. Data from interviews are no easier to analyze than data from questionnaires.

What is sampling bias in quantitative studies? A. The margin of error in the data obtained from samples B. Systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of a key attribute vis-à-vis the population C. Sample selection using probability sampling methods D. Lack of variability in the population on the attribute of interest

B. Systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of a key attribute vis-à-vis the population Sampling bias is the systematic overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some segment of the population. Sampling bias is unrelated to how varied (heterogeneous) the population is and is not the margin of error in data from a sample. Probability sampling (in which elements are selected by random methods) is not as susceptible to sampling bias as nonprobability methods.

In a true experimental design, what does the researcher manipulate? A. The dependent variable B. The independent variable C. The mediating variable D. The confounding variable

B. The independent variable Experimenters manipulate the independent variable by administering an intervention to some participants and withholding it from others. Experimenters deliberately vary the independent variable (the presumed cause) and observe the effect on the outcome. They do not manipulate dependent, confounding, or mediating variables.

What is the primary purpose of a literature review in a research report? A. Helping readers to grasp the keywords for future searches B. Summarizing the current state of evidence about the research problem that was addressed in the study C. Demonstrating the research capabilities of the authors D. Making recommendations about future study designs

B. Summarizing the current state of evidence about the research problem that was addressed in the study A literature review is a written summary of the state of evidence on a research problem. The literature review helps to develop the argument for the new study by summarizing what is known and what is not. The purpose of a literature review in the introduction of a research report is not to demonstrate the researcher's skills, to help readers identify keywords for their own literature search, or to recommend study designs for future projects.

A researcher collected cross-sectional data to estimate the percentage of community-dwelling older people who were at risk of malnutrition. What type of study is this? A. A descriptive correlational study B. A prevalence study C. A prospective study D. A retrospective study

B. A prevalence study Prevalence studies document the prevalence rate of a condition or problem at a single point in time. There is only one variable in this example (risk of malnutrition), and so it is neither a descriptive correlational study, a retrospective study, nor a prospective study, all of which involve examining relationships among two or more variables.

For individual-level efforts to put research evidence into practice, nurses follow five major steps. Which step is first in the process? a. appraising & synthesizing the evidence b. asking a clinical question that can be answered with research evidence c. acquiring relevant research evidence d. applying evidence to clinical practice

b. asking a clinical question that can be answered with research evidence Individual nurses can put research into practice using five basic steps—the 5 As. The steps are (1) Ask well-worded clinical questions that can be answered with research evidence; (2) Acquire the best evidence; (3) Appraise the evidence; (4) Apply the evidence to clinical practice; and (5) Assess the outcome of the practice change.

Quantitative researchers seek to ensure that their findings can be applied to other groups and settings. What is this goal called? A. Reflexivity B. Generalizability C. Transferability D. Research control

b. generazability Generalizability in a quantitative study concerns the extent to which findings can be applied to other groups and settings. The qualitative analog is transferability. Reflexivity, the process of reflecting critically on the self, is a quality-enhancing strategy used primarily in qualitative research. Research control is a tool used to enhance the rigor of quantitative studies.

In a quantitative research article, a review of prior research on the problem under study is most likely to be found in which section? a. results section b. introduction c. discussion d. method section

b. introduction The introduction to a research article acquaints readers with the research problem on which the study focused, including what is known from prior research. The method section describes the methods used to answer the research questions. The results section presents the findings that were obtained by analyzing the study data. In the discussion, the researcher presents conclusions about the meaning and implications of the findings.

Which is the independent variable in the question "Are male patients with a COVID-19 infection more likely to become hospitalized and require ventilation than female patients with COVID-19?"? a. male patients b. patient's gender c. hospitalization & ventilation for COVID-19 d. a COVID-19 infection

b. patient's gender In this question, patients' gender is the independent variable, which is the presumed cause of, antecedent to, or influence on the dependent variable (here, the need for hospitalization and ventilation). The study sample to answer this question would include male and female patients with a COVID-19 infection.

A qualitative researcher is studying the experience of living with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). In this study, the experience of living with IPF would likely be called the: a. construct of interest b. phenomenon of interest c. theory of interest d. variable of interest

b. phenomenon of interest A relationship is a connection between two or more variables. In the statement "Older people sleep less than younger people" there are two variables—amount of sleep and age; the statement expresses a prediction that these two variables are related. In the other alternatives, age is not a variable. The focus is either on young people (not getting enough sleep) or older people (having sleeping problems or taking daytime naps).

Which of the following is not a research tradition used by qualitative nurse researchers? a. phenomenology b. grounded theory c. experimental d. ethnography

c. experimental "Experimental" refers to a type of quantitative research in which there is an active intervention and is not a qualitative research tradition. Qualitative research often is rooted in research traditions that originate in other disciplines. Three such traditions are grounded theory, phenomenology, and ethnography.

Quantitative researchers develop predictions about relationships among the variables in their studies. In research terms, what are these predictions called? a. conceptual definitions b. research questions c. hypotheses d. frameworks

c. hypotheses

In which section of a research article would the following sentence most likely appear: "The purpose of this study was to explore the factors contributing to methamphetamine abuse in older adults"? a. discussion b. method section c. introduction d. results section

c. introduction This sentence, which indicates the study purpose, would appear in the introduction of a research article. The introduction sets the stage for a description of a study by providing information about the existing literature; the conceptual framework; the problem; the purpose, research questions, or hypotheses; and the study rationale. Statements about the study purpose do not appear in the method, results, or discussion section of a research report.

In which section of a research article would the following sentence most likely appear: "The sampling plan called for the recruitment of 200 mother-infant dyads from an inner-city neighborhood"? a. introduction b. results section c. method section d. discussion

c. method section The method section describes the methods the researchers used to answer the research questions, including a description of the sampling plan. The introduction to a research article acquaints readers with the research problem and its context. The results section presents the findings that were obtained by analyzing the study data. In the discussion, the researcher presents conclusions about the meaning and implications of the findings.

In the following clinical question, what is the population (P component)? "Do stress and depression affect dyspnea in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)?" a. patients who experience dyspnea b. patients who are depressed c. patients with COPD d. patients who are stressed

c. patients w/COPD In the PICO question format, P stands for the population or patients under study (here, patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease); I stands for the intervention, influence, or exposure (stress and depression); and O stands for the outcome (dyspnea). There is no formally stated comparator in this question—it would be patients with COPD who are not stressed or depressed.

In a statement of purpose, a researcher indicates that the goal of the study is to understand the lived experiences of family members caring for a terminally ill child with cancer. What type of study is this? a. grounded theory b. ethnographic c. phenomenological d. experimental

c. phenomenological Phenomenology is concerned with the lived experiences of humans. Terms often associated with this tradition include experience, lived experience, meaning, and essence. The grounded theory tradition seeks to describe and understand the key social-psychological processes that occur in a social setting, not lived experiences. Ethnographic studies focus on the patterns and lifeways of a culture. The purpose statement in question is not for an experimental (quantitative) study.

If some study participants received a musical intervention through headphones to reduce anxiety and others were asked to wear headphones that do not transmit music, what would those in the second group be receiving? A. A triangulated variable B. A confounding variable C. A placebo D. A mediating variable

c. placebo A placebo is a sham intervention—an intervention without any "active ingredients" to affect outcomes. In this example, simply wearing headphones would not be expected to reduce anxiety. The placebo group would not be receiving any kind of "variable."

Which is a fundamental assumption of the positivist paradigm? a. reality is not a fixed entity but rather a construction of the human mind b. phenomena do not necessarily have an antecedent cause c. reality is "out there" and can be objectively studied, known, and understood d. reality is not orderly but rather is haphazard

c. reality is "out there" and can be objectively studied, known, and understood In the positivist paradigm, it is assumed that there is an objective reality, that natural phenomena are regular and orderly (not haphazard), and that phenomena have one or more antecedent cause that can be understood through research. Positivists assume that reality exists and is independent of human observation.

Which is a criterion of scientific rigor used by quantitative researchers that concerns the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study? a. credibility b. transferability c. reliability d. trustworthiness

c. reliability A major challenge concerning the scientific merit of quantitative studies is ensuring reliability, which refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study. The other options refer to quality criteria that are relevant in qualitative research.

Identify the independent variable in the following hypothesis: "Mothers of infants born with spina bifida who participate in support groups report higher levels of confidence when caring for their infants than do mothers who do not participate in support groups." a. infants with spina bifida b. mothers of infants with spina bifida c. support group participation d. confidence in caring for their infants

c. support group participation

Which goal is the highest priority for research in the nursing profession? a. to establish priorities for areas of study by nurse researchers b. to conduct research focused on the context of nursing practice c. to generate evidence to inform nurses' decisions and actions d. to document the role that nurses serve in society

c. to generate evidence to inform nurses' decisions and actions Nurses are increasingly undertaking clinical research, and practicing nurses are expected to base their practice on evidence from research. Evidence-based practice involves the use of the best evidence in making patient care decisions and typically comes from research conducted by nurses and other health care professionals. The other answers are possible goals for the nursing profession, but none is as high a priority as developing rigorous evidence for practice.

What is the final step in both quantitative and qualitative research? a. assessing the trustworthiness of the data b. undertaking a literature review c. addressing ethical issues d. disseminating research results

d. disseminating research results In both quantitative and qualitative research, an important final step is to share research results with others, either at conferences or in publications. All researchers need to address ethical issues but not as the last step. Literature reviews are undertaken either early in the project or during the interpretation phase—not as the last step. Trustworthiness is assessed by qualitative researchers throughout the actual conduct of the study, not as a final step.

Which statement expresses a relationship between variables? a. older people tend to take daytime naps b. sleeping problems are common in older people c. young people do not get enough sleep d. older people sleep less than younger people

d. older people sleep less than younger people A relationship is a connection between two or more variables. In the statement "Older people sleep less than younger people" there are two variables—amount of sleep and age; the statement expresses a prediction that these two variables are related. In the other alternatives, age is not a variable. The focus is either on young people (not getting enough sleep) or older people (having sleeping problems or taking daytime naps).

Which is a central assumption in the constructivist paradigm? a. A fixed reality exists in nature for humans to understand b. the nature of reality has changed over time c. phenomena are not haphazard and result from prior causes d. reality is multiply constructed and multiply interpreted by humans

d. reality is multiply constructed and multiply interpreted by humans In the constructivist paradigm, it is assumed that reality is not a fixed entity but is rather a construction of human minds—and thus, "truth" is a composite of multiple constructions of reality. Constructivists do not assume that a fixed reality exists in nature for humans to understand, nor that all phenomena have antecedent causes. Constructivists do not believe that the nature of reality has changed over time but rather that it has always been constructed by human minds.

What mechanism is used by qualitative researchers to think critically about themselves and to scrutinize personal values that could affect their decisions and interpretations? A. Triangulation B. Research control C. Randomness D. Reflexivity

d. reflexivity Reflexivity, the process of reflecting critically on the self and of scrutinizing personal values that could affect the conduct of the study and the interpretation of the data, is an important tool to guard against personal biases in qualitative research. Research control and randomness are strategies used to enhance quality in quantitative studies, not in qualitative studies. Triangulation is a strategy, used by both quantitative and qualitative researchers, involving the use of multiple sources; it does not involve scrutiny of personal values.

In which section of a research article would the following sentence most likely appear? "Patients who coughed were significantly more likely to have spontaneous dislodgement of small-bore nasogastric tubes than patients who did not." a. introduction b. method section c. discussion d. results section

d. results section The results section presents the findings that were obtained by analyzing the study data—here, the results of a statistical test. The method section describes the methods used to answer the research questions. The introduction to a research article acquaints readers with the research problem and its context. In the discussion, the researcher presents conclusions about the meaning and implications of the findings.

Most evidence hierarchies and level of evidence scales put which evidence source at the pinnacle? a. in-depth qualitative studies b. it depends on the research question c. randomized clinical trials (RCTs) d. systematic reviews

d. systematic reviews Regardless of the type of question being asked, systematic reviews are at the pinnacle of evidence hierarchies because such reviews are rigorous syntheses of all the available evidence on a topic, using information from multiple studies. Randomized controlled trials are high on the hierarchy for Therapy/intervention questions, and in-depth qualitative studies are high for Meaning/process questions, but systematic reviews can be undertaken for all types of research questions.

Which of the following statements about open-access journal articles is true? A. They are called "open" because they have not been peer-reviewed. B. They can be retrieved only by using the resource called Research Gate. C. They are available for free to users from institutions that have paid a subscription fee. D. They can be downloaded for free over the Internet.

d. they can be downloaded for free over the internet Open-access journal articles can be downloaded free of charge by anyone with an Internet connection. Open-access journals do not involve a subscription fee. Research Gate is a resource for retrieving an article (often by communicating with researchers/authors to request a copy), but open-access articles do not require using Research Gate. Open-access articles are usually peer-reviewed.

A research article usually undergoes a "blind" review for a journal. What does this mean? A. The authors of the article do not know who the editor of the journal is. B. The reviewers making recommendations about acceptance or rejection need to be told who the authors are. C. The article is published without indicating the authors' names. D. The journal editors do not know who submitted the article.

B. The reviewers making recommendations about acceptance or rejection need to be told who the authors are. Usually, manuscripts are reviewed by two or more reviewers who make recommendations about whether to accept or reject the manuscript or to suggest revisions. Reviews are usually "blind"—reviewers are not told researchers' names, and authors are not told reviewers' names. Journal editors always know who submitted the article, and authors can easily learn online who the editor of the journal is. When an article is published, authorship is always indicated.

The researcher has identified 66 potential references for a literature review through electronic database searches and a descendancy search. What would most likely be the next step? A. Entering information onto a literature review protocol B. Reading each article in detail C. Reviewing the abstracts for relevance D. Coding the characteristics of each study

C. Reviewing the abstracts for relevance After the initial identification of potential references, the researcher would need to screen the articles to make sure they are truly relevant to the research question. Reading all articles in their entirety would allow the researcher to evaluate relevance but reviewing the abstracts first would be more efficient. Researchers sometimes enter information from each reference onto a protocol or code the attributes of the relevant studies, but these would be later steps, completed after the references are screened for relevance.

The electronic database that focuses on the nursing and allied health literature is: A. EMBASE. B. MEDLINE. C. CINAHL. D. Web of Knowledge.

C. CINAHL. The CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) database specifically focuses on literature of relevance to nurses and those in allied health professions. Other useful bibliographic databases include MEDLINE, Web of Knowledge, and EMBASE (the Excerpta Medica database), but these are all useful to broad audiences of health care professionals.

A nurse researcher recruits study participants by placing a recruitment poster at the entrance to a neurology clinic. What type of sampling did the researcher use? A. Purposive sampling B. Consecutive sampling C. Convenience sampling D. Quota sampling

C. Convenience sampling In this example, the researcher used the most conveniently available people as study participants. The use of a recruitment poster meant that only people who entered the neurology clinic, took notice of the poster, and then volunteered for the study would become participants. This is not an example of quota, purposive, or consecutive sampling.

In quantitative studies, what is a key criterion for evaluating sample quality? A. How ethically sound the recruitment strategy is B. How convenient it is to the researchers C. How representative the sample is of the population D. How easy it is to recruit sample members

C. How representative the sample is of the population A key consideration in assessing the quality of a sample in a quantitative study is its representativeness of the population; another is the size of the sample. Ease of recruitment, convenience, and ethical appropriateness are important factors in a sampling strategy, but they do not contribute to the quality of the sample itself.

A nurse researcher is studying fear of falling in community-dwelling elders. Which would be a reasonable exclusion criterion? A. People who are married B. People who live in their own homes C. People age 65 years or younger D. People who have periods of dizziness

C. People age 65 years or younger The study is focused on community-dwelling elders, and so it would be important to exclude people below a certain age limit (here, age 65 years). The researcher is thus defining "elder" as someone older than 65 years. One inclusion (rather than exclusion) criterion might be living independently in one's own home. There would be no apparent reason to exclude married people or people who experience dizziness (which could contribute to fear of falling).

In which qualitative research tradition would the following question be rooted? "What is it like to experience a heart transplantation?" a. ethnography b. qualitative description c. Phenomenology d. grounded theory

C. Phenomenology Phenomenology focuses on the lived experiences of humans and is an approach to learning what the life experiences of people are like and what they mean. Descriptive qualitative research is not a qualitative tradition per se—it is a type of qualitative research undertaken without being embedded in a tradition, and such studies do not focus on lived experiences. Neither grounded theory nor ethnography—both of which are qualitative research traditions—has lived experiences as a central focal point of a study.

A researcher is studying the relationship between stress and diet among college students. The researcher recruits students by sending out an e-mail blast and then includes in the sample the first 100 male and 100 female students who volunteer to participate. What type of sampling did the researcher use? A. Purposive sampling B. Convenience sampling C. Quota sampling D. Consecutive sampling

C. Quota sampling Quota sampling is similar to convenience sampling, except that the researcher recruits from distinct strata of the population—in this example, strata defined by students' gender. This is not an example of purposive or consecutive sampling.

A researcher was studying nurses' attitudes toward evidence-based practice and sent a questionnaire to a sample of nurses on a membership roster of a professional organization, using probability methods to select the members. What type of sampling did the researcher use? A. Systematic sampling B. Stratified random sampling C. Simple random sampling D. Multistage sampling

C. Simple random sampling In this example, the sampling method is simple random sampling, the most basic form of probability sampling. No mention is made of dividing the sample into distinct strata (stratified random), of first sampling larger units such as schools of nursing (multistage sampling), or of selecting elements at fixed intervals from a sampling frame (systematic sampling).

For a research literature review, what is a primary source? A. A summary of a study written by someone other than the researchers who conducted it B. Any reference focused primarily on the topic of interest C. Sources such as case reports, editorials, or anecdotes D. A description of a study written by the researchers who did the study

D. A description of a study written by the researchers who did the study A primary source is the original description of a study prepared by the researchers who conducted it. A secondary source is a description of the study by others—for example, in a literature review. Some references that focus on the topic of interest are not primary research sources—for example, case reports and anecdotes are not research-based and would not be considered primary sources for a literature review.

In conducting a subject search in an electronic database, the researcher would most likely initiate the search by typing which of the following into the data field? A. An ancestor or descendant B. An author's name C. The research question D. A keyword

D. A keyword Most searches involve undertaking a subject search, most often by inserting a keyword into the search field. You could conduct a search by entering an author's name, but this would not be a subject search. Searchers do not enter an entire research question but rather the keywords than embody key elements of the question, such as key research variables or the population. An "ancestor" or "descendant" is a previously conducted study; neither is used as entries in the search field for a bibliographic subject search.

Which of the following is a population? A. Four hundred nurses selected from a membership roster of the American Nurses' Association B. Caregivers recruited into a study because they are caring for patients with Parkinson's disease C. Study participants diagnosed with COPD who currently smoke D. All patients with COVID-19 infections hospitalized in intensive care units in California in 2021

D. All patients with COVID-19 infections hospitalized in intensive care units in California in 2021 All patients with COVID-19 infections who were hospitalized in intensive care units in California in 2021 is a population—the entire group of interest. The other answers are samples, not populations.

Which statement is true? A. RCTs are the most often used design for studying the effect of cigarette smoking on lung cancer. B. RCTs are more susceptible to confounding variables than quasi-experiments. C. RCTs are in the middle of most evidence hierarchies for Therapy questions. D. Many variables of interest to nurse researchers cannot be experimentally manipulated.

D. Many variables of interest to nurse researchers cannot be experimentally manipulated. A large number of human attributes cannot be randomly assigned to people (e.g., blood pressure, age, fatigue), and so experiments are not always feasible. Nevertheless, RCTs are near the top of evidence hierarchies for Therapy questions, only one rung down from systematic reviews of RCTs. Quasi-experiments are lower down on evidence hierarchies for Therapy questions because they are more susceptible to confounding influences than RCTs. The link between lung cancer and smoking has never been studied in an RCT because it would be unethical to randomize people to a smoking or nonsmoking group.

Which statement about conducting a high-quality research literature review is true? A. A good literature review is based primarily on secondary sources. B. Nonresearch references such as case reports can play a vital role in a research literature review. C. Doing a research literature review is a linear process, without feedback loops. D. Reviewers should ensure that their reviews include recently published studies.

D. Reviewers should ensure that their reviews include recently published studies. New research evidence is published daily, so it is imperative that reviewers include very recently published studies in their review to ensure that it will be up-to-date. Good literature reviews are based mainly on primary, not secondary, sources. Nonresearch references are seldom relevant in a research review, and the review process typically involves many feedback loops.

What is a research problem? a. A situation involving a troubling condition amenable to disciplined injury b. an argument that spells out the basis for a new study c. a specific accomplishment that the researcher hopes to achieve by conducting a study d. a specific query that researchers want to answer in addressing a problem

a. A situation involving a troubling condition amenable to disciplined injury A research problem is an enigmatic or troubling condition that is amenable to systematic, disciplined inquiry. A research problem is not an argument, although the need to address the problem through research is described in a reasoned argument. Specific queries about the problem to be addressed in the study are articulated as research questions. The specific accomplishments researchers hope to achieve in a study are the research purposes or goals.

What is a paradigm? a. a worldview, a general perspective b. an assumption about the nature of the world c. an antecedent cause of reality d. a set of procedure for studying the world

a. a worldview, a general perspectivice A paradigm is a broad worldview—a general perspective on the complexities of the real world. A paradigm is not an assumption, although alternative paradigms have assumptions. A paradigm is not an antecedent cause of reality, nor is it a set of procedures for understanding the world.

In the following clinical question, what is the intervention/influence/expose (the I component)? " Does taking antidepressants affect the risk of suicide in cognitively impaired adolescents?" a. antidepressant use b. adolescence c. cognitive impairment d. suicide

a. antidepressant In the PICO question format, P stands for the population or patients (cognitively impaired adolescents); I stands for the intervention, influence, or exposure (use of antidepressants); and O stands for the outcomes (risk of suicide). There is no formally stated comparator (C) in this question—the implied comparator is the non-use of antidepressants.

What is the term for the strategy of withholding information from participants, interventionists, or other research staff to enhance objectivity? a. blinding b. triangulation c. generalizing d. randomizing

a. blinding Blinding (or masking) is the term used for the strategy of withholding information, which is used in some studies to prevent biases stemming from people's awareness or expectations. Objectivity can often be enhanced if participants or staff are not aware of who is getting special treatment, for example. Randomizing and triangulation are not strategies that involve withholding information. Generalizing is not a strategy, it is a criterion used to evaluate quantitative studies.

A conclusion derived from the evidence presented in a study, taking into account the study methods, is called: a. an inference b. traingulation c. scientific merit d. statistical signifigance

a. in inference An inference is a conclusion drawn from the evidence presented in the research study, using logical reasoning and taking into account the methods used to generate the evidence. For example, the results of an intervention study might lead to the inference that the intervention caused improvements to patients' health. Statistical significance means that a result has a high probability of being "real." Scientific merit is the overall soundness of a study. Triangulation is a strategy involving the use of multiple sources to conclude what constitutes the truth.

In which of the following are nurses most likely to find research evidence? A. Journal articles B. Wikipedia C. Textbooks D. Dissertations

a. journal articles Nurses are most likely to locate research evidence in professional journals, which publish articles that describe the background, methods, and results of studies. A textbook is not a primary source for research results but rather an overview of established knowledge in a field; textbooks can quickly become outdated. Dissertations are lengthy documents that describe research completed by a graduate student. Wikipedia provides some research evidence for some entries, but it cannot be counted on to provide up-to-date, rigorous evidence on topics of interest to nurses.

Which is a major source of ideas for research problems? a. nurse's personal clinical experience b. nursing code of ethics c. journal clubs d. evidence hierarchies

a. nurses' personal clinical experience Major sources of ideas for nursing research problems are nurses' clinical experience, relevant literature, and theories in nursing and related fields. The nursing code of ethics and evidence hierarchies are not sources of ideas for research problems. Discussions in a journal club may suggest an idea for a study, but such discussions are not a major source of research ideas.

Which criterion of scientific rigor used by quantitative researchers concerns the soundness of the evidence obtained in a study? a. validity b. generalizability c. reliability d. trustworthiness

a. validity Validity is a complex concept that broadly concerns the soundness of the study's evidence—that is, whether the findings are cogent, unbiased, and well-grounded. Reliability (a key challenge in quantitative research) refers to the accuracy and consistency of information obtained in a study. Generalizability in a quantitative study concerns the extent to which the findings can be applied to other groups and settings. Trustworthiness is a quality criterion of relevance to qualitative researchers.

In terms of the PICO framework for asking well-worded questions in an evidence search, a dependent variable in a study corresponds to which component? a. P b. O c. C d. I

b. O The dependent variable is the outcome variable—the "O" component in the PICO framework. P stands for population, I stands for intervention or influence, and C stands for a comparator for I.

Order the levels of evidence from highest to lowest, 1 being the highest level of evidence and 5 being the lowest level of evidence: __Quasi-experimental study __Qualitative Study __Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of RCTs __Randomized Controlled Trial __Systematic Review of Qualitative studies

1.Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of RCTs 2.Randomized Controlled Trial 3.Quasi-experimental study 4.Systematic Review of Qualitative studies 5.Qualitative Study

Researchers move in a relatively linear sequence when completing a research study. Place each step in the correct order: __The analytic phase: analyzing the data and interpreting the results __The dissemination phase: communicating the findings; using the findings in practice __The conceptual phase: delineating the problem, formulating the hypotheses, reviewing the literature __The empirical phase: collecting the data and preparing the data for analysis __The design and planning phase: Developing the research plan

1.The conceptual phase: delineating the problem, formulating the hypotheses, reviewing the literature 2.The design and planning phase: Developing the research plan 3.The empirical phase: collecting the data and preparing the data for analysis 4.The analytic phase: analyzing the data and interpreting the results 5.The dissemination phase: communicating the findings; using the findings in practice

What is the first step in conducting a literature review? A. Identifying the question to be addressed B. Extracting information from sources C. Selecting the bibliographic database to use D. Specifying the keywords to use in the search B. Extracting information from sources C. Selecting the bibliographic database to use D. Specifying the keywords to use in the search

A. Identifying the question to be addressed Conducting a literature review is a little bit like doing a full-fledged study: A reviewer must start with a question, such as a well-worded clinical question for EBP (Chapter 1) or a question for a new study (Chapter 5). Selecting a bibliographic database, specifying the keywords, and extracting information from relevant studies are later steps in the literature review process.

In evaluating primary studies for a literature review, what is the key question that a reviewer needs to consider? A. Did the authors include an adequate literature review in their research report? B. Was the research question in the study appropriate? C. Did the authors cite appropriately from the previously published literature related to the problem under study? D. To what extent are the study findings based on sound research methods and thus reflect the true state of affairs?

D. To what extent are the study findings based on sound research methods and thus reflect the true state of affairs? In literature reviews, an assessment of each study must be made with an eye to answering a broad question: To what extent do the findings reflect the truth (the true state of affairs)—that is, do flaws in the methods used undermine the believability of the evidence? A reviewer would not critique the appropriateness of the research question and would not focus primarily on the quality of the references or the literature review in each article under review because flaws are unlikely to have a bearing on the quality of the study's evidence.

A pretest in a pretest-posttest design corresponds to: A. a measure of the independent variable. B. a measure of attitudes toward the intervention. C. an outcome measure. D. a baseline measure.

D. a baseline measure. In pretest-posttest designs, data on the dependent variable are collected both before the intervention (a baseline measure) and after it (an outcome measure). In an experimental study, the independent variable typically is not "measured"; it is the variable manipulated by the researcher (e.g., receipt vs. nonreceipt of an intervention). Researchers do not often measure attitudes toward an intervention, and in any event, they would not be measured at the pretest stage of the project.

Which is a potential limitation of qualitative research? a. qualitative researchers ask questions that tend to have limited significance in nursing b. qualitative research typically involves a small number of people, so the generalizability of findings can be a concern c. The quality of qualitative research is undermined because of difficulties in measuring phenomena d. Qualitative research is overly reductionist and tends to remove concepts from real-world contexts

b. qualitative research typically involves a small number of people, so the generalizability of findings can be a concern Qualitative research usually involves a small number of people participating in a study, and it is sometimes difficult to know whether the findings would be true of a broader group of people. Qualitative researchers ask many questions of deep significance to nursing and other health care professionals. Quantitative research (not qualitative research) is sometimes accused of being reductionist because of its focus on a limited number of concepts. Qualitative researchers do not "measure" phenomena quantitatively.

If all people in a population have an equal chance of being selected as study participants, the sampling method would involve which type of selection? a. biased b. random c. controlled d. blind

b. random When people are selected at random, each person in the initial pool has an equal probability of being selected, which in term means that there are no systematic biases. Randomness is a powerful tool for eliminating or reducing bias in a study. There is no research term called "controlled" or "blind" selection.

In a qualitative research article, themes would be presented in which section? a. method section b. results section c. discussion section d. introduction

b. results section In qualitative reports, researchers often organize the results section according to the major themes, processes, or categories that were identified in the data. None of the other sections of a qualitative report would present themes. The introduction acquaints readers with the research problem and its context. The method section describes the methods used to answer the research questions. In the discussion, the researcher presents conclusions about the meaning and implications of the findings—themes might be discussed or interpreted, but they would not be "presented" because that would have occurred earlier in the paper.

What does significance at the .05 level mean? A. That the finding applies to 5% of the study participants B. That there is a 95% probability that the finding is reliable, not spurious C. That the value of the calculated statistical test is .05 D. That 95% of the study participants had a good outcome

b. that there is a 95% probability that the finding is reliable, not spurious The level of significance (p value) is an index of how probable it is that findings are reliable. If a finding is significant at the .05 probability level, it means that 95 times out of 100, the finding would not be spurious. A significance level does not correspond to the percentage of study participants affected, nor does it correspond to the value of a calculated test statistic.

A researcher used a scale that measured a child's body weight as 52.3 pounds (23.7 kg) 1 minute and as 48.7 pounds (22.1 kg) the next minute. What should the researcher be concerned about? A. The scale's validity B. The scale's reliability C. The scale's trustworthiness D. The scale's credibility

b. the scale's reliability The issue in this situation is the accuracy and consistency of the weight measurements, which concern the scale's reliability. Accuracy and consistency are not the focus of the criteria of validity, trustworthiness, or credibility—the last two of which are criteria for evaluating quality in qualitative studies.

A researcher collects data about a phenomenon by observing people in a naturalistic setting and also by interviewing people in that setting. What strategy for enhancing trustworthiness did the researcher use? a. credibility b. triangulation c.reliability d.validity

b. triangulation Triangulation is the use of multiple sources or referents to draw conclusions about what constitutes the truth—here, the use of both interviews and observations. Reliability and validity are not research strategies; they are criteria used by quantitative researchers to evaluate evidence quality. Credibility, also not a strategy, is a criterion used to evaluate evidence in qualitative studies.

Which statement best describes evidence-based practice (EBP)? a. the utilization of quantitative and qualitative studies to enhance patient outcomes b. the development of population care guidelines applicable to all patients c. a combination of best research evidence, clinical expertise, and the needs & values of patients d. a determination of the factors necessary to control patient responses to care and delivery of care

c. a combination of best research evidence, clinical expertise, and the needs & values of patients

Researchers collect data at a single point in time in which type of study? A. Longitudinal studies B. Crossover studies C. Cross-sectional studies D. Time-series studies

c. cross-sectional studies Cross-sectional designs involve data collection at one point in time, whereas longitudinal designs involve data collection at two or more times over an extended period. In a time-series design, outcome data are collected over a period of time before and after introducing an intervention—often from different people. In crossover designs, people are exposed to more than one experimental condition in random order, and in such designs, data are collected from the same people multiple times.

Which is the dependent variable in the question, "Are depressive symptoms among patients with cancer affected by their degree of physical mobility and their pain levels?"? a. A cancer diagnosis b. pain level c. depressive symptoms d. degree of physical mobility

c. depressive symptoms The dependent (outcome) variable is the behavior or characteristic the researcher is interested in explaining, predicting, or affecting, which in this case is depressive symptoms. There are two independent variables (factors that could affect or influence the dependent variable)—degree of physical mobility and pain levels. Patients with cancer in this question are the population (study participants), which is not a variable in the context of this research.