RLST 1 Final

Confucius and his followers A. frequently worked as advisors to powerful rulers B. articulated a political theory based on ancient ritual practice C. had a major impact on the politics of their own time D. enjoyed widespread social respect, prestige, and influence owing to their vast store of knowledge E. decided to create a new religion

B. articulated a political theory based on ancient ritual practice

During the early Second Temple period, Ezra A. likened the people of Judah to an unfaithful wife or rebellious children B. began the practice of reading and explaining sacred scripture in public C. encouraged intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews D. predicted the coming of a messiah E. established Jewish communities established themselves in Rome and Alexandria

B. began the practice of reading and explaining sacred scripture in public

The Calcedonian view in the Christological debates held that Christ was A. entirely divine and any apparent suffering on earth by him was an illusion B. both divine and human simultaneously C. human at birth but became divine after he was baptized D. human at birth but became divine after God adopted Jesus as his son E. the Messiah, but was entirely human

B. both divine and human simultaneously

A major concern of Confucius and those who associated with him was A. devising the best strategies for warfare B. preservation of the best of past cultural forms C. debating and explaining the nature of human nature D. devising methods of efficiently administering a bureaucracy E. refuting the ideas of Xunzi

B. preservation of the best of past cultural forms

At the top of the varna social classification in ancient India was A. warriors B. priests C. wandering religions practitioners D. scholars E. herders of cattle

B. priests

In the ideal Hindu life course, after a person has raised a family successfully, the next stage in life is A. enjoyment and recreation B. pursuing knowledge as a forest hermit C. service as a government official D. military service E. pursuit of music and the arts

B. pursuing knowledge as a forest hermit

Pythagoras of Samos and his associates A. rejected the idea that mathematics could describe the ultimate principles of the universe B. regarded the principles of musical harmony as the underlying harmony of the universe C. regarded the number 7 as especially important and meaningful D. welcomed the challenge to their worldview that irrational numbers posed E. was concerned only with human society and rejected speculation about metaphysics or cosmology

B. regarded the principles of musical harmony as the underlying harmony of the universe

During the time when Muhammad was alive, the Arabian Peninsula was A. predominantly Zoroastrian B. sandwiched between the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) Empires C. predominantly Jewish D. under the control of the powerful King Quryash E. predominantly Christian

B. sandwiched between the Byzantine and Sassanid (Persian) Empires

Paul of Tarsus argued that A. belief in Jesus's resurrection was the only way to attain right standing before God B. good deeds was the path to right standing before God, and Jesus served as an example of how all people should behave C. following the Jewish law was a requirement for right standing before God D. there was no need for Jesus to return to earth E. Jesus was a divine being

A. belief in Jesus's resurrection was the only way to attain right standing before God

Compared with the Shia variety of Islam, Sunni Islam tends to A. believe in spiritual egalitarianism B. hold that the leader of the Islamic community should be especially virtuous and spiritually advanced C. create holy sites at the graves of supreme religious leaders (imams) D. regard as a bad idea the former electing caliphs as leaders of the Islamic community E. celebrate charismatic holy women

A. believe in spiritual egalitarianism

Daoist immortals A. were once ordinary human beings who then acquired seemingly supernatural qualities B. are all female C. are all male D. generally get heavier as the years go by owing to an accumulation of qi in their bodies E. are always solitary and never congregate together for social or other functions

A. were once ordinary human beings who then acquired seemingly supernatural qualities

The Vedas A. were originally part of an oral tradition B. began as philosophical texts written by scholars C. have a central message: attachment to worldly things causes suffering D. argue that religious rituals are of little or no value for society E. describe religious rituals but never explain their significance

A. were originally part of an oral tradition

A major contribution of Islamic learning to the broader world was the dissemination of A. the idea of monotheism B. the germ theory of disease C. Indian numerals, better known as Arabic numerals D. the idea of the Holy Trinity E. geometry

C. Indian numerals, better known as Arabic numerals

The Roman Empire was significant in religious history because it A. its emperors created a radically new form of religious practice that rejected earlier Greek models B. made Latin the dominant language of all parts of the Mediterranean C. facilitated the spread of ideas throughout a vast area D. imposed the Roman gods on all conquered peoples E. created a systematic theology connected with its state religion

C. facilitated the spread of ideas throughout a vast area

One aspect of classical Roman religious practice was A. scripture study B. individual prayer in private C. festivals D. meditation E. long periods of fasting

C. festivals

Early Christianity A. was in agreement about the nature and significance of Jesus B. was centered geographically in the city of Rome C. flourished in parts of central Asia, China, India, and Africa D. had a supreme leader, Nestorius E. was centered geographically in Ethiopia

C. flourished in parts of central Asia, China, India, and Africa

For Confucius, sages A. were divine, savior-like beings send to earth by Heaven B. were numerous in his own day, thus giving him hope for the future C. influence the rest of society by means of moral charisma (de) D. were to be found only among kings and emperors E. had no effect on society because it had become too corrupt

C. influence the rest of society by means of moral charisma (de)

One way that Hinduism deals with the tension between social duty and renunciation is A. embracing an endless multiplicity of representations of the divine B. the creation of a wide variety of devotional practices C. karma yoga: acting but renouncing the results of that action D. pairing all the major male deities like Shiva or Vishnu with female counterparts E. advocating a society without social classes or status distinctions

C. karma yoga: acting but renouncing the results of that action

In early Buddhism, the practice of "rain retreat" eventually led to A. insight meditation B. deep-trance meditation C. long-term monastic communities D. the spread of Buddhism to Tibet and China E. Mahayana teachings

C. long-term monastic communities

King David A. conquered Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) B. received the 10 commandments from God and inscribed them in stone C. made Jerusalem both the political and religious capital D. built the first temple E. wrote the Torah

C. made Jerusalem both the political and religious capital

Which of the following figures is NOT a prophet in the Islamic tradition? A. Adam B. Abraham C. Jesus D. Abu Bakr E. Noah

D. Abu Bakr

Which of the following statements is accurate? A. Only religion can provide a moral or ethical code. B. All religions value rituals. C. Only religion can provide a sense of purpose in life. D. Defining what constitutes a "deity" is not a simple matter. E. All religions possess sacred scripture revealed by a higher power

D. Defining what constitutes a "deity" is not a simple matter.

A typical Hindu approach to representing the ultimate cosmic reality is A. not to try because it is impossible B. to focus on a single master metaphor C. to depict it as a giant old man up in the sky D. embracing an endless multiplicity of representations of the divine E. to avoid visual representations in favor of mantras, which are sounds embodying the deepest truths

D. embracing an endless multiplicity of representations of the divine

In Daoist-influenced paintings, the large areas of empty space in the background suggest that A. humans should abandon society B. the proper performance of state rituals is the root of good government C. social order is the source of all other virtues D. emptiness is the source of everything E. we cannot know what will happen after we die

D. emptiness is the source of everything

The root value for Confucius was A. trustworthiness B. doing one's best C. hard work D. filial piety (xiao) E. moral empathy)

D. filial piety (xiao)

Which of the following would be the most appropriate visual metaphor for the Daoist dao? A. a library full of books B. ritualized behavior such as funerals and ceremonies marking the coming of age C. a dam across a stream constructed by local farmers for flood control purposes D. fog or mist E. a finely carved, ornate piece of furniture

D. fog or mist

In classical Chinese thought A. humans had no free will or any ability to bring about beneficial outcomes in their lives B. "Heaven" was, in all cases, a willful deity who intervened in human affairs C. the universe consisted of 1000 phases of 10 basic elements to create the "10,000 things" D. ideas and emotions were part of the "10,000 things" E. one urgent and disputed issue was explaining how the universe came into existence

D. ideas and emotions were part of the "10,000 things"

Pythagoras of Samos and his associates A. observed 10 planets in the heavens B. welcomed challenges to their worldview as an opportunity to advance knowledge C. claimed that the earth was flat and ultimately shaped like a giant triangle D. insisted that there must be 10 planets, based on faith E. regarded the universe as too complex to be knowable by humans with their limited capabilities

D. insisted that there must be 10 planets, based on faith

One result of the Assyrian conquest of Israel in 722 BCE was A. destruction of Solomon's temple B. the destruction of the Davidic line of kings C. the establishment of Jewish communities in Rome and Alexandria D. that ten of the twelve tribes of Israel ceased to exist E. the development of a rigorous monotheism

D. that ten of the twelve tribes of Israel ceased to exist

The Three Jewels (or Three Treasures) of Buddhism are A. impermanence, no-self, suffering (dukkha) B. compassion, loving-kindness, and equanimity C. Precepts, Meditation, and Skillful Means D. the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha E. Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana

D. the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha

During the Babylonian Exile A. the Jewish community declined economically and in terms of population because of severe hardships B. Rabbis composed the Talmud C. Jewish communities established themselves in Rome and Alexandria D. the Jewish community decided the era of prophecy had ended E. Rabbinic Judaism emerged as an alternative to temple sacrifices

D. the Jewish community decided the era of prophecy had ended

The (Christian) Bible A. contains within it explanations of how it should be read and interpreted B. is regarded as literally true in terms of its surface language by most Christians today C. is not regarded as literally true in terms of its surface language by any Christians today D. consists of a variety of literary genres E. forms a systematic theological essay about the nature of the Divine

D. consists of a variety of literary genres

Owing to the conquests of Alexander the Great, all residents of Palestine A. became Roman citizens B. became part of the Persian Empire C. began to practice Greek-style paganism D. began working on the Sabbath E. became exposed to elements of Hellenistic culture

E. became exposed to elements of Hellenistic culture

King Solomon A. rigorously enforced strict monolatry in Jerusalem B. edited the Bible C. led the Jews in Babylon back to Palestine D. ignored the prophecy of Jeremiah E. created a temple in Jerusalem

E. created a temple in Jerusalem

The main goal in this course is A. enhancement of personal spirituality B. encouraging participation in religious activities C. promoting religion D. discouraging participation in religious activities E. enhancement of cultural literacy

E. enhancement of cultural literacy

Saturnalia was a Roman festival that A. coincided with spring planting B. celebrated the power of the moon and stars C. celebrated military valor D. honored the deity Serapis E. featured temporarily inverted social norms

E. featured temporarily inverted social norms

In the apocalyptic view, which emerged in post-Second Temple Judaism and carried over to Christianity, A. God's people suffer because there are evil forces in the world hostile to God B. the suffering of God's people is a divine punishment orchestrated by God C. God's people suffer when their faith is insufficiently strong D. God's people suffer because sparks of the divine are trapped within our flesh E. God's people suffer because God has permanently abandoned humanity

A. God's people suffer because there are evil forces in the world hostile to God

Which of the following is NOT correct about William Jennings Bryan? A. He was a prominent advocate of applying historical criticism to the study of the Bible B. He was the Democratic and Populist party presidential nominee in 1896. C. He served as secretary of state under Woodrow Wilson D. He served in the House of Representatives E. He was a popular speaker who began a public lecture tour soon after World War 1 ended

A. He was a prominent advocate of applying historical criticism to the study of the Bible

Baal was A. a Canaanite storm and agricultural deity B. the war deity of Babylon C. Mother Earth portrayed as a god D. a deity of sexuality and beauty E. a solar deity

A. a Canaanite storm and agricultural deity

The most common form of Hindu worship service is A. a puja (ritual offering to the deities) B. Kumbha Mela C. a ceremony in which worshippers venerate a cow D. group meditation E. yoga

A. a puja (ritual offering to the deities)

The Moody Bible Institute, founded in 1886, A. advocated a literal reading of the entire Bible B. sought to analyze the Bible according to the insights of historical criticism (higher criticism) C. was established primarily to refute Darwinian evolution D. was an attempt to harmonize Christian principles with the scientific and social advances and changes characteristic of the modern world E. provided detailed academic refutation of the findings of historical criticism (higher criticism)

A. advocated a literal reading of the entire Bible

One result of Martin Luther's religious reform efforts was A. agrarian revolts that resulted in 100,000-300,000 peasant deaths B. rejection of the Chalcedonian Orthodoxy C. an increase in the number of sacraments from two to seven D. greater toleration for different religions E. an era of peace and social tranquility throughout Europe

A. agrarian revolts that resulted in 100,000-300,000 peasant deaths

Most Hindus A. are vegetarians B. devote themselves to both Vishnu and Shiva C. worship cows D. congregate at a local temple once a week E. worship on or near sacred mountains

A. are vegetarians

In the traditional biography of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), we can see that enlightenment is A. attainable through meditation B. attainable through intense prayer C. attainable through sheer willpower—by wanting it badly D. beyond the capacity of humans to attain E. attainable through proper ritual performance

A. attainable through meditation

In ancient Greece A. citizen participation in public religious rites affirmed civic engagement and identity B. divine law regulated nearly all aspects of people's lives C. religion was too abstract and academic to be of interest to anyone but a small group of highly educated citizens D. deities were abstractions without physical shape or attributes E. government-sponsored temple sacrifices were conducted in secret by state-appointed priests

A. citizen participation in public religious rites affirmed civic engagement and identity

Which of the following would NOT be part of the typical vows of a Buddhist monk A. complete withdrawal from any contact with the world at large B. limited personal possessions C. a shaved head D. celibacy E. a vegetarian diet

A. complete withdrawal from any contact with the world at large

An essential step to becoming born again in the context of the Second Great Awakening in the United States was A. confession of one's sins, ideally in a public or group setting B. studying the major interpretations of the Bible C. accepting papal authority in matters of faith D. learning classical Greek to read the New Testament in its original language E. memorizing the Bible and being able to recite it on demand

A. confession of one's sins, ideally in a public or group setting

One way that Emperor Constantine contributed to the development of Christianity was by A. convening the Council of Nicaea in 325 B. convening the Council of Chalcedon in 451 C. prohibiting solar worship in the Roman Empire D. requiring Christians in the empire to believe that God the Son (Jesus) was subordinate to God the Father E. making Christianity the official state religion of Rome

A. convening the Council of Nicaea in 325

In typical practice, most Hindus A. devote themselves to a single deity B. devote themselves to three deities C. fast, expose themselves to the elements, lay on beds of nails, and otherwise mortify their flesh D. pay little or no attention to deities because meditation does not require doing so E. consume beef at communal feasts to affirm community bonds

A. devote themselves to a single deity

Basic knowledge of the world's religions is A. essential for cultural literacy in a pluralistic world B. essential for personal happiness C. too difficult for any one person to acquire D. of little practical benefit because only one religion can be true E. common—survey data show that 80-90% of U.S. residents possess high levels of religious literacy

A. essential for cultural literacy in a pluralistic world

In the Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna could both do his social duty and reduce worldly attachments by A. fighting hard in battle without concern for the results of that fighting B. discovering liberating knowledge within nature C. single-minded devotion to a deity D. performing Hatha yoga, the yoga of effort E. single-minded devotion to the performance of religious rituals

A. fighting hard in battle without concern for the results of that fighting

The Shia doctrine of deep occultation of the twelfth Imam A. functioned as survival strategy B. is also embraced by Sunnis C. became the ideological basis of the institution of the caliphate D. derives from Hadith literature E. indicates relative optimism about the human capacity for obeying God's law

A. functioned as survival strategy

In the traditional biography of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), his life and situation in the palace symbolize or highlight A. indulgence in luxury, sensual pleasures, and ease B. satisfaction with one's work and station in life C. the practice of meditation D. the principle that only kings and priests can become enlightened E. ascetic practices (mortification of the flesh)

A. indulgence in luxury, sensual pleasures, and ease

The Islamic ideal of unity (tawhid) is best reflected in the A. insistence on the singularity of God B. Hadith literature C. relations between predominantly Islamic countries in today's world D. caliphate E. idea that Adam was one of God's prophets

A. insistence on the singularity of God

Kumbha Mela A. is the largest gathering of people in the world B. is a spring festival in which people frolic around a bonfire C. takes place at a sacred mountain once every 5 years D. celebrates the triumph of light over darkness E. is a spoken sound that facilitates spiritual transformation

A. is the largest gathering of people in the world

The prophet Jeremiah A. likened the people of Judah to an unfaithful wife or rebellious children B. led a successful revolt against Syrian rule C. was active in the late Second Temple period D. preached a reassuring message that God would ultimately deliver the people of Judah from their enemies E. predicted the coming of a messiah, who would usher in a kingdom characterized by righteousness and justice

A. likened the people of Judah to an unfaithful wife or rebellious children

Which of the following is NOT one of the proper ends or goals of humanity in Hindu thought? A. maya (illusion) B. dharma (duty, obligation) C. artha (material wealth and power) D. kama (pleasure) E. moksha (liberation)

A. maya (illusion)

According to the Buddhist Eightfold Path, correct conduct includes A. never taking unfair advantage for personal gain B. always obeying and revering the Brahmins (priests) C. lustful behavior, but only between the ages of 15 and 30 D. never saying something that is untrue or not fully true, under any circumstances E. purchasing and consuming meat from butcher shops

A. never taking unfair advantage for personal gain

In classical China, dragons A. often served as a vivid metaphor for the Daoist way B. were deities, often worshipped in temples C. were associated with hot, dry qualities D. assisted Daoist immortals by destroying their enemies E. were a type of demon

A. often served as a vivid metaphor for the Daoist way

For Gnostic Christians, salvation comes from A. one's own effort: knowing what to do and then doing it B. following God's revealed law in the material world C. divine grace D. belief in the resurrection of Jesus E. accepting Jesus's sacrifice and being grateful for it

A. one's own effort: knowing what to do and then doing it

One feature of the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization was A. well-engineered drainage canals B. no use of a writing system C. large stone houses in the city center where elites lived and smaller houses of common people farther out D. approximately 20% of the land set aside for graveyards, featuring elaborate tombs E. sophisticated military foundries for making weapons

A. well-engineered drainage canals

In Confucius' view of history A. people of past ages have improved human culture by building on the achievements of their predecessors B. we should all return to living out in the wilds of nature alongside the other animals C. there is little or no hope that people will progress very far in future centuries D. the father back one goes in time, the more glorious and impressive was the level of cultural attainment E. human civilization peaked during the Shang dynasty and has declined ever since

A. people of past ages have improved human culture by building on the achievements of their predecessors

In ancient Greece A. philosophers eventually found ways to accommodate their belief in a rational cosmos to challenges such as the discovery of irrational numbers B. Plato and most other intellectuals regarded human beings as exact, perfect copies of the ideal forms that the gods embodied C. the discovery of irrational numbers caused the belief in a rational cosmos to collapse D. government-sponsored temple sacrifices were conducted in secret by state-appointed priests E. most intellectuals regarded human beings as deeply flawed, just like the gods

A. philosophers eventually found ways to accommodate their belief in a rational cosmos to challenges such as the discovery of irrational numbers

In Hinduism, one way of dealing with the conflicting demands of life's possible goals is to A. pursue different goals at different stages of one's life B. change one's social class (varna) C. attain liberating knowledge through a study of the Vedas D. devote one's self to a deity (bhakti) E. separate one's self from society at an early age renounce worldly attachments

A. pursue different goals at different stages of one's life

In Islam, Hadith refers to A. records of the words and deeds of the Prophet B. the duty of Muslims to make a pilgrimage to Mecca C. personal struggle to live in accordance with God's rules D. daily worship E. the first and most important chapter of the Quran (Koran)

A. records of the words and deeds of the Prophet

When leading members of society in New York altered the nature of Christmas celebrations, their main goal was to A. reduce public drunkenness and rowdy behavior B. return Christmas to its Roman roots in the Saturnalia festival C. sacralize (make sacred) the holiday D. use Krampus to frighten children into better behavior E. invert the social order temporarily to promote goodwill

A. reduce public drunkenness and rowdy behavior

One goal of Daoist inner alchemy practices was to A. return to the breathing of a child in its mother's womb B. to release stress and tension through the enjoyment of sexual intercourse C. to retain qi by closing or blocking the pores of the skin by bathing in mud D. strengthen the heart, lungs, and muscles through daily swimming in cold water E. to enhance yang energy in men by their bathing in the moonlight

A. return to the breathing of a child in its mother's womb

If life is infused with a variety of types of suffering, the key to eliminating this suffering is to A. stop grasping at pleasures and self-interested desires B. take life easy, avoid stress, and stop worrying C. use the power of one's will to eliminate all desires through asceticism (mortifying the flesh) D. attain high social status to ensure a better rebirth E. satisfy the full range of our desires

A. stop grasping at pleasures and self-interested desires

The most fundamental issue in early Buddhism was A. suffering B. the nature of the supreme deity C. living a morally upright life D. the proper role of mortifying the flesh through rigorous ordeals E. the way(s) in which Buddhism differed from Hinduism

A. suffering

The New Testament consists of 27 books, which can be grouped into four categories. Which of the following is NOT one of those categories A. the Pentateuch B. the gospels C. Acts of the Apostles D. letters by leading Christians E. the Book of Revelation

A. the Pentateuch

By about 500 BCE, A. the Vedic Aryans had established themselves in the northern 2/3 of the Indian subcontinent B. under the influence of the Upanishads, social caste distinctions began to weaken and fade C. the Vedic Aryans had conquered and settled the entire Indian subcontinent D. texts known as the Brahmanas first appeared, which de-emphasized the importance of religious laws E. the Vedic Aryans began migrating into (or possibly began invading) the Indus River Valley

A. the Vedic Aryans had established themselves in the northern 2/3 of the Indian subcontinent

According to the Marcionites A. the god of the Old Testament and the god of the New Testament were different gods B. Paul's understanding of Christianity was wrong C. our mission in life is to liberate the divine sparks within us D. owing to Jesus' righteousness, God adopted Jesus as his son E. this world is an illusion, so do not become attached to it

A. the god of the Old Testament and the god of the New Testament were different gods

The viewpoint known as scholasticism holds that A. the physical universe is orderly, consistent, knowable, and subject to human observation and reason B. the universe cannot exist without God's instant-by-instant attention C. what we might call "natural law" is really an illusion D. there is no point in exploring secondary causes because any important knowledge has already been revealed in Holy Scripture E. only naturalistic explanations of the universe make sense and that there is no room for the agency of supernatural forces

A. the physical universe is orderly, consistent, knowable, and subject to human observation and reason

In the traditional biography of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), as he was growing up his father A. tried to shelter Siddhartha from the harsh realities of life B. provided extensive training in law, administration, and the military arts C. paid little attention to influencing his son's development owing to a fatalistic attitude D. provided extensive training in religious practices such as yoga, meditation, and ritual performance E. tried to expose Siddhartha to the harsh realities of life

A. tried to shelter Siddhartha from the harsh realities of life

The Anglican priest John Ray A. was the first scientist to produce a biological definition of a species B. tended to see science and religion as occupying complementary but separate realms C. regarded science and religion as contradictory realms of knowledge D. struggled to reconcile his religious beliefs and his scientific knowledge E. was the first scientist to propose a theory of the expansion of the universe

A. was the first scientist to produce a biological definition of a species

At the time Confucius lived, A. the rulers of China practiced a religion called Daoism B. China was divided into dozens of different countries of various sizes C. constant warfare had largely destroyed civil society D. China was unified under a strong central government E. there was widespread popular yearning for a new religion

B. China was divided into dozens of different countries of various sizes

The original language of the New Testament is A. Latin B. Greek C. English D. Syriac E. Coptic

B. Greek

When used rigorously, the term "naturalism" breaks down into two points of view. Which of the following statement is accurate? A. Methodological naturalism implies atheism B. Philosophical naturalism holds that the natural world is all that there is. C. Methodological naturalism is the exclusive study of primary causes D. Philosophical naturalism has been prominent among scientists and other scholars in the western world since the middle ages E. Methodological naturalism has been prominent among scientists and other scholars only since the nineteenth century

B. Philosophical naturalism holds that the natural world is all that there is.

In Hinduism, the embodiment of the qualities of the ideal man and woman are A. Krishna and Parvati B. Rama and Sita C. Rudra and Rama D. Krishna and Kali E. Durga and Kali

B. Rama and Sita

The most popular form of Buddhist practice in the United States today is A. Theravada B. Zen meditation C. the intellectual study of original Buddhist texts D. mixtures of Judaism or Christianity and Tibetan Buddhism E. Tibetan deep-trance meditation

B. Zen meditation

Which of the following is major Daoist text? A. the writings of Xunzi B. Zhuangzi C. The Bhagavad Gita D. The Analects E. The Rig Veda

B. Zhuangzi

In the traditional biography of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), he ventured out the from the palace as a young man and saw A. the passing entourage of a great ruler, which filled Siddhartha with ambition B. a sick man, an old man, a dead man, and a religious practitioner C. a traditional religious festival, which filled Siddhartha with ambition D. a young man, a young woman, an old man, and an old woman E. the poverty of ordinary people, which filled Siddhartha with a desire for political and social reform

B. a sick man, an old man, a dead man, and a religious practitioner

By approximately 1900, one characteristic of the fundamentalist movement in Christianity in the United States was A. preference for figurative or symbolic readings of the Bible B. a strong focus on the Book of Revelation C. was an attempt to harmonize Christian principles with the scientific and social advances and changes characteristic of the modern world D. an all-out campaign to oppose Darwinian evolution E. the application of Darwinian ideas to social life to provide the intellectual basis for curtailing welfare programs ("the dole") and other forms of public assistance to the poor.

B. a strong focus on the Book of Revelation

The term dukkha in the first of the Noble Truths indicates A. acute suffering and agony of one's physical body B. a wide range of suffering, including a nagging sense that life is unsatisfactory or not quite right C. desires and grasping for permanence D. the process by which the physical body declines with age E. a deep sense of contentment, peace, and calm

B. a wide range of suffering, including a nagging sense that life is unsatisfactory or not quite right

Indra is A. a fermented beverage popular among the Indo-Aryans B. an Indo-Aryan deity who personified warrior ideals C. an Indo-Aryan deity with a human body and the head of an elephant D. the author of the Upanishads E. the demon-like tempter

B. an Indo-Aryan deity who personified warrior ideals

One result of the Protestant Reformation was A. greater toleration for different religions B. an increase in the custom of personal Bible reading among ordinary people C. rejection of the Chalcedonian Orthodoxy D. decline in the practice of baptism E. the end of attempts to predict the precise date of the Second Coming of Christ

B. an increase in the custom of personal Bible reading among ordinary people

One legacy in Gnostic Christianity is A. a strong affirmation of the material world as a legitimate realm for the pursuit of spiritual insights and enlightenment B. conceptions of the Holy Spirit as a flame residing within us C. the idea that belief in the resurrection of Jesus is the only path to salvation D. the prominent place of Jesus's brother, James the Just E. elevating the New Testament to a higher status than the Old Testament

B. conceptions of the Holy Spirit as a flame residing within us

Charlemagne (Charles the Great) A. advocated religious freedom and tolerance B. created an empire that presaged the emergence of the Holy Roman Empire C. was a fierce champion of the European pagan traditions D. disagreed with the Roman pope about religious doctrine E. encouraged conversion to Christianity by peaceful means

B. created an empire that presaged the emergence of the Holy Roman Empire

Confucius' Way (dao) was A. a path one could follow that would lead to a better life in the next world after death B. created, upheld, and advanced by human effort C. a mystical path, which people pursued through meditation and the use of certain herbal hallucinogenic drugs D. a return to a pristine state of nature, unspoiled by social corruption E. roughly equivalent to the forces of nature or the cosmic forces

B. created, upheld, and advanced by human effort

In the Bhagavad Gita, Bhakti Yoga refers to A. scrupulous performance of religious rituals B. devotion to a personal god C. single-minded action D. the discovery of knowledge within one's self E. daily meditation

B. devotion to a personal god

In the Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna's chariot driver persuades Arjuna to A. devote his life to the literary arts as a means of understanding Brahman B. do his duty and fight C. renounce worldly affairs and abandon the battlefield D. strive to create an ideal society by winning the battle E. fight for the purpose of upholding the honor of his family

B. do his duty and fight

The Council of Chalcedon in 451 A. held that God the Son (Jesus) was subordinate to God the Father B. endorsed the idea of hypostatic union of Christ's two natures C. declared Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman Empire D. declared that Christ was fully and exclusively divine, with no human nature E. declared that Christ was fully human, albeit perfect

B. endorsed the idea of hypostatic union of Christ's two natures

In classical Chinese thought A. the most basic substance of the universe consists of 10 fundamental elements B. every action of everybody and everything reverberates throughout the cosmos C. moral laws and natural (scientific) laws are separate and unrelated D. there is a supreme God of the universe who reveals himself through human prophets E. the category of yang includes things and qualities such as cool, dark, and female

B. every action of everybody and everything reverberates throughout the cosmos

The Second Great Awakening in the United States A. favored precise theological arguments in the context of intellectual debates B. favored heartfelt personal religious experience C. took place mainly within the confines of churches D. was not concerned with social transformations, only transformations of the mind or heart of individuals E. stressed that salvation was available to an elite few selected by God

B. favored heartfelt personal religious experience

Diwali is a A. festival celebrating the deity Kali B. festival celebrating the triumph of light over darkness C. ritual offering of ghee (clarified butter) to the deities D. ceremony devoted to the remembrance and veneration of one's ancestors E. spring festival in which people frolic around a bonfire

B. festival celebrating the triumph of light over darkness

In early Daoism, human culture and civilization A. have steadily gotten weaker and less influential as time has gone by and are on the verge of fading away B. function like poison, and they lead us to an early grave C. are a glorious inheritance from past eras and should be preserved D. should be the basis upon which rulers create systems of laws E. are of no real significance because most people are living out in the woods and mountains, just like the other animals

B. function like poison, and they lead us to an early grave

Monotheism in Judaism A. was a direct result of the conquest of Canaan after leaving Egypt B. gradually evolved over the course of centuries C. was a direct result of the Hebrew people's experiences in Egypt D. was a defining feature of that religion since the time of Abraham E. emerged at the same time as did Rabbinic Judaism

B. gradually evolved over the course of centuries

One result of the Second Great Awakening in the United States was A. the establishment of religious universities and theological institutes around the country B. increased church attendance C. 1 in 3 Americans joining a communal living group D. decreased church attendance E. the rapid spread of slavery

B. increased church attendance

For Confucius A. the preservation of ancient culture, while enjoyable as a hobby, was of little or no practical value to society in the present B. law should not be the primary means of regulating society C. humans should live in harmony with the forces of nature, abandoning the artificial world of society and culture D. human society and culture had been in steep decline ever since the early part of the Shang dynasty E. a major goal of his life's work was to convince others that human nature is good

B. law should not be the primary means of regulating society

Which defining characteristic do all religions share? A. belief in deities or some kind of supernatural beings B. nothing—no single characteristic applies to every religion C. explaining the workings and structure of the universe D. providing rules for ethical social behavior E. possession of sacred scriptures revealed by a higher power

B. nothing—no single characteristic applies to every religion

In a painting influenced by Daoism, which of the following would NOT be typical? A. extensive empty space or space filled with mist or fog B. portraits of past sage kings and culture heroes C. gnarled, bent pine trees D. bamboo E. interconnected circular spaces

B. portraits of past sage kings and culture heroes

For Sunni Muslims, an imam is a A. supreme religious leader descended from Muhammad B. prayer leader in mosques C. a supreme interpreter of Islamic law D. term of respect for any highly accomplished or learned member of the community E. someone who gives a sermon

B. prayer leader in mosques

One reason for increasing tension between science and religion during the nineteenth century in the western Christian world was A. that for the first time most Christians began to read the Bible symbolically B. that scientific advances began to outpace theology C. a sharp turn towards fundamentalism (rejection of modernity) on the part of the Roman Catholic Church D. that the quality and focus of education changed, leaving most people less able to understand science E. that the quality and focus of education changed, leaving most people less able to interpret Holy Scripture

B. that scientific advances began to outpace theology

During Moses' time A. prophets criticized corruption and sin B. the Hebrew God was not a universal deity, but a national one C. the tribes of Israel settled down into various locations in Canaan D. Greek armies conquered Israel E. the final editing of the Bible took place

B. the Hebrew God was not a universal deity, but a national one

In the Islamic version of the end times leading to a day of judgment (both Shia and Sunni), A. the victor in the final, epic battle between the forces of good and evil cannot be known in advance B. the Mahdi and Jesus will return to wage an epic battle in which good will triumph over evil C. Abraham and Jesus will return to wage an epic battle in which good will triumph over evil D. Muhammad will return to earth with Adam to wage an epic battle in which good will triumph over evil E. God will create a great flood and then lift all righteous people into the heavens

B. the Mahdi and Jesus will return to wage an epic battle in which good will triumph over evil

The major doctrinal development in the Council of Nicea in 325 was A. elevation of the Gospel of Thomas to canonical status B. the Trinitarian idea that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are equal C. rejection of the idea of a virgin birth D. acceptance of the idea that Christ was fully human E. acceptance of the idea that Christ was fully divine

B. the Trinitarian idea that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are equal

Which of the following is NOT a core belief or practice in Islam A. giving assistance to the poor B. the divinity of Muhammad C. daily worship D. fasting during Ramadan E. rigorous monotheism

B. the divinity of Muhammad

Among other things, the deity Kali represents A. charity and kindness B. the fact that we, and all other things, will die and transform C. the power of the masculine principle D. sexual beauty E. Bhakti Yoga

B. the fact that we, and all other things, will die and transform

One reason for the Puritan prohibition of Christmas in New England was that A. the celebration of Krampus is inappropriate for Christians B. the holiday has no scriptural basis C. people should never enjoy themselves D. giving gifts to children was inappropriate and tends to spoil them E. Jesus was actually born in August

B. the holiday has no scriptural basis

Which of the following elements was not an ingredient in Daoism as it emerged by approximately the time of the Tang dynasty (ca. 9th century)? A. Laozi and Zhuangzi B. the idea that good government was a function of correct ritual practice C. Correlative cosmology D. Buddhism E. Herbal pharmacology

B. the idea that good government was a function of correct ritual practice

In classical Chinese thought A. the category of yin includes things and qualities such as hot, bright, and male B. the material through which waves of action and response propagate is qi (material force) C. the laws of the cosmos are too complex and difficult for humans to understand D. a supreme deity of the universe created humans as a special category of being E. moral laws and natural (scientific) laws are separate and unrelated

B. the material through which waves of action and response propagate is qi (material force)

Steeples in Christian churches came from A. Greek and Roman military vehicles designed for scaling walls B. the obelisks common in fertility worship C. pagan sacrificial altars D. Greek (especially Neo-Platonic) ideas of ideal forms E. platforms used in solar worship around the Roman Empire

B. the obelisks common in fertility worship

The Greek philosopher Plato A. was concerned only with human society and rejected speculation about metaphysics or cosmology B. theorized that non-material ideal forms constituted the highest, most fundamental reality C. discovered that the square root of 2 is a rational number D. claimed that the material world we inhabit is a stable, unchanging reflection of the Divine E. claimed that the underlying logic of the universe was so complex that humans could not hope to understand it

B. theorized that non-material ideal forms constituted the highest, most fundamental reality

One key idea in the early Vedas was that A. we are constantly reincarnated B. there is a vast cosmic order that human social institutions must help uphold C. everything in the universe is a manifestation of Brahman D. our goal is to re-unite our individual selves (atman) with the fabric of the universe (Brahman) E. attachment to worldly matters causes suffering

B. there is a vast cosmic order that human social institutions must help uphold

The Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaitre A. regarded scientific discoveries as confirmation of Divine wisdom B. was the first scientist to propose a theory of the expansion of the universe C. enthusiastically endorsed the pope's public comments on his work D. struggled to reconcile his religious beliefs and his scientific knowledge E. was the first scientist to produce a biological definition of a species

B. was the first scientist to propose a theory of the expansion of the universe

The basic story of Jesus's birth, death and resurrection resembles A. the vision of the messiah as a great king B. well-known regional stories of gods and heroes C. accounts of prophets found in the Old Testament D. the vision of the messiah as a charismatic temple priest E. accounts of famous kings found in the Old Testament

B. well-known regional stories of gods and heroes

According to the gnostic Christians A. Jesus was born human, but God adopted Jesus as His son B. the god of the Old Testament and the god of the New Testament were different gods C. Jesus taught a method whereby people could liberate the sparks of the divine within their flesh D. to be right with God, one must be or become Jewish E. salvation will occur through good deeds performed in the ordinary world

C. Jesus taught a method whereby people could liberate the sparks of the divine within their flesh

In the realm of science, one alternative to Darwinian evolution that was popular among scientists during the nineteenth century was A. young earth creationism B. Mendelian genetics C. Lamarckian evolution D. natural selection E. higher criticism

C. Lamarckian evolution

As a technical term in science, which of the following is NOT correct regarding a theory? A. Theories have predictive power. B. Theories organize known facts, observations, and experimental data into an intellectual framework. C. Theories are unproven speculation and are not as reliable as facts. D. Once established, theories can never change. E. To become widely accepted, a theory must explain known facts better than competing theories and be repeatedly confirmed by observation or experiments.

C. Theories are unproven speculation and are not as reliable as facts.

Freyja (Fraujo) was A. a solar deity celebrated on December 25 B. a hammer-wilding Norse thunder deity C. a deity of love, sexuality, beauty, and fertility who was sometimes depicted with a boar D. the punitive, demonic counterpart to the gift-giving St. Nicholas E. the deity responsible for the enforcement of oaths and contracts in ancient Canaanite religion

C. a deity of love, sexuality, beauty, and fertility who was sometimes depicted with a boar

Sigmund Freud saw religion as A. a tool of the bourgeoisie (relative social elites) to keep the proletariat (the masses) content B. starting with an awareness or perception of something Holy C. a reaction to the fear of life's demands, the dangers posed by nature, and to death D. a dynamic, changing category that was the result of the accumulation and interaction of past traditions E. a beautiful expression of the human psyche

C. a reaction to the fear of life's demands, the dangers posed by nature, and to death

Yahweh was A. originally a storm deity of great importance to agriculture B. originally a deity of healing and medicine, closely related to Asclepius C. a vengeful tribal war god in many early books of the Bible D. a relative of the Greek-Egyptian hybrid deity Serapis E. the Babylonian war god

C. a vengeful tribal war god in many early books of the Bible

In Vedic Hinduism, one way to improve one's karmic balance was to A. meditate B. perform pest control services for the community C. accept one's status in the current lifetime and faithfully carrying out the duties of that status D. improve the social condition of untouchables E. criticize social and religious corruption publically

C. accept one's status in the current lifetime and faithfully carrying out the duties of that status

A major goal of this course is to A. enhance your personal spirituality B. serve as a forum for the practice of religion C. acquire a moderately sophisticated understanding of the phenomenon of religion in human societies D. criticize backward or primitive religions E. encourage you to believe in the teachings of a religion

C. acquire a moderately sophisticated understanding of the phenomenon of religion in human societies

In classical Chinese thought by about 200 CE, A. it had become inappropriate to try to represent cosmic forces in visual form because any such representation was bound to be incomplete B. moral laws and natural (scientific) laws are separate and unrelated C. all known substances, phenomena, and processes of the natural and social world became associated with one of the five phases D. ideas, sensations, emotions, and other intangible qualities had no relationship to yin-yang and the 5 phases/agents E. the universe consisted of 1000 phases of 10 basic elements to create the "10,000 things"

C. all known substances, phenomena, and processes of the natural and social world became associated with one of the five phases

Agni is A. an Indo-Aryan storm deity B. a demonic tempter C. an Indo-Aryan fire deity D. an Indo-Aryan deity who often assumes human form, such as Krishna E. a fermented beverage popular among the Indo-Aryans

C. an Indo-Aryan fire deity

In today's world, most Daoists practice Daoism A. through meditation B. through the techniques of inner alchemy C. at a temple D. through athletic training E. through long hikes and living in remote wilderness areas

C. at a temple

During the month of Ramadan. Muslims should A. give gifts to family members and friends B. pray three times daily C. be especially mindful of their sins and the ethical quality of their lives D. not eat anything E. avoid all forms of work

C. be especially mindful of their sins and the ethical quality of their lives

The religious and military revolt against Rome now called the Reformation A. was mainly about opposition to the doctrine of the Trinity B. was about power and leadership, not serious doctrinal issues C. began in Bohemia (today's Czech Republic) with Jan Hus D. began in Switzerland with Huldrych Zwingli E. had no success in the German states because of the great power of the Holy Roman emperor

C. began in Bohemia (today's Czech Republic) with Jan Hus

One way that Hinduism deals with the tension between social duties versus non-attachment is A. by making it possible for people to move from one social class (varna) to another B. by stressing the idea that good government depends on well-designed rites and rituals C. clearly defined stages of life, the last of which is renunciation D. by advocating hedonism (the pursuit of pleasure) as the ultimate goal in life E. by advocating the practice of meditation by people of all social classes

C. clearly defined stages of life, the last of which is renunciation

Classical Chinese creation myths are concerned mainly with the origins of A. human beings B. the earth C. culture and civilization D. the universe E. Chinese people

C. culture and civilization

In the late Roman Empire (after ca. 400 CE), A. pagan festivals vanished because of state prohibitions of public festivities B. paganism enjoyed a revival of popularity C. extensive cultural exchange between Christianity and the pagan traditions began D. most Christians became puzzled by the apparently delay in the expected second coming of Jesus E. Christianity adopted a mild attitude toward non-Christians, attempting to make converts only by non-violent means

C. extensive cultural exchange between Christianity and the pagan traditions began

According to the Buddhist Eightfold Path, which of the following would be a concrete example of "right endeavor" (or "right effort")? A. writing one's memoirs so that the world will remember someone after s/he has died B. a severe program of self-starvation C. monastic discipline such as silently begging for food each morning D. a self-affirmation circle, whose participants tell each other how wonderful and special they are E. training to become a competitive athlete and win glory for Buddhism through sport

C. monastic discipline such as silently begging for food each morning

The command of God to Moses, "You shall have no other gods before me," was a demand for A. military bravery B. monotheism C. monolatry D. eliminating corruption in the administration of the temple E. correct interpretation of Holy Scripture

C. monolatry

The general Daoist approach to the issue of death and what happens thereafter was A. to say that we will live on in spiritual form in a paradise B. to say that we will undergo Divine judgment and reside either in heaven or in hell C. not to die D. to say that we will be reincarnated E. to assume that all people would be reborn into a miserable underworld

C. not to die

William Jennings Bryan A. objected to Darwinian evolution on scientific grounds B. thought that government should not attempt to regulate society morally or economically C. objected to Darwinian evolution on ethical grounds D. was originally trained as a scientist and understood Darwinian evolution very well E. argued that Lamarckian evolution was a superior theory to Darwinian evolution

C. objected to Darwinian evolution on ethical grounds

The written texts of the gospels developed from A. the letters of Paul and other apostles B. Jesus's own autobiography C. oral tales about Jesus that had been circulating for decades D. recorded eyewitness accounts of Jesus's activates E. accounts of Jesus's life found in official Roman government records

C. oral tales about Jesus that had been circulating for decades

In the Bhagavad Gita, Arjuna was able, briefly, to see Krishna as Brahman by means of A. insight gained through the performance of religious rituals B. a demonic force that granted him special powers C. receiving a special "divine eye" D. insight meditation E. his knowledge gained from extensive study of the Vedas

C. receiving a special "divine eye"

Compared with the Sunni variety of Islam, Shia Islam tends to A. look favorably on the practice of electing caliphs after Muhammad's death B. deny the need for special intermediaries between God and the masses of believers C. regard people as needing the assistance of divinely favored holy leaders D. be optimistic about human capacity to find salvation through adherence to God's law E. emphasize the need for an orderly community as the path to salvation

C. regard people as needing the assistance of divinely favored holy leaders

In Chinese popular religion, the Jade Emperor A. resides in the kitchen of a typical Chinese household B. originated as an actual person who, after death, assumed the role of protecting sailors C. rules all the deities in the heavens and all realms of existence D. is a deity of scholarship and culture, often found enshrined in schools E. is a rain and storm deity much revered by farmers

C. rules all the deities in the heavens and all realms of existence

One reason for increasing tension between science and religion during the nineteenth century was A. a sharp turn towards fundamentalism (rejection of modernity) on the part of the Roman Catholic Church B. Gaps in scientific knowledge increased and widened owing to new data from much more sensitive instruments C. science had increasingly less room for God, especially for a God that willfully acted in or intervened in the world D. that scientists began to insist that some species of animals and plants had evolved from previous life forms E. that the widespread acceptance of historical criticism (higher criticism) provided new insights into the deep meanings and structure of the Bible, thus reducing the need for scientific explanations

C. science had increasingly less room for God, especially for a God that willfully acted in or intervened in the world

The division of a united Hebrew kingdom into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah was a result of A. partitioning by Alexander the Great after he conquered the region B. King Solomon's wisdom in splitting the centers of power to prevent easy conquest C. social tensions owing to a clash of urban culture and older tribal organization D. disagreement about how to conduct temple sacrifices the dying out of the of the Davidic line of kings

C. social tensions owing to a clash of urban culture and older tribal organization

The physical center of Islam is A. Alexandria in Egypt B. Medina C. the Kaaba in Mecca D. Jerusalem E. Antioch in Syria

C. the Kaaba in Mecca

In Judaism, one result of the increasing influence of Hellenistic culture in the wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great was A. that Alexandria became the geographic center of Judaism B. that Jerusalem became the geographic center of Judaism C. translation of the Hebrew Bible and other religious texts into Greek D. that the Jewish people abandoned monotheism in favor of pagan polytheism E. the cessation of temple sacrifice in favor of prayer and the study of religious texts

C. translation of the Hebrew Bible and other religious texts into Greek

The tilak (forehead mark) of Vishnu features A. a circle within a circle B. three horizontal lines C. vertical lines joined at the bottom D. a thick vertical line E. a square with a dot in the center

C. vertical lines joined at the bottom

As for Jesus the Christ, A. he was born in Rome and wrote extensively in Latin B. all of the gospels in the New Testament agree on the details of his birth and death C. we know nothing about his physical appearance D. he wrote an autobiography, which became the first book of the New Testament E. he seems to have spoken frequently in support of social elites and the wealthy members of society

C. we know nothing about his physical appearance

In the context of the Second Great Awakening in the United States, the "Burned-over District" was A. eastern Kentucky B. Indiana C. western New York state D. Maine E. the region of Georgia and Alabama

C. western New York state

Confucius thought that human civilization A. would probably collapse in the future B. depended on and was a product of the Divine power of Heaven C. would probably improve and advance in the future D. had been in steep decline for many centuries E. was not significantly different from the rest of nature

C. would probably improve and advance in the future

For Confucius A. heartfelt prayers offered up to Heaven might influence the cosmic powers to benefit the person or group offering the prayers B. courage was the root virtue out of which all the others developed C. good government was largely a matter of technical skill in the management of laws, regulations, and the flow of revenues into the state treasury D. Li (rites, formalized behavior, ceremonies, etc.) was the means by which humans develop their moral excellence within society E. social harmony was best attained through a thorough and well-enforced network of laws

D. Li (rites, formalized behavior, ceremonies, etc.) was the means by which humans develop their moral excellence within society

Which of the following is NOT a form (variety) of Shiva? A. Parvati's lover B. lingam (phallic symbol) C. Nataraja—lord of the cosmic dance D. a blue-skinned deity with multiple arms E. man carrying a trident staff with a cobra around his shoulders and neck

D. a blue-skinned deity with multiple arms

Isis was A. the sister of Horus B. a war deity in Babylon C. a deity of Scandinavian origin often depicted with a boar D. a deity of Egyptian origin, who restored Osiris's dismembered body to life E. a Canaanite deity of storms and agriculture

D. a deity of Egyptian origin, who restored Osiris's dismembered body to life

Serapis was A. a female deity of fertility in Greece B. the war deity of Babylon C. the powerful god of thunder in Norse mythology and religion D. a hybrid Greek-Egyptian deity worshipped widely in the Roman Empire E. the Greek deity of medicine

D. a hybrid Greek-Egyptian deity worshipped widely in the Roman Empire

One problem in discussing the early history of the Hebrew people is A. that Abraham's sons sold their brother Joseph into slavery in Egypt B. the absence of any written narrative describing this time C. contradictions between Egyptian records and Roman records D. a lack of useful sources other than the Bible E. contradictions between the Bible and the accounts in the Midrash

D. a lack of useful sources other than the Bible

Islam regards itself as A. a meditative religion in which each person seeks his or her own unique path to salvation B. a religion unrelated to Judaism and Christianity C. a religion suitable only for those born into it, not for converts D. a revealed religion that supersedes Judaism and Christianity E. potentially open to modification by future prophecies

D. a revealed religion that supersedes Judaism and Christianity

In Upanishadic Hinduism, the term Brahman refers to A. the priestly caste B. a cycle of reincarnation C. perceptual limitations and illusions D. a singular Ultimate Reality of the cosmos that transcends time and space E. a transcendent entity that exists apart from humans

D. a singular Ultimate Reality of the cosmos that transcends time and space

One long-term effect of the Second Great Awakening in the United States is A. an overall decline in religiosity in the U.S. compared with the rest of the industrialized world B. a tendency to reject the legitimacy of public education C. a strict separation of religion and politics in American public life D. a strong tendency toward a confessional style in public life E. a lack of interest in the Book of Revelation owing to the difficulty of predicting the date of the second coming of Christ

D. a strong tendency toward a confessional style in public life

Which of the following is NOT a classic symbol of Daoist immortality? A. deer B. cranes C. pine trees D. an 8-spoked wheel E. peaches

D. an 8-spoked wheel

In Hinduism, karma ("action") is A. a term referring to a person's social duties and obligations B. refers to seeking enlightenment through the pursuit of sensual and emotional pleasures C. the name of a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth D. an inescapable law or principle of cause and effect E. an advanced state of spiritual enlightenment

D. an inescapable law or principle of cause and effect

Sacraments A. are the same in all varieties of Christianity B. were mainly of interest to theologians, not ordinary believers C. originally consisted only of baptism and communion, but Protestant reformers increased the number of sacraments to seven D. are divine rituals to transfer grace to the recipient and to open her or him to the Holy Spirit E. were an important part of early Christianity, but are no longer practiced today

D. are divine rituals to transfer grace to the recipient and to open her or him to the Holy Spirit

In the traditional biography of the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama), one of the practices in which he engaged after the Great Renunciation was A. academic study at a local university B. hedonism C. performing religious rituals D. asceticism (mortifying the flesh) E. good works in the form of poverty relief

D. asceticism (mortifying the flesh)

According to the Buddhist Eightfold Path, which of the following would be a WRONG livelihood? A. message therapist B. IT consultant C. musician D. brewery owner E. physician

D. brewery owner

In the thought of later Hinduism, diverse visual representations of the Divine A. are not really correct, and therefore are not appropriate B. demonstrate the teaching that there is no single Divine essence C. are appropriate, but only for uneducated people who cannot read religious texts D. can provide a glimpse, hint, or other insight into the vast and profound quality of Brahman E. are appropriate for avatars (manifestations) of Shiva and Vishnu, but not for other deities

D. can provide a glimpse, hint, or other insight into the vast and profound quality of Brahman

Compared with the Sunni variety of Islam, Shia Islam tends to A. regard religious scholarship as relatively less important B. be heavily involved in politics, even in areas where Shiites are a minority C. be heavily involved in politics, even in areas where Shiites are a minority D. celebrate charismatic holy women E. be optimistic about the human capacity for obeying God's law

D. celebrate charismatic holy women

The Quran A. took well over a century after Muhammad's death to come into existence as a written text B. contains a biography of Muhammad C. clearly explains the doctrine of Original Sin owing to Adam's disobedience of God D. consists of 114 suras ("rows," but essentially, chapters), roughly organized from longest to shortest E. consists of descriptions of Muhammad's life and his conversations about a wide variety of matters

D. consists of 114 suras ("rows," but essentially, chapters), roughly organized from longest to shortest

In later Daoism, the overall view of the human body was that A. the flesh is a source of sin and so it should be mortified by fasting and exposure to the elements B. it is but a useless shell, to be happily discarded after death to liberate our true spirits C. it should be trained and conditioned by strict adherence to ritual forms (li) D. it is a microcosm of the cosmos E. it is incapable of surviving for long periods of time, which is why people so often die before reaching 100 years of age

D. it is a microcosm of the cosmos

In the context of ancient Canaanite religion, A. the study of sacred tests was the highest form of religious expression B. meditation was the key to understanding the mysteries of the universe C. Krampus was a demon who often destroyed crops D. it was common to interpret victory on the battlefield as a case of one tribal or national god defeating another E. the most important deities were those responsible for the enforcement of oaths and contracts

D. it was common to interpret victory on the battlefield as a case of one tribal or national god defeating another

One significance of the Indo-Aryan social class system (varnas) is that it A. valorized military arts by placing warriors (Kshatriyas) at the top of the social pyramid B. became a way of permitting social mobility through mastery of Vedic texts C. assigned a high-status position to the non-Aryan peoples of the subcontinent D. later developed into a rigid caste system, whose influence persists even today E. became the basis of social organization in other societies such as ancient Greece and ancient China

D. later developed into a rigid caste system, whose influence persists even today

In Buddhism, meditation, if properly performed, is A. like a drug that dulls our awareness of pain and suffering B. the ultimate enjoyment of sensual pleasure C. like building a new boat, one plank at a time D. like pulling out the weeds of our desires by their roots and casting them aside E. like experiencing dreams while we sleep

D. like pulling out the weeds of our desires by their roots and casting them aside

The main task or goal for a Muslim is to A. advance human culture and civilization B. discover liberating knowledge trapped within one's flesh C. detach one's self from worldly affairs D. live her or his life in accordance with the divine revelation that Muhammad conveyed E. fundamentally re-structure his or her thought processes

D. live her or his life in accordance with the divine revelation that Muhammad conveyed

Muhammad was a A. manifestation of God B. tribal leader C. priest D. merchant in Mecca E. scholar

D. merchant in Mecca

In Daoist inner alchemy A. women should bathe in the sun B. yoga-like physical exercises (daoyin) were done to close the body's pores to prevent excessive contact with life-shortening forces. C. one should strive to slow down or, even better, stop the flow of qi through one's body D. one should strive to minimize the loss of "inner qi" through special breathing techniques E. it is advantageous for women to practice sexual training techniques, but men would not benefit from such training

D. one should strive to minimize the loss of "inner qi" through special breathing techniques

The word "pagan" A. was a Greek term for the phenomenon of religious mixing and blending B. was the term by which Pythagoreans, who regarded mathematics as scared, called themselves C. was the term by which Pythagoreans, who regarded mathematics as scared, called themselves D. originated as a derogatory label meaning "rustic" E. was an ancient label for those who today would be called "atheists," that is, those who not believe in the existence of any deities

D. originated as a derogatory label meaning "rustic"

One major innovation of Paul in the history of early Christianity was A. convening a council in 325 to clarify the doctrine of the Trinity B. selecting four gospels for inclusion in the New Testament C. selecting four gospels for inclusion in the New Testament D. promoting a non-Jewish path to salvation E. providing a path to salvation through good deeds

D. promoting a non-Jewish path to salvation

Close textual analysis of the Bible by scholars of historical criticism A. was reassuring to the public because it upheld age-old certainties about Holy Scripture B. was, according to William Jennings Bryan, the main cause of World War 1 C. prompted a popular movement within Protestant Christianity for embracing complex interpretations of the Bible D. revealed a complex structure and editing process E. directly influenced Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection

D. revealed a complex structure and editing process

In Puritan New England in the early 18th century, A. the governor of Massachusetts, appointed by the British crown, enforced a strict prohibition on "Christmas keeping" as was the law in Britain at this time B. Christmas became a family-oriented holiday featuring gift giving C. Christmas became a mandatory holiday and businesses were required to close on December 25 D. social historians have determined that sexual activity among young people peaked during the Christmas season E. it became common to attend church on Christmas Day

D. social historians have determined that sexual activity among young people peaked during the Christmas season

In the early Daoist conception of history A. human beings have benefited from the efforts of a series of sage kings and cultural inventors (e.g., Yao, Shun, Yu) B. there was no particular pattern to the human past—just a series of random events C. life has generally improved for most people over the years D. society and culture were, in effect, poisonous to human development and happiness E. the events and circumstances of the past have little or no relevance in explaining the present

D. society and culture were, in effect, poisonous to human development and happiness

During the late Second Temple period, A. most Jews enthusiastically supported Roman rule B. all Jews agreed about the characteristics of a soon-to-arrive messiah C. most Jews agreed with the idea that God had ceased to intervene in human affairs and history D. some Jews thought that a messiah would arrive to restore the Davidic line of monarchs E. Greco-Roman culture and traditional Jewish culture interacted harmoniously

D. some Jews thought that a messiah would arrive to restore the Davidic line of monarchs

One result of the Jewish revolt against Rome in 70 CE was that A. the prophetic tradition ended B. the Jesus sect of Judaism declared itself a separate religion called Christianity C. the Davidic line of kinds was restored D. synagogues replaced the temple E. the lineage of temple priests became especially powerful

D. synagogues replaced the temple

One of Mencius' major contributions to early Confucianism was A. the idea that our main purpose in life is to find our lost "inner child," who will then make us happy B. the idea that human nature is like a blank slate, becoming good or evil as a result of social influences in a person's immediate environment C. the idea that li (ritualized behavior, ceremony, etc.) is the key to good government D. the assertion that ordinary people were right to overthrow evil rulers E. the assertion that human virtue can only be developed in a social context, not by isolated contemplation, fasting, meditation, and so forth

D. the assertion that ordinary people were right to overthrow evil rulers

One result of the rebellion of Simon bar Kokhba was A. restoration of the temple B. restoration of the Davidic line of C. the Jewish community in Jerusalem and nearby areas flourished after throwing off the yoke of Roman rule D. the geographic dispersal of most of the surviving Jewish population of Judea E. rejection of an oral Torah

D. the geographic dispersal of most of the surviving Jewish population of Judea

A core insight discovered by the Buddha was A. the usefulness of deep-trance meditation B. the stability of our true selves (atman) over time C. that sometimes we suffer D. the idea of dependent arising E. the inevitability of death

D. the idea of dependent arising

In the Scopes Trial of 1925, A. William Jennings Bryan represented the defense B. Clarence Darrow represented the prosecution C. William Jennings Bryan impressed the news media with his eloquent and convincing defense of fundamentalist Christian ideas D. the judge insisted that the trial focus on the narrow question of whether Scopes was guilty of teaching evolution E. William Jennings Bryan brilliantly cut down the arguments of Clarence Darrow, which is mainly why Jennings' side won the case

D. the judge insisted that the trial focus on the narrow question of whether Scopes was guilty of teaching evolution

Which of the following matters was a major issue during the time of Mencius and Xunzi but not during the time of Confucius? A. the questions of which books should be considered Holy Scripture B. ritualized conduct C. the correct method for praying to Heaven D. the nature of human nature E. family values

D. the nature of human nature

The tilak (forehead mark) of Shiva features A. the shape of a coiled serpent B. a thick vertical line C. a square with a dot in the center D. three horizontal lines E. a circle within a circle

D. three horizontal lines

The cities of the Indus River Valley Civilization A. were largely isolated and appeared to have had little contact with people outside of the Indus Valley B. frequently fought wars with each other, which eventually caused the whole civilization to collapse C. contain dwellings of varying sizes and quality, indicating a rigid social hierarchy D. traded with other regions of the world, including Mesopotamia E. based their wealth mainly on maintaining large herds of cattle for the production of beef, leather clothing, and other leather goods

D. traded with other regions of the world, including Mesopotamia

According to the traditional account, Abraham A. received 10 commandments from God and inscribed them in stone B. fathered ten daughters who became the matriarchs of the ten tribes of Israel C. became the first king of a united Israel D. travelled from Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) to Canaan E. travelled from Canaan to Egypt

D. travelled from Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) to Canaan

According to the Buddhist Eightfold Path, which of the following would be a concrete example of "right mindfulness"? A. devoting one's life to charitable work B. singing a Buddhist-themed song C. reading Buddhist theological texts or sutras (suttas) D. using meditation to become aware of one's mental and psychological states E. endeavoring to follow the example of the Buddha

D. using meditation to become aware of one's mental and psychological states

The Second Great Awakening in the United States A. was a process of doctrinal purification of religion B. was centered in the southeastern states C. tended to claim that spiritual purity required the avoidance of political activism D. was a democratization of religion E. did not significantly increase church attendance

D. was a democratization of religion

In Chinese lore, Yu the Great is "great" because he A. was a paragon of filial piety B. created the institution of marriage C. discovered the 8 Trigrams D. was a hydraulic engineer who controlled the flooding of rivers E. created agriculture

D. was a hydraulic engineer who controlled the flooding of rivers

Darwin claimed that the mechanism of natural selection that he proposed A. should be applicable to human politics and social organization, in addition to biological populations B. was as much moral as it was mechanistic because species that prospered or declined deserved such a fate C. was based on biblical sources D. was descriptive, not normative E. was evidence of the brilliance of God's creation

D. was descriptive, not normative

The main reason for a shift in the geographic center of gravity of Christianity around the year 1000 was that A. the Indian subcontinent had become predominantly Christian B. Eastern Orthodox Christianity flourished in Russia C. Christianity died out in Africa D. the Scandinavian countries became Christian E. Christianity was in decline relative to Islam in most of the Eastern Mediterranean

E. Christianity was in decline relative to Islam in most of the Eastern Mediterranean

In the Roman Empire before 313, A. there was systematic, empire-wide persecution of Christians B. Christianity had little appeal and thus did not spread far beyond the region of Palestine C. Christians united under a central leader, in part for protection against persecution D. approximately 50,000 Christians died as a direct result of their faith E. Christians sometimes appeared suspicious and disloyal in the eyes of local officials or communities

E. Christians sometimes appeared suspicious and disloyal in the eyes of local officials or communities

Arianism held that A. Christ was both human and divine B. Christ was fully divine and had no human nature C. Christ was born human but became divine after his baptism D. Christ was both human and divine, and these two natures existed in a unified condition E. God the Son (Jesus) was subordinate to God the Father

E. God the Son (Jesus) was subordinate to God the Father

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the Daoist Dao (way)? A. It is beyond time B. It is beyond space. C. It is the source of all life. D. It is constantly in motion. E. Humans have the power to change it.

E. Humans have the power to change it.

If you were asked to recommend a book for someone who wished to read about the resolution of the tension between dharma and moksha, which of the following would be most appropriate? A. The Vedas B. The Yoga Sutras C. The Upanishads D. The Brahmanas E. The Bhagavad Gita

E. The Bhagavad Gita

In their views of history, both Confucius and the early Daoists asked the same basic question, namely A. How is it that people can live the longest possible life? B. Did people in ancient times live in a primitive state much like the other animals? C. Did the Duke of Zhou worship Heaven properly? D. Exactly how old is human society? E. To what extent was a particular era conducive to ideal human life?

E. To what extent was a particular era conducive to ideal human life?

Krishna is an avatar (manifestation) of A. Agni B. Shiva C. Indra D. Ganesh E. Vishnu

E. Vishnu

In the ideas of later Hinduism A. the only correct way to attain liberation is by devoting one's self wholeheartedly to a deity B. the single correct way to attain liberation is by karma (action) yoga C. the one correct way to attain liberation is by detachment from society D. visual depictions of the divine are not appropriate because they are too limited E. a divine essence permeates everything in the universe

E. a divine essence permeates everything in the universe

For Confucius, li (ritualized conduct) was A. inferior to laws as a means of social organization B. less important that genuine feelings C. a method for enhancing one's spiritual wellbeing D. inferior to personal prayer as a means of spiritual development E. a form of modeling

E. a form of modeling

The major doctrinal development in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 was A. elevation of the Gospel of Thomas to canonical status B. providing a path to salvation through good deeds C. rejection of the Trinitarian idea that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are equal D. acceptance of the gnostic idea of the liberation of divine sparks E. a formula whereby Christ was both fully divine and fully human

E. a formula whereby Christ was both fully divine and fully human

One reason Darwinian evolution may have been emotionally objectionable to some Christians at the start of the twentieth century is that it A. supposes a competition for resources among creatures B. claims that God does not exist C. claims that God did not create anything D. claims that Noah never built an ark E. afforded no special status to human beings

E. afforded no special status to human beings

Confucius was A. a military leader who yearned for peace B. a prominent author and editor C. a prominent government official D. a temple priest E. an antiquarian, deeply immersed in the lore of the past

E. an antiquarian, deeply immersed in the lore of the past

One quality of a Daoist immortal is A. intellectual brilliance B. great physical strength C. engaging constantly in a struggle with demonic forces D. high social status E. an extremely light body

E. an extremely light body

Lü Dongbin was a particularly famous Daoist immortal in Chinese culture. Which of the following is NOT one of the ways he was commonly depicted? As A. a figure riding a dragon and carrying a bottle of the elixir of immortality B. a child whose cheekbones and face tended to resemble a dragon and his feet were webbed like a turtle C. a figure who would appear in the heavens as a sign of good fortune or to quell demons D. a sword-wielding queller of demons E. an old man seated backward while riding a donkey (or sometimes an ox)

E. an old man seated backwards while riding a donkey (or sometimes an ox)

Wilfred Cantwell Smith A. regarded religion as a tool of the bourgeoisie (relative social elites) to keep the proletariat (the masses) content B. theorized that religion originated as a reaction to the fear of life's demands, the dangers posed by nature, and to death C. argued that the phenomenon of religion does not really exist D. argued that religion serves three main purposes: social cohesion, social control, and providing meaning and purpose E. argued that the very idea of "religion" was relatively new in human history and was a peculiarly European construct

E. argued that the very idea of "religion" was relatively new in human history and was a peculiarly European construct

The Upanishads A. are texts of hymns, spells, myths, and rituals B. were brought into the Indian subcontinent from Persia by migrating Indo-Aryan tribes C. stress the importance maintaining social classes and adhering to social norms D. are religious texts featuring dialogues between the warrior Arjuna and his chariot driver, who is actually a manifestation of Krishna E. generally argue that attachment to worldly matters leads to suffering

E. generally argue that attachment to worldly matters leads to suffering

Confucius thought that human society and civilization A. could prosper only if people recognized and worshipped the supreme deity that he called "Heaven" B. had not changed significantly for many centuries C. was a corrupt realm that should be abandoned by people who are truly religious D. was the product of Divine creation by Heaven E. had emerged from a past in which people lived in a primitive state of nature

E. had emerged from a past in which people lived in a primitive state of nature

One longer term significance of the Scopes Trial of 1925 was that it A. swept William Jennings Bryan into the U.S. presidency B. ruined the career of John Scopes, who died a few days after the trial C. greatly weakened the political power of fundamentalist Christianity in the United States D. exposed key scientific weaknesses in Darwinian evolution, prompting the Roman Catholic Church to oppose it E. hardened battle lines in a war between fundamentalist Christianity and Darwinian evolution

E. hardened battle lines in a war between fundamentalist Christianity and Darwinian evolution

The religious viewpoint known as occasionalism A. is compatible with atheism or agnosticism B. holds that it is possible for humans fully to understand cause-and-effect relationships (natural law) operating in the natural world C. is necessarily hostile to science D. demands an abstract, mechanistic understanding of the Divine (a position often called "deism") E. holds that the universe cannot exist without God's instant-by-instant attention

E. holds that the universe cannot exist without God's instant-by-instant attention

For Confucius, "the Way" was a product of A. the combined power of a variety of deities and spirits B. the combined power of a variety of deities and spirits C. the operation of natural laws D. the Divine power of Heaven E. human effort and intelligence

E. human effort and intelligence

One classic Chinese intellectual argument against the existence of ghosts as that A. Heaven would not permit ghosts to exist B. ancestral spirits cannot become ghosts C. nobody has ever seen a ghost D. after death we are reincarnated as beings with corporeal bodies E. if people could become ghosts after death, there would be ghosts everywhere

E. if people could become ghosts after death, there would be ghosts everywhere

Which type of meditation became the mainstay of most forms of Buddhist practice? A. deep-trance (jhana) meditation B. vivid dreaming while asleep C. hypnosis D. heart rhythm meditation E. insight meditation

E. insight meditation

One old (pre-19th century) Christmas season custom was A. study of Holy Scripture B. fasting and reflecting on one's shortcomings over the past year C. undertaking pilgrimages to sacred sites D. attending church services E. inversion of the ordinary social order, known as "the season of misrule"

E. inversion of the ordinary social order, known as "the season of misrule"

Paul presents the significance of Jesus somewhat differently in different parts his Letter to the Romans, but one overall point he makes is that Jesus A. is a savior sent by God to the Jews B. came to earth to reveal liberating knowledge C. was not a real person, but rather a phantasm D. himself did not follow the Jewish law E. is a universal savior

E. is a universal savior

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a A. physician who studied human anatomy in detail B. mathematician who translated agree geometry texts C. physician who discovered the germ theory of disease D. geographer who mapped the entire world E. mathematician who explained and systematized algebra

E. mathematician who explained and systematized algebra

During the time Paul of Tarsus was active, A. he wrote essays systematically laying out his ideas about religion B. there was no significant opposition to Paul's views C. the canonical gospels (those included in the Bible) had been written D. Christianity had definitively split off from Judaism and existed as a separate religion E. most followers of Jesus thought that Jesus would soon return to earth

E. most followers of Jesus thought that Jesus would soon return to earth

A characteristic of religion in the context of the Second Great Awakening in the United States was the insistence A. that everyone read the Bible literally B. on celebrating Biblical Sabbath (Saturday) C. on a logical, analytical approach to theology and spirituality D. the need for formal rites of exorcism to cast Satan out of sinners' lives E. on free will and the voluntary nature of both sin and salvation

E. on free will and the voluntary nature of both sin and salvation

By about the 9th century, A. Alexandria in Egypt had become the geographic center of Christianity B. Christianity flourished in the entire Arabian Peninsula C. the Protestant Reformation had started D. Spain had become the geographic center of Christianity E. only two of the former great Patriarchal centers of Christianity remained fully Christian

E. only two of the former great Patriarchal centers of Christianity remained fully Christian

According to the teachings of original Buddhism, our sufferings are caused by desires, and desires arise from A. malevolent, wicked deities like Mara B. improper religious worship C. the workings of karma D. a lack of wealth and resources E. our sense of existing as an individual self

E. our sense of existing as an individual self

The prophet Isaiah A. warned that God had abandoned the people of Israel B. likened the people of Judah to an unfaithful wife or to rebellious children C. predicted defeat at the hands of Rome D. predicted Alexander the Great's conquests E. predicted the coming of a messiah, who would usher in a kingdom characterized by righteousness and justice

E. predicted the coming of a messiah, who would usher in a kingdom characterized by righteousness and justice

In the classic western Christian tradition, A. the realms of science and theology were entirely separate B. most scholars accepted the findings of science unless a particular claim contradicted a literal reading of the Bible C. members of the clergy typically had no understanding of or interest in science D. Science was useful for many purposes, but it provided no useful guidance for interpreting Holy Scripture E. seeking knowledge of the principles of harmony and geometry, i.e., to pursue science, was to seek to know God

E. seeking knowledge of the principles of harmony and geometry, i.e., to pursue science, was to seek to know God

In later Daoism, an important function of Daoist priests was A. collecting taxes and supervising bridge construction B. wedding and funeral planners C. serving as tutors for the local round of the civil service exams D. serving as local government officials E. serving as exorcists

E. serving as exorcists

Hinduism A. is the world's largest religion in terms of total number of practitioners B. originated in China and then spread to India C. has strict rules about becoming a member of the religion D. recognizes a Maharaja residing in New Delhi as its supreme spiritual leader E. simultaneously monotheistic polytheistic, and non-theistic

E. simultaneously monotheistic polytheistic, and non-theistic

The Essenes A. advocated the use of violence to bring about a just world B. denied the immortality of the soul C. supported the temple in Jerusalem D. were concerned with spiritual insight and thus paid little attention to purity laws E. tended to interpret prophecy in the Bible in light of their perception of contemporary social conditions

E. tended to interpret prophecy in the Bible in light of their perception of contemporary social conditions

The basic meaning of jihad (struggle in the name of God) is A. military battles B. the effort to convert of non-believers to Islam C. fasting during the month of Ramadan D. intense study of religious scripture E. the battle to adhere to God's law

E. the battle to adhere to God's law

One legacy of the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire is A. conflicting ideas about the nature and significance of Jesus B. many different denominations of Christianity C. the centrality of Rome and the Bishop of Rome (the pope) in early Christianity D. differing accounts of Jesus's life in the four gospels of the New Testament E. the belief that Christians have been, and continue to be, a persecuted group

E. the belief that Christians have been, and continue to be, a persecuted group

One side effect of the temperance movement in the United States was A. a ban on alcoholic beverages throughout the country in 1851 B. a ban on the use of alcohol in hospitals and scientific laboratories C. raising awareness of the evils of slavery D. the rise in popularity of Kellogg's corn flakes E. the rise of the first women's rights movement

E. the rise of the first women's rights movement

The significance of Jesus in Gnostic Christianity is that he A. came to earth to convey divine grace from God to humans, thereby saving them B. was an example of an ordinary person who lived a perfect life C. made the ultimate sacrifice to cleanse humanity of its sins D. revealed to people that the material world is not an illusion E. was a divine emanation who came to earth to reveal saving knowledge

E. was a divine emanation who came to earth to reveal saving knowledge

Confucius thought that human civilization in his own time A. was more glorious than it have ever been in the past B. was so corrupt that the only viable option was to abandon it C. had been in steep decline for many centuries D. had not changed significantly for many centuries E. was undergoing a temporary setback in its development

E. was undergoing a temporary setback in its development